Well Control School, IDT-ONGC

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Well Control School, IDT-ONGC

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Preface
Effective well control is the foundation of safe and efficient rotary drilling operations.
In the challenging and high-risk environment of oil and gas exploration, maintaining
well integrity is not just a technical necessity but a fundamental responsibility. Ensuring
operational reliability, protecting assets, and preventing environmental hazards
requires a comprehensive understanding of well control techniques, industry best
practices, and emergency response strategies.

As drilling operations evolve with advancements in technology and industry standards,

the complexities of well control demand specialized expertise and continuous learning.
This training manual has been meticulously developed to align with the latest syllabus
of accrediting agencies and integrates cutting-edge innovations in rotary drilling well
control. It serves as a comprehensive resource designed to enhance the competency
of drilling personnel, equipping them with the technical knowledge and practical skills
to manage well control challenges effectively and proactively.

At the Well Control School - IDT, we are committed to excellence in training and
knowledge dissemination. Our programs are structured to provide industry
professionals with both theoretical insights and hands-on expertise, ensuring they are
well-prepared to handle the complexities of well control in rotary drilling operations.

I encourage all trainees and industry professionals to study this manual diligently,
apply its principles with precision and discipline, and uphold the highest standards of
well control and operational excellence. By fostering a culture of vigilance,
professionalism, and continuous learning, we can collectively contribute to a safer and
more sustainable oil and gas industry.

K. R. Babu
Executive Director
Chief of Institute-IDT
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Index
CHAPTER 1: RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC PRESSURE CONCEPTS 1-42
Risk Management 1
Well Planning 7
Pressure 11
Some Basic Terms 14
Normal And Abnormal Pressures 16
Causes Of Abnormal Pressures 16
Hydrostatic Effects 20
Causes Of Reduction In Hydrostatic Head 21
The U Tube Concept 23
Volumes, Capacities And Displacements 24
Leak Off Test 24
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (Maasp) 28
Mud Weight Window During Drilling 30
Top Hole Drilling 31
Shallow Gas Control Procedure 32
Well Control In Shallow Hole Vs Deep Hole 33
Gas Cutting 34
Swab And Surge Effects 35
Trip Margin 37
Slow Circulation Rate 37
Calculation Of Aproximate Circulation Pressure Changes Due To Pump Speed And Mud 38
Density Changes
Equivalent Mud Density In The Annulus 40
Equivalent Circulation Density (Ecd) 40
CHAPTER 2: KICK INDICATIONS & SHUT IN PROCEDURES 43-64
Introduction to Kicks 43
Causes of Kicks 43
Kick Detection 46
Kicks While Drilling 46
Kicks While Tripping 49
When Kick Occurs While Out of The Hole 50
Line Up for Shut in 50
Shut in Procedures 53
Checking for Trapped Shut in Pressure 54
Shut in Pressure Interpretation 54
Type of Influx 55
Gas Influx Behavior 57

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CHAPTER 3 : WELL KILLING METHODS 65-97

Well Killing Methods 65
Bringing The Pump To Kill Speed On Surface / Jack Up Rig 65
Driller's Method 66
Wait and Weight Method 69
Comparison of Methods 71
Pressure Behavior at Different Points During Well Killing 71
Volumetric Method of Well Control 75
Concurrent Method 79
Stripping and Snubbing Operations 79
Maximum Casing Pressure, Shoe Pressure and Pit Volume 83
Well Control Considerations in Horizontal Wells 84
Well Control in Multilateral Wells 87
Associated Problems – Some Considerations 91
Well Control in HPHT Wells 95
CHAPTER 4: BARRIER CONCEPTS AND CONTINGENCIES 98-119
Barrier Concept 98
Inflow Test / Negative Pressure Test 100
Well Control During Specific Situations 100
Unusual Situations in Well Control 102
Well Killing By Drillers Method (Second Circulation) 113
Well Killing By Wait & Weight Method 114
Well Killing By Wait & Weight Method 116
CHAPTER 5: BLOW OUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT SURFACE / SUB SEA 120-
Blowout Preventers 120
Annular Preventer 120
Visual Inspection Procedure of Annular Preventer 126
Hydraulic Operator Test 129
Ram Type Preventer 130
Description & Visual Inspection of Ram Preventer 133
Changing of Rams Block Seals 141
Surface BOP Stack Arrangements 144
Description and Inspection Procedure of Bop Control Unit in Field 145
Inspection of Bop Control Unit 157
Manipulator and Selector Valves 158
Bypass Valve 159
Accumulator Capacity Calculations 160
Accumulator Capacity Requirements for Surface BOP Stacks 161

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Functional Problems in BOP Control System During Stack Operations 163

Drill String Blowout Preventers 164
Choke Manifold 168
Kill Manifold 171
Installation Requirement for Wellhead and BOP Equipment 173
Testing of Blowout Preventers Stack 173
Testing of Surface (Land & Jack Up) BOP Stack 174
Pressure Testing of Kelley, Kelley Valves, DPSV/FOSV, Inside BOP 177
Control System for Surface BOP Stacks 183
Diverters 186
Trip Tank 191
MUD Gas Separator ( Poor – Boy Degasser ) 193
Vacuum Degasser 196
Pit Volume Recorder 197
MUD Flow Indicator 197
MUD Flow Sensor 198
BOP Drills 199
Ring Gaskets & Connections 201
Closing Ratio 206
Opening Ratio 206
Rotating Head 210
Rotating Blowout Preventer 210
CHAPTER 6 : DEEP WATER WELL CONTROL 212-263
Well Control on Floating Rigs 212
Top Hole Drilling on Floating Rigs 212
Effect of Riser Margin on Maintaining Bottom Hole Pressure 216
Choke Line Friction Losses 216
Kick Prevention and Detection 217
Well Shut–in Procedures 218
Well Killing Techniques 221
Sub Sea BOP Stack 225
Sub Sea BOP Hook-up & Control 227
Sub Sea Blowout Prevention Equipment 245
Control System for Sub Sea Bop Stack 248
Testing of Sub Sea BOP Stack 248
Number of Accumulator Bottles Required for Sub Sea 253
Hydrate Formation 254
Deep Water Equipment Consideration 255

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CHAPTER 7: MANAGED PRESSURE DRILLING 264-266

Managed Pressure Drilling 264
Equipment for MPD 265
Applications of MPD 266
CHAPTER 8: FOMULAE, EXERCISES & KILL SHEETS 267-313
Exercises on IWCF Formulae Sheet 272
Other Related Formulae & Exercises 285
Formula for Calculating Pressure at Casing Shoe When Gas Top Reaches That Point During 289
Exercises for Sub Sea 294
Filling of Surface Vertical Well Kill Sheet 297
Filling of Sub Sea Vertical Well Kill Sheet 301
Exercise on Casing Shoe Failure 309
Sizing of Mud Gas Separator 310
ANNEXURE 314-329
ANNEXURE - 1 : BOP Hook Up For Various Phase Drilling (4CP X 10M) 314
ANNEXURE - 2: BOP Hook Up For Various Phase Drilling (3CP X 5M ) 319
ANNEXURE - 3: 3CP - 1OM 323
ANNEXURE - 4: Conversions 324
ANNEXURE - 5: Trip Sheet 326
Interpretation of Trip Sheets 328
List of API Standards Relevant to Well Control 329

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RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC

1 PRESSURE CONCEPTS
1.1 RISK MANAGEMENT
1.1.1 Impacts of Well Control Incident
The successful detection and handling of threatened blowouts and kicks is a matter of utmost importance
to any company in the business of oil and gas exploration and production. Today's oil and gas operator
must be prepared to adequately manage a well control incident.
A primary objective for all operators is to provide a working methodology to safely and effectively
manage, respond to, and recover from a well control incident. The complexity of this methodology will
vary with operation size and operator as well as risk and vulnerability associated with the area.
The reasons for promoting proper well control and blowout prevention are overwhelming. An uncontrolled
flowing well can cause any or all of the following:
• Personal injury and/or loss of life
• Damage and/or loss of contractor equipment
• Loss of operator investment
• Loss of future production due to formation damage
• Loss of reservoir pressures
• Damage to the environment through pollution
• Adverse publicity
• Negative governmental reaction, especially near populated areas
• Increased regulation from the government increasing the cost of operations
Recent events have shown that even blowout incidents that happen to other operators can cause the
implementation of restrictive and costly government regulations. If fatalities or oil spills occur, the whole
industry may be indirectly affected by negative public exposure, closing of sensitive environmental areas
to leasing, and increased insurance premiums. Therefore, it is in the interest of the industry as a whole
that all operators maintain acceptable levels of preparedness and critical resources to effectively manage
an incident.
At times, the cost of handling a blowout can wipe out the entire net worth of a drilling company. Through
the well control courses, it is ensured that the drillers and supervisors have the requisite knowledge of
procedures and equipment involved to handle all probable situations of well control and also have the
necessary skills to execute the well control operations.
Promotion of crew to the next higher level cannot be ascertained unless the crew is able to demonstrate
the requisite knowledge and skills.
Need for Well Control Training
The primary goal of any company involved in drilling oil and gas wells is to ensure the safe drilling of the
well, achieving the planned target depth, and putting it into production. Drilling a safe well requires a

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strong focus on well control, which is a crucial aspect of operations in the oil industry. It necessitates years
of rigorous experience and proper training to effectively manage well control issues while prioritizing the
safety of the rig crew, equipment, and all stakeholders involved in the drilling process.
Introductory level well control training plays a vital role in ensuring that all personnel working on the
rig possess the fundamental knowledge and understanding of how well control incidents can arise,
their potential consequences, and methods for prevention. The advantages of well control training are
numerous:
Awareness of Consequences: Well control training helps individuals understand the potential ramifications
of well control problems, such as blowouts or uncontrolled flow of oil or gas. This knowledge enables
proactive measures to prevent such incidents and mitigate their effects.
Effective Well Control: By imparting the necessary skills and techniques, well control training equips
individuals with the ability to handle well control situations competently. They learn how to respond
swiftly and appropriately to regain control of the well, minimizing risks and ensuring the safety of
personnel and assets.
Client Confidence: Well control training instills trust and confidence in clients who rely on the company's
expertise to drill wells without encountering well control issues. Demonstrating a strong commitment to
well control enhances the company's reputation and fosters long-term partnerships.
Reliability and Dependability: When others, including fellow crew members and industry professionals,
rely on individuals who have undergone well control training, they can trust in their knowledge and
ability to handle well control challenges effectively. This promotes a culture of reliability and teamwork
within the organization.
Mitigating Overregulation: By proactively addressing well control through comprehensive training,
companies can reduce the likelihood of government-imposed regulations and restrictions. Demonstrating
a commitment to best practices and safety measures can help avoid unnecessary burdens and maintain
operational efficiency.
Crew and Equipment Safety: Well control training prioritizes the safety of the crew members and
equipment involved in drilling operations. By equipping personnel with the necessary knowledge and
skills, it reduces the likelihood of accidents, injuries, and equipment damage, fostering a secure working
environment.
In summary, well control training plays a crucial role in the oil industry by imparting essential knowledge
and skills to effectively manage well control incidents. It helps prevent accidents, safeguards personnel
and equipment, instills confidence in clients, and mitigates the risk of overregulation. By prioritizing well
control, companies can achieve their objective of drilling safe wells while ensuring the overall success of
their operations.
1.1.2 The Concept of Systematic Risk Management
Risk management involves the systematic process of identifying, assessing, and prioritizing risks, followed
by the coordinated and cost-effective allocation of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the
likelihood and impact of unfortunate events, or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
The risks associated with the control of a well are no different from other types of risks. Once these risks
are identified, they can be effectively managed, reducing the probability of a well control event and
ensuring preparedness to handle such an event in the most effective and safest manner possible.
To develop a comprehensive risk management plan, the organization must first identify all risks that are
relevant to the control of the well. Once identified, each risk must be carefully analyzed to determine the
level of potential risk and its associated consequences. This analysis allows for a comparison of each risk
and its potential consequences against a predetermined risk threshold.

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Based on this assessment, the organization can then develop a comprehensive risk management plan
that addresses the risks that cannot be avoided or transferred. This plan should incorporate appropriate
processes for the proper management of well control-associated risks, ensuring their effective mitigation.
By implementing a robust risk management plan, companies can minimize the likelihood of well control
incidents and optimize their response capabilities. This approach allows for proactive risk mitigation and
ensures that resources are allocated efficiently to effectively manage risks associated with the control of
a well.
Principles of Risk Management
1.1.3 Identifying Risks
The first step in development of risk management plan is the identification of the associated risks and
their contributing factors associated with control of well issues. When done properly, it becomes apparent
very quickly that there are many, many risks that can, and do, affect well control issues. This includes risks
such as formation pressure, wellbore instability, influx of hydrocarbons, well control equipment failure,
human error, and external factors like weather and geological conditions. Explanations of some of them
is given below.
1.1.3.1 Formation Pressure Risk
High formation pressures in the reservoir can pose a risk during drilling operations. If the formation
pressure exceeds the mud weight, it can lead to a kick or a blowout. Identifying reservoir characteristics,
historical data, and geological information helps in assessing the risk associated with formation pressure.
1.1.3.2 Equipment Failure Risk
Well control equipment, such as blowout preventers (BOPs) and control systems, can fail, resulting in a
loss of well control. Identifying potential failure points, inspecting equipment regularly, and monitoring
performance indicators can help identify the risk of equipment failure.
1.1.3.3 Human Error Risk
Mistakes or errors made by personnel involved in well control operations can lead to incidents. Examples
include misinterpreting well data, improper well control procedures, or inadequate communication
between drilling crew members. Training programs, competency assessments, and incident reporting
systems aid in identifying the risk of human error.
A more thorough assessment is warranted due to the implementation of new drilling techniques (i.e.
underbalanced drilling, deep water drilling, drilling with casing, etc.), the utilization of high specification
rig equipment, the use of expensive, highly technical bottom-hole assemblies, and extended drilling
environments, etc.
1.1.4 Assessment and Analysis of Risks
Hazard and Operability Analysis is a method for analyzing hazards and operability problems during
operations.
This method requires an analysis team comprised of personnel with varying fields of competence. This
method is also related to the sequence of operations. It is important that the analyst knows the operation
well and receives input from the operational personnel as well. A special worksheet with the following
entries may be used:

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• Procedural step number

• Operational details (briefly describes the operational details included in the procedural step)
• Primary barriers present
• Secondary barriers present
• Evaluation of hazards (typically searching for all incidents that may occur and ruin the barriers)
The main objective of performing the dynamic barrier analyses is to identify steps of the operation where
two barriers are not present, or to identify combinations of unreliable barriers.
Once all the risks associated with control of well issues are determined, then they can be individually
assessed, analyzed and compared to the organization's predetermined risk threshold which is the level
of risk that the organization is willing to assume.
Proper risk management requires quantification of the associated risks and their respective consequences.
The assessment allows the organization to fully understand each risk and its potential for loss. The analysis
of the identified risks will compare the costs of the risks (and their associated consequences) versus the
costs to mitigate, transfer or manage the risks and associated consequences. Assessment and analysis is
to be done as mentioned below
1.1.4.1 Formation Pressure Assessment
Assessing formation pressure involves analyzing geological data, conducting well tests, and using predictive
models to estimate reservoir pressures. This assessment helps determine the likelihood and potential
consequences of encountering high-pressure formations during drilling. It enables the identification of
appropriate drilling practices and mud weight management to mitigate the risk.
1.1.4.2 BOP Reliability Assessment
Regular inspections, maintenance checks, and testing of BOPs are essential to assess their reliability.
These assessments involve verifying the integrity of well control equipment, evaluating the condition of
seals and hydraulic systems, and testing the functionality of control panels. Risk assessments based on
BOP reliability help determine the likelihood of equipment failure and the subsequent consequences.
1.1.4.3 Human Factors Assessment
Assessing human factors involves evaluating the competency and training of personnel involved in well
control operations. This assessment includes analyzing experience levels, knowledge of well control
procedures, adherence to safety protocols, and effective communication skills. Evaluating human factors
helps identify potential areas of improvement and minimize the risk of human error.
1.1.5 Risk Mitigation
Strategies are developed to mitigate or reduce the identified risks. This may involve implementing
industry best practices, following rigorous safety protocols, utilizing advanced drilling technologies and
equipment, conducting thorough planning and engineering studies, and ensuring proper training and
competency of personnel.
1.1.5.1 Contingency Planning
Developing well-defined contingency plans is crucial for mitigating well control risks. These plans outline
specific procedures to address various well control scenarios, such as blowouts, kicks, or equipment
failures. Contingency plans include emergency shutdown procedures, communication protocols, and
mobilization of well control response teams.
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1.1.5.2 Quality Assurance and Equipment Maintenance

Implementing a robust quality assurance program and regular equipment maintenance protocols help
mitigate equipment failure risks. This includes scheduled inspections, preventive maintenance, and
adherence to manufacturer's guidelines. Rigorous testing and verification of well control equipment,
including BOPs, hydraulic systems, and control panels, are essential risk mitigation measures.
1.1.5.3 Training and Competency Development
Investing in well-designed training programs enhances the competency of personnel involved in well
control operations. This includes training on well control principles, simulation exercises, and real-
life scenario drills. Regular competency assessments and refresher courses ensure that personnel are
equipped to handle well control risks effectively.
1.1.5.4 Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
Implementing advanced monitoring systems, such as real-time data acquisition and automated alerts,
helps in early detection of well control risks. Monitoring parameters such as mud weight, flow rates, and
wellbore pressures allow for prompt intervention in case of abnormal conditions. Early warning systems
enable timely response and risk mitigation.
1.1.5.5 Lessons Learned and Knowledge Sharing
Encouraging a culture of learning from past incidents and sharing lessons learned is essential for
continuous improvement. Analyzing previous well control incidents, industry case studies, and near-miss
events helps identify common risks and develop strategies to mitigate them. Sharing this knowledge with
the drilling team enhances risk awareness and improves risk mitigation practices.
Those identified risks that cannot be mitigated, transferred or avoided must be properly managed in a
proactive manner. This requires the development of a risk management plan to ensure the protection of
personnel, the environment, and the assets.
1.1.6 Plan Development
An effective risk management plan promotes continuous improvement to the organization's risk profile,
thus assisting in future procurement of coverage. The plan should also be quantitative in nature, so that
results can be tracked and the plan modified over time to improve its effectiveness and the organization's
overall drilling efficiencies. A properly developed risk management plan does not have to be complex;
rather, it should be focused, practical and cost effective in its implementation.
The development and implementation of an effective and comprehensive risk management plan to
address control of well issues is becoming a requirement for drilling oil and gas wells. Implementation
of such a plan requires the long-term commitment by the organization to be effective and reduce the
number and magnitude of well control events.
1.1.7 Management of Change
Major incidents have taken place for a simple lack of communication or incomplete information sharing
at the time of changeover of crew on rig.
This can be managed by having a management system in place at rig to ensure all activities going on and
related hazards are recorded by outgoing crew in-charge and understood by the crew taking over before
the process of crew change is over.

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Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment – Core Concepts of Management of change (MOC)
• A robust hazard identification process ensures that all well integrity hazards and associated risks are
thoroughly understood, preventing potential loss of well integrity.
• Once hazards are identified and risks are assessed, proactive measures can be implemented to
effectively manage and mitigate risks.
• Selecting an appropriate hazard identification technique and risk assessment methodology is
crucial to achieving a comprehensive and in-depth analysis.
• Hazard identification serves as the foundation for evaluating, selecting, and justifying control
measures to reduce risk.
• A well-defined hazard identification process enhances knowledge, awareness, and understanding
of potential well integrity threats, enabling preventive and mitigation actions against well blowouts.
• Identified hazards should never be ignored or dismissed, even if control measures are already in
place or planned for future implementation.
• A holistic approach should be taken, considering the full range of well integrity hazards and event
types, with proper documentation of all findings.
• The hazard identification process must account for all operational modes and activities, ensuring
that risks associated with each phase are recognized.
• Risk assessments should acknowledge that multiple failure scenarios can occur, even if they seem
highly improbable.
• The hazard identification and risk assessment process should be continuous and adaptable,
ensuring that new risks are promptly identified and managed.
Integration of MoC in Well Integrity
• The Management of Change (MoC) process plays a vital role in well integrity by ensuring that all
modifications—whether in design, operations, equipment, or procedures—are thoroughly evaluated
for additional hazards and increased risk.
• Any proposed changes must undergo a structured risk assessment to identify, analyze, and mitigate
potential safety concerns before implementation.
• The MOC process should be systematic and documented, maintaining a clear record of all identified
hazards, risk assessments, and implemented control measures.
• Stakeholder communication and approval are essential to ensure that changes do not introduce
unforeseen risks.
• A dynamic and proactive approach should be maintained, recognizing that well integrity hazards
evolve over time and require continuous monitoring and reassessment.
By integrating a structured MOC approach with hazard identification and risk assessment processes, well
integrity risks can be effectively managed, reducing the likelihood of well failures or blowouts.
The other aspect of change management is related to bringing in any change in the equipment or process
or role.

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1.1.8 Pre-Operation Planning

An effective risk management plan promotes continuous improvement to the organization's risk profile,
thus assisting in future procurement of coverage. The plan should also be quantitative in nature, so that
results can be tracked and the plan modified over time to improve its effectiveness and the organization's
overall drilling efficiencies. A properly developed risk management plan does not have to be complex;
rather, it should be focused, practical and cost effective in its implementation.
The development and implementation of an effective and comprehensive risk management plan to
address control of well issues is becoming a requirement for drilling oil and gas wells. Implementation
of such a plan requires the long-term commitment by the organization to be effective and reduce the
number and magnitude of well control events.
Risks can mitigated through self-imposed restrictions on drilling environments (onshore, offshore, deep
water) or taking a different position as an organization – i.e. shared working interest; or, transferred
through insurance and/or turnkey drilling plans.
Those identified risks that cannot be mitigated, transferred or avoided must be properly managed in a
proactive manner. This requires the development of a risk management plan to ensure the protection of
personnel, the environment, and the assets.
1.1.9 Pre-Job Meeting
Proper pre-job planning and preparation are important for the successful completion of any service job.
1.1.10 General Information
Before any service operation can commence, a certain amount of information is required. This information
should be gathered by the Technical Advisor, Field Sales Representative, and Service Coordinator,
Dispatcher or other designated person. Many locations have established a dispatch sheet, which prompts
the information taker to gather the proper information.
1.2 Well Planning
A comprehensive study of all available geological and operational data is essential for selecting a well
plan that minimizes drilling hazards while achieving project objectives. This applies to both production
and exploratory wells. The responsibility for efficient and safe operations primarily lies with the office
drilling staff, who must collaborate with the Drilling Operations Managers to develop an optimal well plan
using all available information and sound judgment.
Normally, rock particles support the majority of the overburden load. However, if fluid is trapped in the
rock, normal compaction is disrupted, leading to abnormal formation pressure. This can be detected
by unexpected variations in formation properties, helping estimate overpressure levels through
extrapolation.
Essential Data for Well Planning
• Drilling Records
• Well Logs
• Seismic Surveys

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1.2.1 Casing Setting Depth

The Drilling Engineer utilizes all available geological data to create a comprehensive drilling program.
Selecting casing setting depths is one of the most critical pre-planning decisions, particularly in areas
with abnormal pressures or lost circulation zones. The key to effective casing shoe selection lies in
assessing pore and fracture pressures throughout the well. If the formation’s pore pressure approaches
the fracture pressure at the last casing shoe, an additional casing string is required.
1.2.2 Casing Seat Selection
Casing depth and strength are crucial for well control. Reference should be made to Casing Design Manuals
and Tubing Design Standards. The surface casing should be set above known hydrocarbon-bearing zones
and in a competent formation shallow enough to allow reaching the next casing point without surface
broaching. Additionally, it should cover surface aquifers, which can be detected using resistivity logs.
Factors influencing casing setting depth include:
• Lost circulation zones, salt sections, and competent formations
• Formation stability concerning exposure time and drilling fluid weight
• Directional profile and sidetrack requirements
• Completion requirements (e.g., rathole considerations)
1.2.3 Casing Design
All casings must be designed to withstand anticipated loads throughout the well’s lifespan. For well
control, the casing’s internal yield pressure rating (burst resistance) should accommodate expected
surface pressures. Casing wear in deviated wells must be considered at the design stage. The burst rating
of the previous casing must not be exceeded during a well control event (refer to section 1.12 MAASP).
1.2.4 Casing & Cementing
Factors increasing kick risks when running and pulling casing:
• High gel-strength mud increasing surge/swab effects
• Inadequate hole cleaning, uneven mud weight, and inaccurate running speed calculations
• Small annular clearances amplifying surge/swab effects
• Reduced closing options when casing is through the BOP
• Delays due to handling tools, stabbing valves, and crossover connections
• Risks of formation fluid influx due to cement displacement issues
• High risk of fluid losses, requiring controlled cementing techniques
Key Cementing Considerations:
• Spacer and slurry weights : Spacer should be slightly heavier than mud, lead slurry near mud
weight, and tail slurry 1-2 ppg heavier.
• Volume Control: Annulus volume must be carefully monitored. Any losses can reduce cement
height.

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• Cement Verification: A successful cement job is confirmed by no backflow, expected pressure

behavior, cement bond logs, and pressure tests.
• Potential Risks:
1. Incorrect slurry volume leading to insufficient barriers
2. Improper weight balance causing underbalance and formation fluid entry
3. Losses during placement preventing adequate cementation
4. Float failure leading to reduced cement column height
5. Unexpected pressure deviations indicating weight or volume discrepancies
6. Inadequate pressure testing undermining casing integrity
7. Cement bond log anomalies indicating poor cement placement
8. Cement hydrostatic weight loss leading to micro-annuli and gas migration
This example will demonstrate you why the well is in underbalance condition while waiting on cement.
When cement is in transition period (forming the bond), you will lose some hydrostatic pressure because
cement becomes solid phase therefore water in the cement will provide hydrostatic pressure. In many
cases happened, there is no issue while performing the cement job however once the cement is set after
period of time, there is a casing pressure indicating that there is hydrocarbon in the annulus.
Well information: Previous 9-5/8” casing shoe at 4000’ ft.
The vertical well (8.5” hole) is drilled to TD at 10,000ft with 12.1 ppg mud and the pay zone is at 9,800’
TVD with reservoir pressure of 11.6 ppg. The cement is planned to cover 3,500 ft in the annulus above
the casing shoe. Water used to mix cement is 8.3 ppg weight.

Will the well go underbalance during the cement in transition period?

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Formation pressure at 9,800 ft

Formation pressure at 9,800 ft = 0.052 x 11.6 x 9800 = 5,911 psi
Total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus
Hydrostatic pressure of drilling mud at 6,500 ft = 0.052 x 12.1 x 6,500 = 4,090 psi
When cement in transition period, only water in cement will provide hydrostatic pressure. So, we can
calculate hydrostatic pressure of water in cement
Hydrostatic pressure of water in cement = 0.052 x (9800 – 6,500) x 8.3 = 1,424 psi
While cement is in the transition period, total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus is equal to hydrostatic
pressure of mud plus hydrostatic of water in cement
Total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus = 4,090 + 1,424 = 5,514 psi

You will see that during the transition period total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus is less than
formation pressure therefore the well. For this case, the well will flow during transition period.

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1.3 PRESSURE
The term 'pressure' is defined as force exerted per unit area. The field unit for pressure is psi.
Thus Force = Pressure x Area
Various pressure terms used in well control are discussed below:
1.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
The hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in the well constitutes the primary means of well control.
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a static column of fluid by virtue of its density
or it can be termed as the pressure due to the static effect of a fluid column. It depends on the vertical
height (TVD) of the column and the density of the well fluid.

Hydrostatic pressure (PSI) = Depth (TVD) x Mud density (PPG) x 0.052

(0.052 is a conversion constant)
Note: 1. In deviated wells the True Vertical Depth (TVD) is different from the length of pipe in the hole,
the Measured Depth (MD).
TVD should be used in all pressure calculations.MD should be used in all volume calculations.
2. This formula should be used only for a column of homogeneous fluid. (i.e.: with uniform density
throughout the height of the column).

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The conversion factor .052 psi/ft per pound/gallon is derived as below: One Cubic feet=7.48 US gallons.
A fluid weighting 1 ppg is therefore equivalent to 7.48 lbs/cubic feet
The pressure exerted by one foot of that fluid over the area of the base would be:

A mud gradient can also be used to calculate hydrostatic pressures.

Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Mud gradient x Depth

Drilling fluid density is one of the major factor in the calculation of hydrostatic pressure. Barite is the
most commonly used density control materials. Proper well planning requires that a sufficient quantity
of barite be maintained on the drilling location to kill the well.
The following equation can be used to calculate required barite volumes.

Pounds/barrel = 1490(W2 - W1)/ (35.4 - W2)

Where W2 is the final mud density in ppg and W1 is the original mud density in ppg
1.3.2 Pressure Gradient
The pressure gradient (also called fluid gradient) is the hydrostatic pressure exerted by one vertical foot
of a fluid of a given weight.
For example, fresh water has a density of 8.33 ppg & one foot column of it shall exert a pressure of:
8.33 x 1 x 0.052 =0.433 psi
Therefore pressure gradient of fresh water is 0.433 psi /ft. If this fluid is used in well bore of 10,000 feet
depth, it will exert a hydrostatic pressure of:
0.433 (psi /ft.) x 10,000 (feet) = 4330 (psi)
Similarly salt water has a density of 8.94 ppg (1.07 gm /cc) & one foot column of it shall exert a pressure
of:
8.94x 1 x 0.052 = 0.465 psi
Therefore, pressure gradient of salt water is 0.465 psi/ft.
Normally accepted value of Overburden gradient is taken as 1 psi/ft.
1.3.3 Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP)
It is defined as sum total of all pressures i.e. static, surface as well as dynamic pressures that are being
exerted at the bottom of the hole

BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Surface Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

Dynamic pressures are exerted by either due to fluid movement (Annular pressure losses) or pipe
movement in the well bore (Swab/ Surge pressure).

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BHP in different well situations:

a) When not circulating
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure due to fluid column
b) While drilling
BHP = Total Hydrostatic Pressures + Annular Pressure Losses
c) Shutting the well after a kick
• In Drill String
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
• In Annulus
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Hydrostatic Pressure of kick fluid + Shut-in casing Pressure
d) While killing operation
• For Surface BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Casing Pressure
• For Subsea BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Choke line friction Losses + Casing Pressure
Note: Usually annular pressure losses are not taken into account for calculation of BHP during killing.
e) While tripping in
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Surge Pressure
f) While tripping out
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud – Swab Pressure.
Note: Terms surge & swab pressure are explained at 1.18 in details
1.3.4 Formation Pressure
Formation pressure or pore pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluids trapped in the pores of the
formation. Formation pressure is categorized as normal or abnormal pressure depending upon the
formation pressure gradient.
1.3.5 Fracture Pressure
Fracture pressure is the pressure acting from the well bore side at which the formation will break down.
When the well bore pressure equals or exceeds the fracture pressure, the formation will break down
followed by loss of fluid, loss of hydrostatic pressure, loss of BHP. Fracture pressure will vary from area
to area.

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1.3.6 Circulating System Pressure

The pressure required to circulate fluid through the rig's circulating system is a measurement of friction
losses in the system.
The factors that affect the pressure (friction) losses are:
• Dimension of the system
Length, ID of drill string, nozzles etc.
• Fluid properties
Mud of fluid density, rheological properties etc.
• Fluid flow rate
The pressure on the stand pipe gauge is the sum of the friction pressure losses that occur in the circulating
system. This pressure is the total system pressure losses.
The pressure losses occur in the following area:
• Surface equipment
• Drill pipe or work string
• Drill collars
• Bit nozzles or down hole tools
• Annulus
1.4 SOME BASIC TERMS
1.4.1 Kick
It is defined as an undesired and unwanted flow of formation fluid into the well bore due to an under
balanced condition in which bottom hole pressure (BHP) is less than formation pressure. Kick can be
restricted by closing the BOP available at the well mouth.
1.4.2 Blow-out
It is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluid from the well bore to surface or into low pressured sub
surface zones (underground blowout).A Blow-out is the result of failure of BOP to restrict the flow of
formation fluid after getting a kick.
Human error is a major, if not the most important, cause of blowouts. The industry rightly allocates
significant resources to prevent blowouts, including well control training, but the human element will
always be a factor.
1.4.3 Primary Well Control
During normal drilling operations the hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid is greater than the pressure of
the fluids in the formation being drilled, but less than formation fracture pressure. The maintenance of
sufficient hydrostatic head exerted by drilling fluid to hold back the formation fluid pressure is termed as
“Primary Well Control”.

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1.4.4 Secondary Well Control

If due to any reason bottom hole pressure (BHP) in the well bore falls below the formation pressure,
formation fluid may enter into the well bore & if so happens, the primary control may be lost and a
proper use of blow out preventers will provide Secondary well control or in other words secondary well
control involves safe handling of kicks so as to re-establish primary well control.
1.4.5 Tertiary Well Control
It involves the techniques used to control a blow-out once the primary & secondary controls are lost. The
following are examples of tertiary well control:
• Drill a relief well to hit an adjacent well that is flowing and kill the well with heavy mud
• Rapid pumping of heavy mud to control the well with equivalent circulating density
• Pump barite or gunk to plug wellbore to stop flowing
• Pump cement to plug the wellbore
1.4.6 Porosity
Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock. It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids or
pore space divided by the total volume.
1.4.7 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of a rocks ability to transmit fluids. Pore spaces are connected, allowing pore
fluids to flow through the rock. Permeability is measured in darcy.

Therefore, in the oil and gas industry, rocks with high porosity and permeability are ideal for oil and gas
reservoirs, as they can hold and transmit large amounts of oil and gas. These reservoir rocks are typically
sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone, or shale.
1.4.8 Overburden
The pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth due to the total weight of the rock and fluids above
that depth.

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1.5 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PRESSURES

As the rock layers are deposited one upon another, formation water is squeezed out of the pores due to
the overburden. This process is called compaction. As long as the formation water has escape avenues,
the formation pressure bleeds down to the 'normal value'. The generally accepted normal value is ranging
from 0.433 to 0.465 psi/ft. as determined from studies done in the basins of Gulf Cost areas of United
States. This is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure gradient of a column of salt water.
When formation water, which is trying to escape due to overburden is trapped by impermeable formations
which does not allow its normal escape, abnormal formation pressure develops. This is because the
water now supports more of the overburden than in the normal case.
Basically, in any given situation the overburden is supported by both the formation fluid & the matrix of
the rock
Overburden pressure = matrix stress + pore pressure
Matrix stress is the amount of overburden pressure that is supported by the rock itself & pore pressure
is the amount of overburden which is supported by the fluid in the pore spaces of the rock. The sum of
the two is necessary to support the overburden.
If the normal overburden gradient is taken as 1.0 psi/ft (assuming average rock density of 19.66 ppg,
though it is somewhat less at shallow depths) and the normal pore pressure gradient as 0.465 psi/ft then
the normal matrix stress gradient works out to be 0.535 psi/ft.
Abnormal pore pressure gradient ranges from 0.465 psi/ft to 1.0 psi/ft. Whereas, subnormal pressure
are pore pressure gradients less than 0.433 psi/ft, such pressure are usually found in depleted reservoirs.
1.6 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL PRESSURES
1.6.1 Under Compaction
Compaction of sediments originally deposited as clay and loose sand is an ongoing process. With the
passage of time the excess water gets squeezed out from the sediments. If the process is slow and
gradual, excess water can escape to surrounding formations & full compaction results. However, if rate of
depositions is high, formation water may not be able to escape at a proportionate high rate & shall then
support more part of the overburden. Such formation shall have abnormal pore pressure. Though with
geological time such abnormal pore pressure will dissipate into neighboring permeable formations, but
deep inside the clay-body escape of formation water becomes progressively inhibited due to reduction in
porosity caused by the compaction process. These shale in which pore fluid is trapped by this mechanism
has a higher fluid content then the similar shale which have been compacted slowly. These shale have
relatively high porosity and abnormal pore pressures. This phenomena is called 'under compaction' since
it results from lack of normal compaction process.
1.6.2 Artesian Effect
When an aquifer or water bearing permeable rock outcrops at the surface, high up in a mountain area,
then the formation fluids at any depth within the rock are under a hydrostatic pressure which is equivalent
to the height of the outcrop. Therefore, the formation fluid in the valley below shall be abnormally
pressured.

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Figure 1.1: Artesian Effect

As shown in figure 1.1 above, the permeable formation has outcropped at higher altitude. While drilling
in the valley below, at 3,000 ft. the formation pressure shall be:
0.465 x 4,000 = 1,860 psi (assuming normal formation pressure for depth of 4,000ft) Formation pressure
gradient at 3,000 ft. well depth = 1,860 / 3,000 = 0.62 psi /ft. This is more than normal pressure gradient
value of 0.465 psi/ft. and hence abnormal.
1.6.3 Faulting
Faulting is up-thrusting of deep rocks. Most rocks are fractured during earth crust movement, resulting
in cracks called joints. If the rock layers on one side of a fracture have moved as shown in figure 1.2 in
relation to the other side, the fracture is called a fault. Displacement of formations may range from only
a few centimeters to kilometers. Since the formation pressure normally increases with depth, when deep
rocks get faulted up, they have higher than normal pressure with respect to the new depth they now
occupy. Therefore, when drilling across a fault, there is a possibility of encountering abnormally high
formation pressure

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1.6.4 Salt Dome

Salt is totally impermeable to fluids, and unlike other rocks transforms physically under pseudo-plastic
movements, thereby exerting pressure equal to the overburden load in all directions. Since salt has very
little rock frame structure the properties of pressure transmission are more like fluids than solids

Figure 1.3: Abnormal Pressure Due to Salt Dome

Moreover as it has little strength and underlying formations have no fluid escape possibilities, the water
in the shale just below the salt bears the entire burden of the salt plus the burden of sediments above,
which together can approach 1 psi/ft. In the salt dome areas, movement of salt upwards brings strata
from deeper depth to shallower depth and causes abnormal pressures.
1.6.5 Gas Cap Effect
Most of down hole formations are dipping or folded reservoirs. In a folded permeable formation,
formation pressure at various places across the fold, though in direct communication to each other,
varies depending upon the nature of the fluid trapped in the pores. Difference in the density between
the gas and water causes the abnormal pressures where hydrocarbon occur above water. The magnitude
of this pressure depends upon the structural elevation of the top of the hydrocarbon reservoir. As shown
in the figure 1.4 the reservoir fluid being gas is lighter than water, an abnormal pressure gradient will be
encountered on drilling into the shallow section of the reservoir.

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Figure 1.4: Gas Cap Effect

Formation pressure at 8,000 ft. = 8,000 x 0.465 = 3,720 psi
Hydrostatic pressure of gas = 1,000 x 0.1 = 100 psi
Formation pressure at 7,000 ft. = 3,720 - 100 = 3,620 psi
Formation pressure gradient at 7,000 ft.

Hence the same formation which was normally pressurized at 8,000 ft is abnormally pressurized at 7,000
ft.
1.6.6 Charged Sands
Upper sands can get charged with formation fluid much greater than normal for their depth due to
uncontrolled underground blow-out from a previous well. As shown in the figure 1.5 the previous well
that blew out underground was successfully abandoned , but the fluid from the lower zone entered the
wellbore & escaped to an upper sand. When the next well is drilled, unexpected shallow high pressure
sand is encountered.

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Figure 1.5: Abnormal Pressure Due to Charged Sand

1.7 HYDROSTATIC EFFECTS
Hydrostatic effects due to different density of fluids in the bore hole can be realized by following example:
Fluid column Density Hydrostatic pressure
1. 3,500 ft 10 ppg 3,500 x 10 x 0.052 = 1,820 psi
2. 4,000 ft 09 ppg 4,000 x 9 x 0.052 = 1,872 psi
3. 0500 ft 11 ppg 0500 x 11 x 0.052 = 286 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure at 7500 ft = 1820 + 1872 = 3692 psi
Hydrostatic pressure at bottom = 1,820 + 1,872 + 286 = 3,978 psi

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Similarly in case wellbore contains different density fluids & also has some back pressure at surface,
pressure at various points in wellbore can be worked out:

Pressure at 3500 ft= Hydrostatic at 3500 ft + Surface pressure = 1820+500 = 2320 psi
Pressure at 7500 ft= Hydrostatic at 7500 ft + Surface pressure = 3692+500 = 4192 psi
Pressure at bottom= Hydrostatic at 8000 ft + Surface pressure = 3978+500 = 4478 psi

1.8 CAUSES OF REDUCTION IN HYDROSTATIC HEAD

Primary well control involves maintaining hydrostatic pressure equal or more than formation pressure.
If due to some reason hydrostatic pressure becomes less than formation pressure, well becomes under
balanced and influx from formation may enter into the well bore.
The various causes of reduction in hydrostatic head are listed below.

1.8.1 Failure to fill the hole

The failure to fill the hole during pulling out is one of the main causes of reduction in hydrostatic head.
Should the reduced hydrostatic head becomes less than the formation pressure, an influx of formation
fluid can enter the well, if a permeable formation is exposed in the borehole.
Let us calculate the reduction in hydrostatic pressure due to failure to fill the hole.

Example:
A well has been drilled to 10,000 ft. and pulling out was started for bit change. Mud density was 10 ppg
and formation pressure at 10,000 ft. was 5,000 psi. What shall be the effect on bottom hole pressure
after pulling out 10 stands (90 ft. each) of 5”, 19.5 ppf, drill pipe, dry without filling the hole.
Metal displacement of 5” drill pipe - 0.0080 bbl/ft
9 5/8” casing shoe - 1,000 ft
Drill pipe capacity - 0.0177 bbl/ft
Casing capacity - 0.0717 bbl/ft
Annular volume 5” 9 5/8” casing - 0.0475 bbl/ft

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Metal Displacement (bbl. /ft.) x Length of pipe pulled out (ft.)

=
{Casing Capacity (bbl. /ft.) - Metal Displacement (bbl. /ft.)}
0.0080 x 90 x 10 stands
=
{0.0717 – 0.0080}
Hydrostatic pressure of this column =113 x 10 x 0.052 = 59 psi
Therefore, failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe dry shall cause a reduction of 59 psi
in hydrostatic pressure.
Example:
In the above example, if the string is pulled out wet without filling the hole then reduction of hydrostatic
head will be more .This can be calculated as follow:
Solution:
Level drop in annulus due to failure of filling mud after pulling out 10 stands wet

Metal Displacement (bbl. /ft.) x Length of pipe pulled out (ft.)

=
{Casing Capacity (bbl./ft.) - Metal Displacement(bbl./ft)}
0.0080 x 90 x 10 stands 7.20
= = = 113 ft
{0.0717 – 0.0080} 0.0637
Hydrostatic pressure of this column = 113 x 10 x 0.052 = 59 psi
Therefore, failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe dry shall cause a reduction of 59 psi
in hydrostatic pressure.
Example:
In the above example, if the string is pulled out wet without filling the hole then reduction of hydrostatic
head will be more .This can be calculated as follow:
Solution:
Level drop in annulus due to failure of filling mud after pulling out 10 stands wet
{Metal Displacement (bbl./ft.) + d/p capacity (bbl/ft)}Length of pipe pulled out (ft.)
=
Annulus Capacity (bbl./ft)
(0.0080 + 0.0177) x 90 x 10 stands 23.13
= = = 487ft
0.0475 0.475
Hydrostatic pressure of this column = 487 x 10 x 0.052
= 253 psi

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Therefore failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe wet shall cause a reduction of 253 psi
in hydrostatic pressure.
NOTE: Reduction in bottom hole pressure due to pulling out without filling hole will be much higher for
drill collars, if pulled out dry or wet without filling the hole.
1.8.2 Water dilution at surface (on rotary or at shale shaker)
Addition of water into mud system leads to reduction in mud density thereby reducing hydrostatic head. It
can be minimized by use of drill pipe wipers during pulling out and by use of mud box during connections
etc. Person working on shakers should ensure minimum addition of water into mud during cleaning of
shale shaker screens.
1.8.3 Removal of barite from the mud, by mud handling system, such as centrifuge etc.
Removal of some barite particles by centrifuge can be neutralized by checking mud density of fluid after
centrifuging and weighing up to the required value before pumping back to the well.
1.8.4 Cement Setting
Cement setting, in addition to other factors, is a function of formation temperature. Since maximum
circulating temperature occurs at about one third from bottom, it makes cement to initially set on the
upper zone. As the cement sets on upper zone it begins to partially support the hydrostatic pressure.
Moreover, the cement setting results in water loss from the slurry, this may cause hydrostatic pressure to
fall below the formation pressure thereby allowing a kick. To prevent this to happen the fluid loss from
the cement should be reduced as low as possible.
1.8.5 Settling of Weighing Material
Settling of weighing material in drilling fluid is related to suspension characteristics which in turns depends
upon the thermal stability of the additives used. Whenever the bottom hole temperature exceeds the
thermal stability of the additives it causes the viscosity to decrease & water loss to increase. As a result
there is settling of weighing material & reduction in hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore.
1.9 THE U TUBE CONCEPT
Drill string in a well bore can be compared to a U-tube, where drill string is one limb of the U-tube
& annulus is the other limb. The U–tube shown below describes the well system where the bit is on
bottom and it is possible to circulate from bottom. As illustrated in the figure 1.7 the left side of U–tube
represents the drill pipe while the right side of the U–tube represents the annulus. As per the U-tube
principle the pressures in both the limbs balance each other. For example, in the figure below if the
density of the fluid in the two limbs is different & if the tube is closed at the top, then the pressure gauge
of that limb whose density is less shall show some back pressure equivalent to the difference of fluid
hydrostatic pressure of the two limbs.
Well TVD - 10,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure left limb = 5200 psi, Back pressure = 520 psi, BHP = 5720 psi
Hydrostatic pressure right limb = 5720 psi, Back pressure = 0 psi, BHP = 5720 psi

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As a result the combined pressure (surface back pressure & hydrostatic) acting at the bottom of the two
limbs shall balance each other. This principle helps in comparing the shut-in drill pipe & casing pressures
and working out the density of influx when a well is closed on a kick.
If there are two different fluids between inside of string and annulus, fluids always flow from a higher
pressure area to a lower pressure. If the system is not closed, lighter fluid will be flown out and it will be
stopped when pressure is stabilized.
If a denser mud goes into the drill pipe, mud flows up the annulus, and vice versa. The practice of putting
a dense slug pill in the drill pipe for dry pull out makes use of the U-tube effect. The volume of slug to be
pumped depends upon the length of drill pipe to be kept dry. However, drop of level in drill string doesn't
affect bottom hole pressure.
1.10 VOLUMES, CAPACITIES AND DISPLACEMENTS
Nearly all well control operations require that hole, pipe and pipe displacement volumes be calculated.
The following formula is used to calculate the capacity.
Capacity (bbl. /ft.) = ID 2 / 1029.4 (for inside of a tubular)
Capacity (bbl. /ft.) = (Dh 2 -OD2 )/ 1029.4 ( for Annulus)
Displacement factor for a drill collar section (bbl. /ft.) = (OD 2 -ID2/ 1029.4
Where Dh = The hole diameter, OD & ID = The outer and inner diameter of the tube.
Capacity (bbl. /ft.) x Cylinder length (ft.) = Volume (bbl.)
1.11 LEAK OFF TEST
A leak off test is conducted to determine the pressure at which formation begins to leak. Such a test
also establishes the integrity of cement at the casing shoe. Test is usually conducted after drilling out
the shoe and 10-15 feet of fresh formation. For a long open hole section whenever a weaker formation
has apparently been drilled, another test (formation competency or integrity test) is made to determine
whether the formation can support mud of higher density, which may be required at some future time.

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Necessity of a leak off test, therefore is:

a) To confirm the strength of cement bond around casing shoe, so as to ensure that no communication
shall occur outside the casing in the event of borehole pressure at casing shoe approaching the
formation strength.
b) To determine the potential of the exposed formation to withstand a pressure in excess of mud
hydrostatic. This in turn helps in assessing the severity of the kick that can be safely controlled
without fracturing the formation.
c) To determine maximum allowable surface pressure for controlling a kick without fracturing the
formation at the shoe.
1.11.1Procedure and hook up for a leak off test
Equipment required for a leak off test is -
a) A cementing unit with connections to stand pipe.
b) Calibrated pressure gauges 0-1,000 psi up to about 3,000 ft depth & 0-1,500 or 0-3,000 psi for deeper
depths.
The test involves precise recording of pressure against volume pumped that is why pumping is done
with a cementing unit (a low discharge - high pressure unit). Since an accurate pressure and volume
measurement is essential, the gauges should be calibrated prior to the test.
Test procedure is as below:-
i) Drill out cement, shoe and 10-15 feet of new hole.
ii) Circulate out cement and drilled cuttings, with clean mud, line up cementing unit.
iii) Pull bit in the casing shoe, fill the hole and close preventer on drill pipe.
iv) Open annulus (side outlet valve) between casing strings.
v) Pump into the well with cementing unit in increments of 1/4 to 1/2 barrel, waiting each time for 3-4
minutes or the time required for pressure to stabilize.
vi) Simultaneously plot stabilized pressure vs. total volume pumped for each increment.
vii) Continue pumping until the plotted curve begins to flatten or when first deviation away from the
straight line has been obtained i.e. when the pressure increases by a smaller amount for same
volume pumped, as shown in figure 1.8
Note: Another practice being followed in industry is to pump another increment after first deviation
has been obtained. This gives one more deviation away from straight line as shown in figure 1.9. When
the points corresponding to these two deviations are joined we get another straight line which when
extended intersects the straight line already plotted. The point of intersection of these two lines is taken
as surface leak-off pressure.
viii) Release pressure and measure the volume of fluid lost to the well so as to ensure whether leak-off
has occurred or not.
Pressure so recorded plus the hydrostatic pressure at casing shoe TVD is the sub surface leak-off pressure.
Formation Leak-off pressure (Sub surface leak off pressure)
= Surface leak-off pressure + Hydrostatic pressure at casing shoe

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Figure 1.8: Leak Off Test Graph

Figure 1.9: Leak Off Test Graph

Example:
Casing shoe depth - 8,000 ft (TVD)/ 8,250 ft (MD) Mud weight - 10 ppg
LOT pressure - 1,200 psi
Find out Formation Leak - off pressure & LOT equivalent mud weight value.
Solution:
Formation leak-off pressure = 1,200 + (10 x 0.052 x 8,000) = 5,360 psi
LOT equivalent mud weight = 5,360 ÷ (8,000 x 0.052) = 12.88 ppg ~MAMW=12.80 ppg

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1.11.2 Leak off Test Cautions

a) Leak off test is not carried out in lime stone, dolomite or fractured shales.
b) LOT shall be conducted preferably in the first permeable zone below casing shoe.
c) In general, formation becomes stronger with depth, but not always. In case it is suspected from
cuttings etc. that a weaker formation has been drilled, it is recommended to carry out formation
integrity test against the open hole.
d) The value of formation strength obtained from leak off tests in vertical wells may not be directly
applicable in deviated wells where the formation is drilled at an angle (and vice versa).
e) The point on the curve at which stabilized pressure begins to deviate from the trend line, indicates the
point at which formation begins to take fluid, no permanent damage shall be done to the formation
at this stage, provided it is not subjected to further increase in pressure. Further pumping shall
cause a fracture & this would be indicated by a sharp pressure drop at the surface. If so happens, the
formation strength shall be impaired, although it may 'heal' itself after some time.
1.11.3 Extended LOT
Extended LOT (ELOT or XLOT) procedures are used to estimate the magnitude of minimum in situ horizontal
stress, mainly for the practical purpose of determining borehole stability during drilling operations.
In an XLOT, the pressure is increased until leak-off is achieved i.e. pumping continues beyond the leak
off point until the pressure peaks at formation breakdown pressure. The pumps are then shut-off and
the pressure decline is monitored. The break in the pressure decline curve indicates shut-in. This gives
a first pass estimate of the minimum stress magnitude. Two more cycles are carried out to overcome
the tensile strength of the formation and stress concentration around the borehole. On the 2nd and 3rd
cycles, a post- peak constant pressure is recorded (fracture propagation pressure). The second and third
shut-in pressures usually give the best estimates of the minimum stress magnitude. The most important
pressure parameter is the fracture closure pressure, which occurs when the newly created fractures,
closes again. It is determined by the intersection of two tangents to the pressure versus mud volume
curve. The value of fracture closure pressure represents the minimum principal stress.

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1.12 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)

MAASP is the maximum surface pressure that can be held on the casing with complete safety. MAASP is
the minimum of
a) The maximum surface pressure that the casing and/or well head will hold.
b) The maximum surface pressure that the shoe will hold.
(Since the selection of well head and the casing is based upon the maximum anticipated surface pressure,
the limiting factor usually is the pressure that the shoe will hold.)
MAASP is the maximum annular surface pressure which can be applied over and above the hydrostatic
pressure before the shoe gets fractured. At the time of LOT, MAASP is equal to the surface leak-off
pressure for the test fluid density. Therefore, subsequently while drilling whenever the mud density
changes the MAASP should be recalculated.

MAASP= .052 x (Max. allowable mud weight- Current mud weight) x Shoe TVD
Example:
A leak-off test is conducted at 9,000 ft. casing shoe TVD with mud density of 11ppg & surface leak-off
pressure is 1,500 psi. What is the MAASP for 11 ppg mud density?
Solution:
MAASP with 11 ppg mud density is 1,500 psi (surface leak-off pressure).
Note: - MAASP value must be known & posted on the rig at all times during drilling. As the mud weight is
changed or another LOT is conducted, MAASP must be recalculated accordingly.
Example:
For casing shoe at 9,000 ft. (TVD) MAASP with 11 ppg mud was 1,500 psi, what shall be the MAASP if mud
density is increased to 12 ppg, while drilling at 12,000 ft.
Solution:
MAASP with 11 ppg mud = 1,500 psi
Maximum. Mud density that can be used without formation breakdown 11 + 1500 ÷ (9000 x .052) = 14.2
ppg
MAASP with 12 ppg mud = (14.2 - 12) x 0.052 x 9,000 = 1,030 psi.
1.12.1 Maximum Influx Volume that can be safely shut in (Kick Tolerance)
Kick tolerance is the maximum gas influx volumes (bbl.) for a designed kick intensity that can be
successfully shut the well in and circulated out without breaking formation pressure at the casing shoe.
The kick intensity is the difference between the maximum anticipated formation pressure and planned
mud weight.
If the MAASP is known, the maximum influx volume that can be safely shut in, can be calculated as below:
Example:
Influx Volume - 10 bbl
SIDPP - 600 psi

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SICP - 750 psi

TVD - 9,000 ft
Mud Density - 11 ppg
Drill Collar - 500 ft
Annular Volume against drill pipe - 0.046 bbl/ft
Annular Volume against drill collar - 0.03 bbl/ft
MAASP - 1,200 psi with 11 ppg Mud
Calculate influx gradient & maximum influx volume that can be safely shut in.
Solution:
a) Influx Gradient
Influx Volume (bbl)
Height of Influx =
Annular Capacity (bbl/ft)
= 10 ÷ 0.03 = 333.3 ft = 333 ft
As length of drill collar is 500 ft so Influx is around drill collar only.
Influx Gradient = Mud weight x 0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP) ÷ Influx Height}
= 11 x 0.052 -{(750 - 600) ÷ 333}
= 0.572 - 0.450 = 0.122 psi/ft
Once the value of the influx gradient is known, the maximum height of influx that can be safely closed in
can be calculated using the same formula:
Influx Gradient = Mud weight x 0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP) ÷ Influx Height}
In the above equation maximum influx height can be calculated by substituting the value of MAASP in
place of SICP
0.122 = 11 x 0.052 – {(1200 – 600) ÷ Influx height}
Influx height = (1200 – 600) ÷ (11 x 0.052 - 0.122)
= 600 ÷ 0.450 = 1333 ft
Now the height of influx can be converted into annular volume.
Drill collar length = 500 feet.
Annular Volume against drill collar = 500 x 0.03 = 15 bbl.
Height of influx around drill pipe = 1333 - 500 = 833 ft.
Annular Volume against drill pipe = 833 x 0.046 = 38.3 bbl.
Total influx volume that can be safely closed before MAASP is reached:
= 15 + 38.3 = 53.3 bbl.

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1.13 MUD WEIGHT WINDOW DURING DRILLING

Mud weight or density, is the primary source of hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore. Drilling mud with an
excessively high mud weight exerts a hydrostatic pressure that may exceed the fracture strength of the
formation, forcing drilling fluid into natural fractures. This will result in lost circulation into the wellbore.
The fracture strength of any formation is measured by the leak off tests conducted, immediately after
a new casing string has run and cemented, immediately after drilling out few feet below casing shoe. A
drilling fluid of insufficient density may contribute with a hydrostatic pressure that is lower than the pore
pressure. This may lead to an unplanned influx into the wellbore resulting in a kick. Drilling mud weight
must be heavy enough to counter the instability in the borehole that is created when rock is removed
through the drilling process. The drilling mud weight must be planned within the hydrostatic pressure
range that avoids a kick or a lost circulation situation.

Fig. 1.10 : MUD WEIGHT WINDOW

The lower limit of the mud weight (with ECD effect) is determined by the formation pore pressure or the
wellbore collapse pressure, below which the uncontrolled flow of formation fluids may be caused in the
wellbore. The upper limit of the mud weight (with ECD effect) is typically the margin for fracture gradient,
the pressure that would cause the drilled formation to fracture, creating potential loss of formation fluid
in the wellbore.
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1.14 TOP HOLE DRILLING

In upper part of the hole, drilling rate is normally too fast, hole sizes are large & porosity is very high.
Cutting carrying capacity of the drilling fluid is poor since hole is about 30% to 40% larger than nominal
size & high annular velocities cannot be obtained. This leads to concentration of cuttings in the annulus
thereby increasing the equivalent mud density in the annulus. Formation strength in the top hole section
is normally low, more so in a marine well since part of the overburden there consists of seawater rather
than formation. As such, while drilling a top-hole section the chances of bulk mud losses are high, which
if happens can lead to a shallow formation flows. The various problems faced while drilling top hole
section are as below:
a) The formation being weak is vulnerable to bulk mud losses.
b) Soft, fast drilling formation generates large volumes of cuttings that tend to accumulate in the bore
hole
c) Annular velocity is very low (due to large hole) and tophole mud has a poor cutting carrying capacity.
d) Kicks occur quickly & since shallow reservoir can have high permeability, time for action is very
limited.
The shallow gas kicks are difficult to detect at an early stage because most of the standard flow detection
techniques fail. Flow checks on drilling breaks become impractical as drilling rates generally are very fast
& penetration rates vary tremendously. Mud volume is continuously being added to active mud system
therefore pit level indicator at times cannot be made use of. The only reliable indicator is differential flow
sensor. On the other hand reaction time is minimal since gas expands almost immediately upon entering
the well bore, which further reduces the hydrostatic head and allows more and more influx to enter the
well bore. As such well cannot be closed because flow might broach to the outside of the shallow casing.
Shallow hazards are accumulations of gas or salt water which are abnormally pressured and occurring at
a sufficiently shallow depth that precludes having the BOPs yet installed. Shallow hazards posed a severe
threat since, when encountered, they can only be flowed to the surface and diverted.
Shallow gas flows can be extremely prolific and flow of rock and sand can be severe to the point of causing
diverter failure. If shallow gas is encountered, preparations should begin immediately to evacuate all
non- essential personnel.
The major hazards of shallow gas influx
a) It can lead to blow-out.
b) It can cause serious damage to the personnel, rig & equipment.
c) It can broach through outside of shallow casing leading to instability of bottom supported rigs.
d) Risk of crater, fire & loss of rig is very high.
A typical approach to a shallow gas kick is to allow the well to flow through a diverter. The diverter system
is designed to pack off around Kelly, casing or drill string. It does not shut in the well, but allows the
flow to be diverted through a vent line to a safe distance away from the rig. Well is allowed to flow and
simultaneously mud or water is pumped through the drill string at maximum rate to keep as much fluid in
the well as possible. Either the well shall flow till the formation depletes (or annulus bridges) or the well
is brought under control by increasing the mud weight.

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Shallow gas prevention consideration:

• Drill a pilot hole
• Drill riser less ( When applicable-subsea)
• Restrict ROPs and control drill
• Accurately monitor the well and drilling process.
1.15 SHALLOW GAS CONTROL PROCEDURE
Diverter system should be used to control shallow gas kicks as discussed below.
1.15.1 Diverting procedure:
a) Maintain maximum pump rate
b) Space out such that the tool joint is above the rotary.
c) Ensure that the downwind diverter line is open-close diverter element.
d) Shut down all non-essential equipment and machinery to minimize sources of ignition
e) Deploy fire hose beneath rig floor.
f) Monitor for evidence of gas breaking through from outside the conductor.
g) Continue to monitor wind direction and continue to pump fluid/water.
h) Pump pre mixed heavy mud, if available.
1.15.2 During Drilling
a) At first sign of flow, immediately stop rotary, raise Kelly until tool joint is above rotary.
b) Open both side vent line.
c) Close diverter packer & close the vent line opposing the wind direction.
d) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
e) Remove the non-essential personnel from the rig.
1.15.3 While Tripping
a) Set pipe on slips.
b) Install FOSV and close it.
c) Open diverter line valves depending upon wind direction.
d) Close diverter packer.
e) Connect Kelly or circulating head.
f) Open FOSV.
g) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
h) Remove the non-essential personnel from the rig.

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1.15.4 Control of some critical drilling parameters

Since shallow gas kicks occur quickly and time for action is limited, it is useful to control some critical
drilling parameters to prevent shallow gas kicks.
a) Penetration Rate: - The rate of drilling is normally very fast in top holes, it adds tons of drilled
cuttings in the hole to create mud density much higher than what is required. It can lead to fracture
of formations & bulk mud losses & therefore result in shallow gas influx. Thus there is need for
limiting the actual penetration rates to a value less than that can be achieved.
b) Mud Density:- Avoid mud density increase down hole by -
(i) Drilling large diameter holes in two stages (i.e. drilling a pilot hole)
(ii) Circulating out the cuttings with viscous mud sweeps.
c) Tripping: - Higher tripping speeds should be avoided, upper formations are usually sticky (more
so in offshore) & has more tendency to ball the bit thus enhancing the probability of swabbing.
If necessary the drill string should be pumped out of the hole to limit swabbing. Whenever the
pilot hole has been drilled, hole enlargement with under reamer should be preferred as it can be
collapsed before starting pulling out in order to reduce the swabbing effect.
In addition to above, following measures are suggested.
1.15.4.1 Heavy Mud
A minimum of one reserve mud tank weighing about 2-3 ppg more than the drilling mud should be kept
reserve.
1.15.4.2 Mud Losses
Whenever losses are encountered, they should be sealed before drilling ahead. Bits should have large
nozzles to allow pumping of LCM material.
1.15.4.3 Active Mud System & Flow Checks
Mud pit volumes should be continuously monitored so as to detect any change in active mud volumes.
Periodic flow checks should be made while drilling in potential gas zones.
1.15.4.4 Float Valve
A float valve may be run in the string to prevent sudden flow through the drill pipe.
1.16 WELL CONTROL IN SHALLOW HOLE VS DEEP HOLE
In shallow well control, when only shallow casing has been set, shutting-in the well will cause formation
fluid to fracture to the surface and all control of the well will be lost. This can result in a crater or loss of
rig. The problem is more severe in offshore because of the reduced fracture gradients. The only way to
tackle the shallow kick is to divert the flow. The well will flow until the formation depletes or the well is
brought under control by increasing the hydrostatic pressure in the well bore. Whereas in deep hole well
control,
the well is immediately shut-in after recognizing the influx in the hole. Shut-in-pressures are monitored
and a killing procedure is chosen depending upon the volume & nature of influx taken, position of the

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bit in the hole & closing pressures. Control over the well is not lost as long as the kick is recognized at an
early stage and an appropriate killing procedure is carried out.
1.16.1 Comparison
S.No. Deep Kick Shallow Kick
1. Equipment BOP stack choke & kill manifold Annular BOP/Diverter and diverter lines
2. Kill pump rate 1/2 to 1/3rd of normal rate Increased to maximum possible
3. Kill Mud weight Based on shut in pressures Based on fracture pressure at casing shoe/
whatever light fluid available like sea water
Open Diverter line, close diverter, increase
4. Closing sequence Stop pump, close BOP pump rates
5. Kick indications Reliable kick warning signals Kicks occur quickly and normal indications
of kicks difficult to recognize.

1.17 GAS CUTTING

Out coming mud can become gas cut due to following:
1.17.1 Drilling gas bearing sand
While drilling a gas bearing formation, the out coming mud will be gas cut due to the gas breaking out
of the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. As long as the mud gradient is sufficient to generate adequate
overbalance, there is no risk of the well kicking. It so happens that when drilled gas enters the wellbore
at the bottom of the hole, it is under a pressure equal to the bottom hole circulating pressure. But as
the gas is circulated up to the surface, the pressure reduces causing the gas to expand & this expansion
causes the mud weight to reduce. With deep reservoir at high pressure the effect of fully expanded gas
on the mud weight at the surface is substantial. But the effect is concentrated near the surface only & a
large reduction in surface mud density can normally be tolerated since the reduction in BHP due to gas
cutting is very little.
The degree of reduction in BHP due to surface gas cutting can be estimated as follows:-
(W1-W2) BHCP
Change in BHP (psi) = 32.72 log
(W2) 14.22
Where W1 = In going mud density (ppg)
(W2) = Gas cut mud density (ppg)
BHCP = Bottom hole circulating Pressure (psi)
Gas cutting alone does not indicate that the well is kicking unless it is associated with other kick signals
like flow rate etc. Nevertheless, the severity of the gas cutting depend upon the penetration rate,
permeability & is independent of mud weight. More the penetration rate, porosity & permeability of the
gas bearing
formation, more severe shall be gas cutting. While drilling tight formations i.e. formation with low
permeability which contain gas at high pressure, small quantities may enter the borehole and cause
significant gas cutting at the surface by expansion. As such gas cutting while drilling any gas bearing
formation cannot be prevented or reduced even by increasing the mud weight. Degassing is necessary
to insure that clean mud is being pumped back into the hole to prevent the percentage of gas from

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increasing with each circulation. Not doing so shall cause greater and greater bottom hole pressure
reduction and a possible kick. Therefore it is advised to make regular flow checks and if the well is not
flowing, resume drilling. If flow is suspected, close the well and check the shut-in pressure. Some casing
pressure and zero drill pipe pressure indicates expanded gas in the annulus.
Before pulling out in such conditions, it is advised to make a short trip and circulate bottoms up to ensure
that hole is gas free. At times when the drilled gas reaches the surface it causes 'belching' of drilling fluid
through the bell nipple, if it continues for considerable time it may cause reduction of hydrostatic head
in the annulus. To prevent the expanding gas to cause 'belching' of the mud through bell nipple, annular
preventer must be closed & drilling fluid be circulated through full open choke.
1.17.2 Drilling through shale containing high pressure gas
Since shale is impermeable, gas is released only from the cuttings and the freshly exposed walls of the
hole. A self-flow test, normally will be negative. This gas is called shale gas or back ground gas.
1.17.3 Connection/Trip gas
While drilling with minimal overbalance, small slug of gas can enter the well bore when string is raised for
connection with pumps off, provided a permeable formation is exposed. When the circulation is started
after the connection, this gas will result in gas cutting at the surface after bottoms up. Such gas cutting
normally does not cause much reduction in BHP. Nevertheless, following precautions are recommended:
a) Continuously run the vacuum de-gasser
b) At no time there should be more than one slug of connection gas in the borehole
c) The connection time should be minimized
1.18 SWAB AND SURGE EFFECTS
Movement of drill string down hole creates pressure surges in the borehole. These pressure surges could
either add to the BHP (+ve surge) or reduce the BHP (-ve surge) depending upon whether the pipe is
being lowered or pulled out of the well. The "+ve" pressure surges commonly known as 'surge pressures'
if excessive can cause formation to fracture & lost circulation. The "-ve" surge pressure known as 'swab
pressure' may reduce the BHP sufficient to permit the flow of formation fluid into the well.
Though accurate calculations of these swab & surge pressures are complicated, but since they are caused
mainly by friction while 'moving the drill string through mud, they are function of
a) Pipe speed
b) Mud properties such as viscosity & gel strength.
c) Annular clearance (pipe/hole diameter)
d) BHA length & size etc.
An acceptable rough estimate of swab pressure or decrease in BHP while pulling the pipe can be obtained
by considering the friction effect values same as the circulating annular pressure losses; "or" we can say
that the minimum BHP while pulling pipe could be static BHP minus the circulating annular friction losses.
Though as the pipe is pulled up, some loss in BHP due to swabbing effect cannot be avoided, however,
adequate measures should be taken to check that the pressure reduction should not exceed the
overbalance pressure especially against permeable zones. Swabbing during trips could be detected by

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filling the trip sheets. If the swabbing remains undetected during initial stage, more and more formation
fluid will reduce the BHP continuously and a stage will come when the well will start kicking and unloading
the mud from the well.
Swab pressure can be very low but are compounded if :-
i. Mud viscosity and gel strength is high
ii. Pipe movement is rapid
iii. Wall cake is thick
iv. Annular clearance against BHA is small
v. Bit or stabilizer is balled up.
The formation permeability & pulling out through horizontal reservoir sections can compound the
amount of formation fluid swabbed in.
High volume swabbing caused by piston effect of balled up bit, reamer or stabilizer associated with thick
filter cake is clearly indicated at the surface when there is
• Excessive over pull, drag or torque
• No drop in mud level in the annulus
• Rise in mud level in the annulus when the drill string is being pulled.
• High rheology mud properties
• Drilling in reactive formation (Like Gumbo) Such swabbing effects are rather obvious.
The greatest tendency to swab occurs as the bit is lifted off bottom, therefore a careful watch on the mud
level in the annulus should be kept as the pipe is pulled. (The mud level should go down unless swabbing
is taking place). A short trip may be necessary in critical situations.
The greatest tendency to swab occurs just as the bit leaves bottom. At this time the most careful checks
need to be made to determine if formation fluids are being swabbed into the hole.
While trip out monitor trip sheet carefully and if well takes less volume than pulled out volume, it
indicates swabbing and some influx has been sucked into the well. Make a flow check and if flow check is
positive, immediately shut in the well and then plan for strip-in. If flow check is negative, the pipe must
be run back to bottom monitoring the return rate on trip sheet. After reaching bottom, the influx is to be
circulated out with the same mud which was used at the time of drilling.
The best method is based on checking the volume of mud needed to replace the volume of steel removed.
Pipe displacement can be read from tables or calculated by the formula:
Displacement (bbl./ft) = Weight per ft.(lb/ft) / 2730
The amount of mud used to fill the hole can be measured by using a trip tank. A trip tank allows the
accurate measurement of relatively small volumes of mud. Volume measurements in the mud pits are
generally too inaccurate to detect the small changes in volumes required. Companies use trip books to
record the volumes used on each hole fill and the running sum. The recorded volumes can be compared
at intervals with records of previous trips.

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Keeping the hole full is most critical when drill collars are pulled from the well, because the collars have
more volume than drill pipe. To prevent a reduction in well pressure greater than when pulling drill pipe,
the hole should be filled every stand when pulling collars.
Procedure to be followed:
• Monitor hole fill up on trips
• Limit pipe pulling and running speeds
• Add trip margin
• If swabbing is severe , consider pumping out of hole
• Trip sheet should be used to compare actual and calculated volume displaced.
• Trip tank must be accurately calibrated and monitored by crew members
• Plan the trip –have a set schedule of stands pulled between fill ups, have a sound procedure for
refilling trip tank and transferring surface mud volumes.
1.19 TRIP MARGIN
During pulling out, upward motion of the drill string in the borehole (which is assumed to be full of mud)
creates a swab pressure. This decreases BHP when pipe is in motion. One way of minimizing this is to use
safe tripping speeds and having close monitoring of pipe volume pulled out & mud volume pumped
in to keep the hole full. Another practice to tackle the problem is to keep mud weight gradient greater
than the formation pressure gradient. The resulting overbalance permits safe tripping and connection
operations. This extra mud weight is called trip margin. For normal drilling operation trip margin is kept
0.2 to 0.3 ppg. However, the swab pressure being a function of yield point (yp) of mud, trip margin can
be calculated as follows:-
Trip margin (ppg ) = 8.33Yp ÷ 98(dh-dp), Where,
Yp = Yield point of mud in lbs. /100 sq.ft
dh = Hole diameter in inches
dp = Pipe outside diameter in inches
1.20 SLOW CIRCULATION RATE
During well control operations, to avoid further entry of formation fluid it is essential to keep BHP at least
equal to formation pressure. This is done by imposing certain calculated back pressure in addition to
system pressure losses on the well bore as long as old mud is in the well. Kicks have to be circulated out
at slow circulation rates to ensure that the sum of this back pressure and system losses does not exceed
the rating of high pressure lines and other rig equipment. Various reasons for circulating out the kicks at
slow circulation rates are :-
a) To ensure that the slow circulation pressure plus the shut in drill pipe pressure is total pressure for
the pump and does not exceed the surface line ratings.
b) To allow mud returns to be weighted up and re-circulated within the capabilities of available mud
mixing system.
c) To allow longer reaction time for choke adjustments.

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d) To allow sufficient time for disposal of kick fluid /de-gassing at the surface.
e) To reduce the annular pressure losses.
f) To reduce the risk of pump breakdown and other mechanical problems.
g) ECD on open hole
h) Choke line friction pressure (floaters)
Equally important are the less tangible benefits which accrue from conducting a kill in a slow, methodical
manner. The supervisor has more time to analyze the pressures and what they may be saying about the
down hole conditions. Better judgment and wiser decisions invariably will follow.
The common practice so far had been to select a rate which is about half or one third the pump speed at
the time of drilling. This practice was fairly good with duplex mud pump earlier in use on drilling rigs. Now
with the use of triplex pumps this convention gives much higher speeds than the actual requirements.
Theoretically speaking the kill rate or slow circulation rate should be the minimum possible pump speed
at which pump can run smoothly without any knocking etc. But since at minimum pump speeds more
time will be required to kill the well, a compromise has to be made which can meet all the requirements.
Therefore slow circulation rate should be 1/2 to 1/3 of pump SPM at the time of drilling.
1.20.1 Recording of slow circulation rate
The slow circulation rate for each pump on the rig is selected before any well control problems arise.
Standard policy in drilling operations is to measure the pump pressure periodically noted kill rate for each
pump. Knowing the kill rate circulating pressure is a valuable and sometimes necessary adjunct to the
information used to plan and execute a kill procedure.
It should be recorded near to the bottom for each pump at regular intervals and / or when drilling
conditions change such as:-
a) At the beginning of each shift.
b) After change in drilling fluid density.
c) After change in bit nozzle size or BHA.
d) After drilling a long section of hole (500 ft.) in a shift.
e) After pump fluid end repair.
f) After any significant change in mud properties.
On the rig there are a no. of places where drill pipe pressure gauges are installed such as stand pipe,
mud pumps, driller's console, choke & kill manifold and remote choke panel. Slow circulation pressure
should be recorded from the gauge that is to be used for well killing operation. So, it should be recorded
at remote choke panel.
1.21 CALCULATION OF APROXIMATE CIRCULATION PRESSURE CHANGES DUE TO
PUMP SPEED AND MUD DENSITY CHANGES
Circulating pressure are related to pump discharge by following equation:
P = KQn, where P - Pressure Loss, Q - discharge

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'K ' is a proportionality factor involving mud characteristics and system dimensions & 'n' has a value of
2 for bit nozzle & approximate 1.73 for drill string. For determining combined losses (Drill string, bit &
annular) value of 'n' is taken as 1.86. Therefore above equation can be modified as:-

For practical purposes it can be approximated as:

Approximate pressure changes due to change in pump speed can be calculated by using this equation. If
P1 is slow circulation rate pressure recorded at pump rate SPM1, than P2 circulation pressure at SPM2 can
be
Calculated.
(SPM2)2
P2 = P1 x
(SPM1)2
Friction pressure increases exponentially to the circulating rate. This means that if the circulating rate
doubles, there would be a fourfold increase in the corresponding circulating pressure.
Example:
A pump pressure of 1,000 psi was recorded at pump speed of 40 SPM. What is the new pump pressure
at a speed of 30 SPM.
Solution :
(SPM2 )2
P2 = P1 x
(SPM1)2
(30)2
= 1000 x = 562 psi
(40)2
Similarly, if the mud density has been changed and slow circulation pressure has not been recorded after
mud density change, the same can be approximately calculated
New Mud density
New circulating pressure = Old circulating pressure x
Old Mud density
Friction pressure changes directly with change in the fluid weight. This means that if the weight of the
fluid being circulated increases by 20%, there would be a likewise 20% increase in the corresponding
circulating pressure.

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Example:
A pump pressure of 1,000 psi was recorded with a mud density of 11 ppg at 40 SPM. What shall be pump
pressure at 40 SPM if the mud density is increased to 13ppg?
Solution:
13
New pump pressure = 1,000 x = 1,182 psi
11
1.22 EQUIVALENT MUD DENSITY IN THE ANNULUS
During drilling, due to suspension of cuttings, equivalent mud density in the annulus happens to be more
than that of drill string. Though in deep hole sections the effect is not much pronounced but in top holes
where the cuttings accumulation is enormous this increase may at times lead to total loss situation.
1.23 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATION DENSITY (ECD)
Pump pressure is a measurement of total friction pressure of the circulating system, but only the
annular pressure loss is applied against the well bore. This a pressure in addition to that of hydrostatic
pressure. Converting the annular pressure loss to ppg and adding this value to mud/fluid weight yields
the equivalent circulating density.
Bottom hole pressure during circulation is more than that of static condition by an amount equal to
annular pressure losses. As soon as the pumps are shut off, the APL component of BHP becomes zero &
ECD effect is lost. Thus before tripping out a flow check should be conducted on every well.

Figure 1.11: Equivalent Circulation Density

ECD (ppg) = Original Mud Density(ppg) + Annular losses(psi) ÷ { 0.052 x Well TVD (ft)}
a) Hydrostatic Pressure when static = 10,000 x 10 x 0.052 = 5,200 psi
b) Hydrostatic Pressure when circulating = 10,000 x 10 x 0.052+120 = 5,320 psi
c) Equivalent circulating density = 5,320 ÷ {0.052 x 10,000} = 10.23 ppg
Hence while circulating the effective mud weight is 10.23 ppg

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Exercises of mud gradient, hydrostatic & formation pressure, BHP & MAASP
Exercise : 1
Consider following Well Data :
Well Measured Depth - 9,800 ft
Well TVD - 8,200 ft
Mud Density - 11.5 ppg
Calculate :
a) Mud Gradient
b) Hydrostatic Pressure
c) Hydrostatic Pressure if 11.5 ppg mud in the well is replaced as below :
0 – 7,000 ft TVD - 11.5 ppg
7,000 – 8,200 ft TVD - 12.0 ppg
Solution :

Exercise : 2
Consider following Well Data :
Well Measured Depth - 11, 900 ft
Well TVD - 9, 600 ft
Formation Pressure Gradient - 0.65 psi / ft
Mud Density - 12.4 ppg
Annular pressure Loss @ 90 SPM - 90 psi
Minimum Swab Pressure( while lifting string ) - 80 psi
Calculate :
a) Formation Pressure.
b) Bottom Hole Pressure while making a connection ( string is idle)
c) Bottom Hole Pressure during circulation @ 90 SPM.
d) Bottom Hole Pressure during lifting the string with pump off.
Solution :

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Exercise : 3
A Casing is lowered to a depth of 9,500 ft, shoe TVD is 8,700 ft. After drilling shoe & 15 ft of formation ,
leak-off test was conducted with 11.6 ppg mud.
Calculate :
a) MAASP if sub-surface formation leak-off pressure is 6,500 psi.
b) MAASP if formation fracture gradient is 0.75 psi/ft.
Solution :

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KICK INDICATIONS & SHUT IN

2 PROCEDURES
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO KICKS
A kick can be defined as a well control problem in which the pressure found within the drilled rock
is greater than the mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole. When this occurs, the greater
formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into the well bore. This fluid flow is called a
kick. A blow out is the result of an uncontrolled kick.
The severity of kick depends upon permeability and porosity of the rock. A rock with high permeability
and porosity has a greater potential for a severe kick than a rock with low permeability and porosity.
Another controlling variable for kick severity is the amount of pressure differential involved. Pressure
differential is the difference between the formation fluid pressure and the mud hydrostatic pressure.
If the formation pressure is much greater than the hydrostatic pressure, a large negative differential
pressure exists. If the negative differential pressure is coupled with high permeability and porosity in a
rock, a severe kick can occur.
The pressure differential between the formation and well bore i.e the degree of underbalance, is
proportional to the influx flow rate and kick volume for a given flow period. The situation can only
deteriorate with time because less dense formation fluid volume further reduces well bore pressure
and thereby serves to increase flow rate into the well. Permeability is another significant factor as are
exposed thickness and fluid viscosity. We cannot control permeability or reservoir fluid properties, but
the amount of exposed kick is governed by how long we continue to drill with kick entry.
2.2 CAUSES OF KICKS
Kicks occur as a result of formation pressure being greater than mud hydrostatic pressure (BHP) which
causes fluid to flow from the formation into the wellbore. The main factors which can lead to this
condition can be classified as:
a) Improper hole fill up on trips.
b) Swabbing.
c) Abnormal formation pressure.
d) Insufficient mud density.
e) Lost circulation.
f) Gas cut mud
More than 50% of the kicks occur due to first two of the causes listed above.
2.2.1 Improper hole fill up on trips
When the drill string is pulled out of the hole dry, the mud level decreases by a volume equivalent to the
steel volume. If the hole does not take the calculated volume of mud, it is assumed a formation fluid has
entered the wellbore. Even though gas or salt water entered the hole, the well may not flow until enough
fluid has entered to reduce the hydrostatic pressure below the formation pressure.

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Therefore, while pulling out the well should be filled continuously by using trip tank and differences of
calculated and actual mud volume be recorded at regular interval. Similarly while running in drill string,
trip tank should be used to monitor displacement volume correctly at regular intervals.
If the hole is not filled to replace the calculated volume, the fluid column in the wellbore shall go down
and reduce the hydrostatic pressure. At the same time the pulling out of drill string causes a reduction
in BHP due to swabbing effect. Therefore to avoid the possibility of any formation fluid entering the
bore hole due to combination of above two factors the hole should be properly / regularly filled during
tripping out. Displacement factors representing the pipe volume per unit length are used to determine
the mud volume. Metal displacement of a pipe can be calculated using the following formula:
Metal displacement (bbl. /ft) = (D2 -d2) /1029.4
Where “D” is the outside diameter and “d” is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches.
In the field normally the practice is to fill up the hole either on a regular fill up schedule or to fill up
continuously with a re-circulating trip tank. Irrespective of the practice being used an accurate method of
measuring the amount of fluid actually being taken by hole should be monitored and an accurate record
of actual volume v/s theoretical volume should be kept. If at any stage during pulling-out it is observed
that the actual filled in volume is significantly less than volume of steel that has been removed, it means
that some formation fluids must have entered the well bore.
To Maintain Hydrostatic Control in Tripping:
Prior to Tripping:
• Circulate the hole clean prior to the trip.
• Limit pipe speed to minimize surge/swab pressure
• Line up and use a trip tank
• Maintain hole fill /displacement data on trip sheets
• Hole fill up = Displacement factor x Stand length x No of stands
• Discuss with driller the purpose of a trip.
• Prepare the drill floor.
Tripping Procedure:
• Flow check the well prior to tripping.
• Pump a slug so that pipe can be pulled dry.
V slug = {MW (ppg) x planned length of dry pipe (ft) x Pipe capacity (bbl/ft) }/ {Slug Wt.(ppg) - MWt(ppg)}
As a rule of thumb, the slug should be mixed to maintain a minimum of 2 stands of dry pipe. Accurate
displacement is necessary so that the depth and height of the slug is known at all times during the trip.
• Ensure the level in the annulus is falling by monitoring the hole through the rotary for the first 5-10
stands pulled off from bottom. After confirming that there is no swabbing then install the pipe wiper.
• Circulate the hole across the trip tank and continue the trip out, check correct hole fill via trip tank
and trip sheets.
• Conduct a flow check when BHA is first pulled into casing and prior to pulling the BHA into the BOP
stack.

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Trip sheet: Trip sheet should be used to record hole fill up volumes for all trips. The trip sheet
allows for comparison of actual vs calculated fluid volumes so that any discrepancies can be easily
detected.
A trip tank should also be used during all trips to assist with accurate hole fill up requirement.
Note: A sample trip sheet is attached in annexures for reference.

2.2.2 Swabbing
Swab pressures are created by pulling out the drill string from the borehole. It reduces the bottom hole
pressure. If the reduced bottom hole pressure becomes less than the formation pressure, a potential
kick may enter the wellbore. Various factors conducive to swab pressures are pipe pulling speed, mud
properties, filtration cake, annular clearance, hole configuration and effect of balling up of BHA & bit.
Pulling speed is the only variable that can be controlled during the drilling process when a trip is made.
In order to reduce the swab pressure, the pulling speed must be reduced.
It is important to remember that swab pressure aggravates the pressure reduction resulting from not
keeping the hole full as pipe is pulled. Also the swab pressure is exerted at every point throughout the
open hole below the bit, even though the drill string may be inside the casing string.

2.2.3 Abnormal pressure

In case of wild cat or exploratory drilling, most often the formation pressures are not known accurately.
While drilling, sometimes the bit suddenly penetrates an abnormal pressure formation. As a result the
mud hydrostatic pressure becomes less than the formation pressure and may cause a well kick. There
are various geological reasons for abnormal pressures, some of these are discussed in 1.5 of this book.

2.2.4 Insufficient mud density

If a formation is drilled using a mud density that exerts less hydrostatic pressure than the pore pressure,
the formation fluid may begin to flow into the well bore. Kicks caused by insufficient mud density seem
to have the obvious solution of drilling with high mud density. The best solution is to maintain the mud
density slightly greater than that required to balance the formation pressure in order to avoid mud loss.

2.2.5 Lost Circulation

Lost circulation is another factor which reduces the hydrostatic pressure. When a kick occurs due to lost
circulation, the problem may become more severe. A large volume of kick fluid may enter the hole before
the mud level increase is observed at the surface. It is a recommended practice to keep the annulus
always topped to avoid considerable reduction in BHP when lost circulation is encountered.
Severe lost circulation is one of the more difficult problems. Drilling into a depleted formation, pore
pressure reversal or vugular rock can lead to a case where the bottoms falls out and a subsequent loss
of hydrostatic head sufficient to permit entry from a shallower formation. Alternatively increasing the
mud weight or annular friction may result in shallower losses and a kick from a deeper horizon. Serious
well control problems resulting from lost circulation generally can be avoided by adequate planning and
supervision. Failure to prevent such kicks often leads to an underground blow outs.
2.2.6 Gas cut mud
Gas contaminated mud will occasionally cause a kick. As the gas is circulated to the surface, it expands
and reduces the hydrostatic pressure sufficient to allow a kick to enter. Although the mud density is

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reduced considerably at the surface, the hydrostatic pressure is not reduced significantly since the most
gas expansion occurs near surface & not at the bottom.
2.3 KICK DETECTION
Detecting a kick early and limiting its volume by shutting in the well is critical to secondary control, and
may make the difference between a manageable situation and one that leads to a loss of control. Thus
it is important to have appropriate kick detection equipment in working order and to have crews alert to
the warning signs and trained in the shut in procedure.
When a kick occurs, the surface pressure required to contain it will largely depend upon closing in quickly
and retaining as much mud as possible in the well. The more mud unloaded, the higher the back pressure
needed.
2.4 KICKS WHILE DRILLING
Following are the early warning signs & positive indications for kicks while drilling.
2.4.1 Early warning signs
The detection of increasing formation or pore pressure is very essential in maintaining primary control
of a well and preventing a kick. The early warning signs are indications of approaching higher formation
pressure which means that the well may go under-balance if no appropriate action is taken. Correct
action taken after review in consultation with Geologist and Mud person can help to avoid occurrence of
kick while drilling further.
Early warning signs are listed below:
2.4.1.1 Rate of Penetration Trends
When abnormal pressure formations are encountered, differential pressure & shale density are decreased
causing a gradual increase in ROP. An increase in drilling rate can be masked by an increase in mud
weight. Similarly bit weight changes can also mask the increase in drilling rate, but careful observation of
drilling rate or some such related parameter as “d” exponent can provide a timely warning of increasing
pressure.
2.4.1.2 Drilling Break
The first indication of a possible well kick is a drilling break. For reservoir fluid to enter the well bore there
must be a permeable section of reservoir rock. This will cause a change in drilling rate. In soft formation,
a sand section usually causes a sudden increase in drilling rate. The increase in drilling rate varies. A 200%
to 300% increase in drilling rate is not unusual. In hard formations a reverse drilling break to a slower
drilling rate occurs in the reservoir like sandstone that are harder than the shale body.
The driller should be specially alert to signals when a positive drilling break is encountered. In fact
company policy is to stop drilling and to conduct a flow check before proceeding vary far into any drilling
break, especially when drilling in a known transition interval.
2.4.1.3 Increase in Torque & Drag
As the difference between the mud hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure decreases (as a result of
increasing formation pressure), the bit makes larger cuttings and the cuttings pile up around the collars
and increase the rotary torque. Closing up of the hole may also increase torque. Increase in rotary torque
is a good indication of increasing pressure and a potential well kick. Drag & fill up on connections and
trips increase when high pressure formations are drilled.
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2.4.1.4 Decrease in Shale Density

Shale density usually increases with depth but decreases in abnormal pressure zones due to under
compaction. The density of cuttings collected can be determined at surface and plotted against depth. A
normal trend line is established and any deviation should theoretically indicate changes in pore pressure.
2.4.1.5 Change in Cutting Size and Shapes
Cuttings from normal pressure shale are small in size with rounded edges and are generally flat. Cuttings
drilled from abnormal pressured formation often become long and splintery with angular edges. As
differential pressure is reduced due to increase in formation pressure, the cuttings have a tendency to
explode off bottom. A change in cutting shape will be observed along with an increase in the amount of
cuttings recovered at the surface and this could indicate that formation pressure in the well is increasing.
2.4.1.6 Change in Mud Property
As the pressure in the formation increases faster than the pressure of the mud column, more cuttings &
caving will dissolve into the mud and increase the viscosity of the mud.
2.4.1.7 Increase in Chloride Content in Mud Filtrate
Drilling through high pressure formations having higher porosity results in contamination of drilling fluid
with considerable volume of saline water from pores. This increases chloride content of the drilling fluid
and its filtrate. A higher chloride trend can warn about increasing pore pressure.
2.4.1.8 Increase in Flow Line Temperature
The temperature gradient in abnormal pressure formation is usually higher than normal pressure
formation. The continuous measurement of the mud temperature at the flow line gives an indication of
change in temperature gradient associated with abnormally pressured formation. The temperature may
take a sharp increase (5-7oF/100 ft.) in transition zones.
2.4.1.9 Increase in Trip, Connection and Back-ground Gas
An increase in trip and / or connection gas should be considered as an indication that pore pressure is
increasing. Gas readings are arbitrary and are not proportional to actual gas concentration in the mud.
These vary considerably from one mud logging unit to another. Therefore absolute values of gas readings
do not have much significance in detecting abnormal pressures. Increase in back ground gas is not very
reliable in detecting pore pressure increase. This is because gas concentrations can change drastically in
the formation being drilled without any increase in pore pressure.
Gas analyzers are used to establish trend line which is called background gas. A gas feed in from a
permeable zone will change this trend line. The amount of feed in will determine the intensity of the
trend change. Connection gas will normally occur on bottoms-up (calculated lag time) and if not re-
circulated will not change the overall trend line except for short interval of time.
The most common error with gas cutting is the tendency to maintain the mud weight at its original value
with addition of barite and without removing all the gas. Since moderate gas cutting contributes so little
to bottom hole pressure reduction, additional barite may increase the mud weight enough to cause lost
circulation.
2.4.1.10 Change in'd'-exponent
Jordan and Shirley developed an equation for normalized penetration rate in which it was defined as a
function of measured drilling rate, weight on bit, bit size and rotary speed in the equation as below :

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d = log (R/60N)/log (12W/103 Db)

where,
R = rate of penetration in ft/hr
N = rotary speed rpm
W = weight on bit in 1000 lbs
Db = bit diameter in inches
Since the d-exponent tends to indicate the pressure differential between formation pressure and well
bore pressure, mud weight will effect d -exponent. The original calculation should be corrected as follows:
dc = d (MW1 / MW2 ), Where
dc = modified d-exponent
MW1 = mud density equivalent of formation fluid at normal pressure condition
MW2 = mud density being used in well
dc values are plotted on a semi log graph paper at every 15 or 30 ft. interval depth to give normal trend
line. Abnormal pressure transition zone top is detected at the depth where dc exponent values against
shale tends to decrease in comparison to normal values.
2.4.1.11 String weight change
With entry of lighter influx in annulus, there is slight change in buoyancy and hence minor string weight
increase may be observed.
2.4.2 Positive Kick Sign
Positive kick indicators are different from kick warning signs. They indicate that the kick has already
entered the well bore. Any of them indicate regular flow checks.
2.4.2.1 Increase in return flow (Pumps On)
After the early warning signs the first positive kick sign is increase in flow rate at the flow line with pumps
on. The entrance of any fluid into the well bore causes the flow rate to increase.
2.4.2.2 Flow from well (Pumps Off)
Stopping the pump causes a reduction in bottom hole pressure equivalent to the annular pressure drop,
so flow check is a reliable method of checking for a well kick. If the well does not flow when the pump is
shut off and remains static for two or three minutes, then no well kick is entering.
2.4.2.3 Pit Volume Increase
An increase in pit volume is obvious & positive indication of flow into the well bore & can be easily
verified. If an increase in pit volume is seen, shut off the pump and make a flow check. If the well does
not flow, no kick is entering.
2.4.2.4 Decrease in Pump Pressure and Increase in Pump Stroke
In case of kick there is under balanced condition between the fluid in the drill pipe and the mixed column
of mud and influx in the annulus. Therefore circulating pressure gradually decreases and unless the pump
throttle is changed, pump speed slowly increases. This is not a confirmatory indicator as same indications
may come due to pumping of light mud slug while circulation.
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To determine kicks early while drilling, the driller should have instantaneous readouts or charts of average
pit volume of the active pits, mud gained or lost and return flow rate. Preferably the pit volume and return
flow rate will be recorded on the floor to establish trends. The driller should learn to monitor this outputs
closely and insist that he be informed prior to any change in operating status of the mud equipment. As
soon as an unexpected change in the monitors occurs, he should pick up and check for flow.
When the fast rise in pit volume /increase in flow rate is noted, pick up the string, stop the pumps,
and check for flow. If the well is flowing, shut in or divert the well. Proceed to kill the well. When an
unexpected, slow rise in pit volume occurs in areas or intervals not known to be tight formation , same
action as stated above is taken.
2.5 KICKS WHILE TRIPPING
When the pump is switched off, a reduction in BHP equal to annular pressure losses occurs. Hence the
beneficial aspects of the ECD will be lost during a trip and a flow check should be conducted on every
well before starting pulling out. It is common in most areas to slug the drill pipe while preparing for a trip.
Slugging refers to the procedure wherein a quantity of mud is densified relative to the mud in the hole
and pumped down the drill pipe. The mud in the drill pipe fall to a stable level which allows the string
to be pulled in dry condition. Kick detection will be more definitive and any subsequent well control
procedures will be less complicated if the pipe is slugged after rather than before the flow check. To
prevent kick while tripping, basic requirement is that hole must be kept full of mud and the volume of
mud required to fill the hole must be equal to the steel displacement of drill string pulled out.
The sequence of events to a kick while making a trip-out of hole is:
• Hole remains full or does not take proper amount of mud. Whenever such situation is noticed the
pipe should be run back to bottom and mud be circulated to clear the hole.
• Flow from the flow line
• Increase in pit volume.
The sequence of events leading to a kick while tripping-in the hole is:
• The hole does not stop flowing during making connection between the stands
• Increase in pit volume
In order to avoid well kicks while tripping, trip schedule must be made and trip tank must be used to
monitor the hole fill up (in case of tripping-out) and mud displacement (in case of tripping-in).
A kick occurring while coming out of the hole will be indicated first by failure of the well to take a volume
of mud equal to the pipe volume removed. When going in the hole, the pit level will increase more than
the volume of pipe run. The Driller should know the volume of 10 stands of pipe and check the volume
of pit gain at intervals when recorders are in use to make certain that the pits are not gaining too much
mud. When a drill pipe in the hole and flow is noted during tripping, a safety valve is stabbed immediately
and the well closed in observing pressure restriction.
Management of Non Shearable and Non Sealable tubulars: The drill string constitutes of Kelly, drill
pipes and bottom hole assembly commonly known as BHA. The drill pipe section includes conventional
drill pipe and heavy weight drill pipe. The BHA section includes drill collars, stabilizers, jars, reamers,
directional drilling tools etc.

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The heavy weight drill pipe and most of the BHA tools are thick walled tools. These tools and tubulars
cannot be sheared in emergency with the pressure available from the BOP control unit and are categorized
as non shearable tubulars.
The downhole tools like bit, stabilizers, casing scrappers, under reamers etc. are having irregular shapes
and some have also got cutting structures on the outer body. In the event when these tools are positioned
against the BOP and with some activity in the well it becomes to shut-in the well against these tools. The
cutting structure will damage the rubber sealing elements of the preventers and will not seal properly on
shut-in. These tools are categorized as non-sealable tools.
The following precautions must be taken while tripping out or tripping in of these non-sealable and non
shearable tools and tubulars.
• Proper flow check should be done prior to pulling out the last stand of drill pipe connected with the
BHA.
• The safety valve (FOSV) should be made up with the proper size of the cross over as per the connection
of the BHA prior to pulling out.
• Since RAM BOP will not close and seal on the BHA tubulars it becomes necessary to close the annular
preventer for shut-in of the well.
• Attempts should be made to trip in one stand of conventional drill pipe stand so the well can be shut-
in properly on the drill pipe.
• If situation does not permits to shut-in the well on the BHA tubulars or tools then arrangements
should be made with all precautions to drop the string in the wellbore and shut-in the well on Shear/
Blind ram.
If the flow is detected with the bit out of hole, blind rams should be closed immediately observing
pressure restriction.
2.6 WHEN KICK OCCURS WHILE OUT OF THE HOLE
When crews are busy changing bits, breaking down core barrels etc., they sometimes forget to observe
the flow line and hole. Before sufficient mud flow shows on a pit level device, a small flow will begin
at the flow line. If this noticed there will be time to take control measures before serious difficulties
develop. If it is detected after the rate has built, control is more difficult. There is also a danger of the fluid
level dropping when pipe is out of the hole, due to seepage or static losses. Therefore the well must be
monitored while pipe is out of hole.
2.7 LINE UP FOR SHUT IN
When one or more positive kick signs are observed, flow check is made. In case of self-flow well can be
shut-in in two ways:
• Soft shut-in: Choke is open during the shut in procedure and is closed after the BOP
• Hard shut-in: Choke is closed during the shut in process so that the well bore is contained upon BOP
closure.

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2.7.1 Line up for soft shut-in

Figure 2.1: Line-Up for Soft Shut-In

Choke line manual valve : Open

HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Open (partially)
Line from choke to MGS : Open

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2.7.2 Line up for hard shut-in

Figure 2.2: Line-Up for Hard Shut-In

Choke line manual valve : Open
HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Close
Line from choke to MGS : Open

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2.8 SHUT IN PROCEDURES

As per API following are the shut-in procedures for land/jack-up rigs.
2.8.1 While drilling on land and jack up rigs
• Stop rotary.
• Pick up kelly to clear tool joint above rotary table.
• Stop mud pump, check for self-flow. If yes, close the well as follows:

Sl.No. Soft Shut in Hard Shut In

i) Open hydraulic control valve (HCR valve) / Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably Annular
manual valve on choke line. Preventer)
ii) Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably Annular Open HCR / manual valve on choke line when
Preventer) choke is in fully closed position.
iii) Gradually close adjustable choke, monitoring Allow pressure to stabilize and record SIDPP,
casing pressure. SICP and Pit Gain.
iv) Allow the pressure to stabilize and record
SIDPP, SICP and Pit gain.
2.8.2 While tripping on land and jack up rig
a) Position tool joint above rotary table and set pipe on slips.
b) Install full opening safety valve (FOSV) in open position & close it. Following methods are
recommended for shut in the well.

Sl.No. Soft Shut in Hard Shut In

i) Open HCR Valve / Manual valve on choke line. Close Blow Out preventer (Preferably Annular
Preventer)
ii) Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably Annular Open choke line HCR valve with choke is fully
Preventer) closed position.
iii) Gradually close adjustable choke, monitoring Make up kelly and open FOSV
casing pressure.
iv) Make up kelly and open FOSV Allow pressure to stabilise and record SIDPP,
SICP and Pit gain.
v) Allow the pressure to stabilise and record
SIDPP, SICP and Gain.
2.8.3 While string is out of hole on land and jack up rig (Soft Shut in)
a. Open HCR valve on choke line.
b. Close shear or blind ram.
c. Close choke.
d. Record SICP and pit gain.

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2.8.4 While string is out of hole on land and jack up rig (Hand Shut in)
a. Close Blind / BSR
b. Open HCR
c. Record SICP and pit gain.
2.9 CHECKING FOR TRAPPED SHUT IN PRESSURE
a) Open choke slightly and bleed ¼ bbl. (or less) of mud from well.
b) Close choke and record shut in pressures.
c) If casing and drill pipe shut in pressures are reduced, repeat first step.
d) If casing and drill pipe pressure remains the same- record these values as the correct shut in pressures.
2.10 SHUT IN PRESSURE INTERPRETATION
2.10.1 Shut -in Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDPP)
The shut in pressure on the drill string side is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure of
drilling fluid and the formation fluid pressure. When a kick enters during drilling, the drill string remains
uncontaminated whereas annulus becomes contaminated with influx. If SIDPP is added to hydrostatic
pressure of drilling fluid, the resultant pressure will be the pressure of the formation.
SIDPP is used to determine the kill mud weight required to balance the formation pressure by using the
equation given below –
SIDPP (psi)
Kill Mud Density (ppg) = + Original Mud Density (ppg)
0.052 x Well TVD( ft)
The shut in drill pipe pressure should be read & recorded from the gauge on the choke control panel.
Since true SIDPP is determined for the calculation of kill mud density, it is recommended to read and
record the SIDPP immediately after the closure and subsequently after every 3-5 minutes. The recorded
values of SIDPP should be tabulated/plotted to ascertain the true value of SIDPP. Once the well is closed
initially, the SIDPP starts increasing till the BHP becomes equal to the formation pressure. The time taken
for stabilization depends upon the permeability of the formation. SIDPP may further increase but at a
slower rate if the influx is gas/gas mixture.
2.10.2 Shut -in Casing Pressure (SICP)
The shut in pressure on the annulus side is the difference between the combined fluid hydrostatic
pressures and formation fluid pressure. Since annulus is contaminated with formation fluid (Oil, gas, salt
water or combinations) therefore SICP cannot be used to calculate kill mud density, however it is used to
determine kind of influx which has entered the well bore. During kill operation casing pressure will allow
us to determine the pressure being exerted at various points in the well bore and also pressures on the
BOP equipment and choke lines.
For well control procedures it is required to record a “stabilized” SIDPP and SICP after closing in a well.
One suggested procedure is to record the SIDPP and SICP every minute and plot the data. Regardless of

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the permeability, the pore pressure build up in the early time period will dominate the migration build
up and a reasonable guess is to select a SIDPP somewhere near where the plot makes a major change in
curvature.
A float presents a problem in obtaining the SIDPP because flow into the drill string is obstructed. The most
accurate way to obtain the SIDPP is to pump down the drill pipe at a low rate while monitoring the drill pipe
and annulus pressures. A subtle break in the drill pipe pressure should be detected when the valve opens.
The SIDPPtouseinthekillmudcalculationanddisplacementprocedureisthepressureatwhichthevalveopens.
2.11 TYPE OF INFLUX
The type of influx can be determined provided the amount of the pit gain and shut-in pressures are
correctly recorded. Having closed a well after a kick, stabilized pressures are read and recorded and the
volume of influx is calculated from the amount of increase in the surface active system volume.
Note:
a) Kick fluid weight less than 3 ppg indicates the fluid is gas.
b) Kick fluid weight between 3 to 9 ppg indicates the fluid is mixture of gas, water or oil.
c) Kick fluid weight between 9 to 10 ppg indicates the fluid is salt water.
Example:
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out the
stabilized value of SIDPP.
Time SIDPP (psi) SICP (psi)
0600 100 150
0605 200 270
0610 275 370
0615 340 450
0620 400 520
0625 405 525
0630 415 535
0635 430 550
0640 450 570
Solution:
As evident from tabulated values, SICP is increasing faster than SIDPP up-to 0620 hrs but later both the
pressures are rising by same amount. This shows that the pressures have stabilized at 0620 hrs. and
subsequently due to close well gas migration both the pressures are rising by same amount. Therefore
the value recorded at 0620 hrs i.e. 400 psi is the true SIDPP. The proper recognition of stabilized value of
SIDPP is very important as this value is used for the calculation of kill mud weight and formation pressure.
Example:
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out the
stabilized value of SIDPP.

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Time SIDPP (psi) SICP (psi)

0800 150 200
0815 250 320
0830 340 420
0845 420 510
0900 500 600
0915 500 600
1000 500 600
1100 500 600
1115 505 605
1130 510 610
1145 520 620
Solution: As is evident from tabulated values, SIDPP and SICP were increasing considerably upto 0900
hrs. & later there is no change in the pressures up to 1100 hrs. Therefore, the value recorded at 0900 hrs.
i.e. 500 psi is the stabilized value of SIDPP. Further increase in both the pressures is due to closed well
gas migration.
2.11.1 Calculation Of Influx Height & Gradient Example:
Example:
SIDPP = 500 psi SICP = 610 psi
Kick Volume = 10 bbl Hole size = 8 ½"
Open Hole Drill Pipe = 0.0459 bbl/ft TVD = 10,000 ft
Open Hole Drill Collar = 0.03 bbl/ft Mud Weigh = 10 ppg
Drill Collar Length = 600 ft
Find out Influx height, gradient & nature of influx.
Solution:
For calculating height of influx the position of top of the influx must be ascertained. If annulus against the
drill collar is full with influx, it would occupy volume as calculated below.
Volume Of influx = Height of Drill Collar x Annular Volume Against Drill Collar
= 600 x 0.03 = 18 bbl
As the volume of kick is only 10 bbl the entire kick will remain in the drill collar. Hence in the following
formulaforinfluxheighttheannularcapacityarounddrillcollarshouldbeusedforcalculatingtheheightofinflux.
Influx volume (bbl) 10
Height of influx = = =333 ft
Annulus capacity (bbl/ft) 0.03
(SICP – SIDPP)
Influx Gradient = (Mud weight x 0.052) -
Height of influx

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(610 – 500)
= (10 x 0.052) - = 0.189 psi/ft.
333

0.189
Kick fluid weight = = 3.63 ppg
0.052
Nature of influx : Mixture of gas, oil & water.
2.12 GAS INFLUX BEHAVIOUR
2.12.1Open Well Migration
In open well situation, gas influx after entering the well bore will start migrating & expanding to the
surface. The influx will start expanding. This will reduce bottom hole pressure and a point will be reached
when the overbalance on the bottom of the hole is lost. The effect of gas migration in an open well will
be as below:
a) Bottom hole pressure reduces.
b) Gas bubble pressure reduces.
c) Pressure below the bubble reduces.
d) Pressure above the bubble remains constant.

Figure 2.3: Open Well Gas Migration

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2.12.2 Closed Well Gas Migration

If gas is allowed to migrate in a wellbore that is closed in, there will be no room for expansion. The gas
will carry its original pressure with it while moving up in the wellbore. As a result there shall be a pressure
rise on both SICP and SIDPP gauges. This causes the well to pressure up in all directions creating extra
pressure at the shoe and on the bottom of the hole, whilst the gas bubble pressure remains unchanged.
The effect is summarized as below :
a) Gas influx pressure remains same.
b) Bottom hole pressure increases.
c) Pressure at any point below or above the influx increases.

Figure 2.4 : Closed Well Gas Migration

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Example:
Gas migration without expansion (When gas is at bottom).

T.D. = 9,000 ft Mud density = 12 ppg

Well Bore = 8 1/2” Formation Pressure = 6,000 psi
Influx volume = 40 bbl Influx height = 570 ft
Influx gradient = 0.12 psi/ft
Pressure at bottom of bubble = 6,000 psi
Pressure at top of bubble = 6,000 - (570 x 0.12) = 5,931 psi
SIDPP = Formation Pressure – Hydrostatic Pressure in string
= 6000 - 0.052 x 9000 x 12 = 384 psi
SICP = Formation Pressure – Hydrostatic Pressure in annulus
6000 - ( 570 x 0.12 +.052 x 8,430 x 12) = 671 psi
BHP = Formation Pressure = 6,000 psi
Gas percolation without expansion ( when gas top is at 4,000 ft )
As per Boyle's Law, P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
Therefore, during migration as the gas is not allowed to expand its volume & pressure will remain same.
Gas Pressure = 6,000 psi
SICP = Pressure at top of bubble - Hydrostatic Pressure above bubble
= 5,931- (0.052 x 4,000 x 12) = 3,435 psi
Increase in SICP due to migration = 3435 – 675 = 2,764 psi
BHP = SICP + Hydrostatic Pressure in annulus
= 3,435 + ( 5700.12 +.052 x 8,430 x 12)
= 8,764 psi
Increase in BHP due to migration = 8764 – 6000 = 2,764 psi
SIDPP = BHP – Hydrostatic Pressure in string
= 8,760 – ( 0.052 x 9,000 x 12 ) = 3,148 psi
Increase in SIDPP due to migration = 3,148 – 384 = 2,764 psi
From the above example the following can be concluded :
• Gas influx pressure remains constant during closed well gas migration.
• SICP, SIDPP, BHP & pressure at any point above or below the influx increases by same amount.

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2.12.3 Percolation Rate

As stated above, in case of close well gas migration the gas bubble pressure remains constant whereas
all other pressures keep on increasing. This increase in the pressures is related to the height by which gas
percolates up in the well bore. The Percolation rate of the gas can be calculated by the following formula.
Increase in drill pipe pressure (psi / hr)
Percolation Rate =
Drill fluid density (ppg) x 0.052
Example :
TVD = 10, 000 ft MW = 12.0 ppg
SIDPP = 700 psi Pit Gain = 14 bbl
After pressure stabilisation, due to close well migration the rise in drill pipe pressure is 100 psi per 20
minute. Calculate the percolation rate.
Solution:
Increase in drill pipe pressure (psi / hr)
Percolation Rate =
Drill fluid density (ppg) x 0.052
Increase in drill pipe pressure per hour = 100 x 3 = 300 psi/hr
300
Percolation Rate = = 480.8 ft/hr
0.052 x 12.0
In case the rise in drill pipe pressure due to closed well gas migration is known in psi, the above equation
can still be used (without time factor ) and it will give the percolation height not the percolation rate.
2.12.4 Volume to Bleed To Keep BHP Constant
During the period when closed well gas migration is taking place, pressure at every point in the well bore
keeps on increasing. In order to keep the BHP constant, we must allow the gas to expand by bleeding
certain amount of mud through the choke.
The volume of the mud to be bled, in order to keep bottom hole pressure constant while closed well gas
migration, can be calculated by the following formula:
Increase in drill pipe pressure (psi/hr.) x Pit gain (bbl)
Volume to Bleed (bbl/hr) =
Formation pressure (psi) - Increase in pressure (psi /hr)
Example :
TVD = 9, 500 ft MD = 12, 100 ft
MW = 11.5 ppg Pit gain = 9.5 bbl
SIDPP = 600 psi
After pressure stabilization, due to close well gas migration the drill pipe pressure rise is 50 psi per 15
minutes. Calculate volume to bleed to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.Solution:

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In order to use the above formula for finding the volume of mud to bleed to keep BHP constant, formation
pressure has to be calculated.
Formation pressure = SIDPP + Hydrostatic pressure of mud in drill string
= 600 + 0.052 x TVD x MW
= 600 + 0.052 x 9,500 x 11.5
= 600 + 5,681 = 6,281 psi
Increase in pressure (psi/hr.) x Pit gain ( bbl.)
Volume to Bleed (bbl/hr.) =
Formation pressure (psi) Increase in pressure (psi/hr) 200 x 9.5 (bbl. / hr.)
200x 9.5
= = 0.31 bbl/hr
6281 - 200
2.12.5 Behavior Of Different Types Of Influx
2.12.5.1 Gas influx
i) Highly compressible fluid
ii) If not allowed to expand, will bring formation pressure to the top and create excessive pressures at
all points in the well bore.
2.12.5.2 Oil influx
It acts essentially the same as liquid influx. Casing pressure will change only when there is change in
annulus clearance.
2.12.5.3 Salt water influx
Pure salt water is incompressible so does not expand to any appreciable extent as the pressure is reduced.
Mostly water influx contains some gas so surface pressure has the same pattern as seen during a gas kick
but to a lesser degree. Casing pressure will change only when there is change in annulus clearance.
2.12.6 Behavior of Hydrocarbon Influx in Oil Base Mud
It is very difficult to detect gas kick while drilling with oil based mud due to gas solubility in mud. Gas may
dissolve completely in oil base mud instead of migrating upwards as happens in water base mud. Pit gain
may not be significant unless the well becomes considerably under balance. In this case when the gas
saturated mud reaches a location where hydrostatic pressure falls below the bubble point, the gas will
suddenly start coming out of solution causing a rapid increase in flow. This may result in quick unloading
the annulus thereby causing large pit gains. Therefore, it is essential to detect the kicks when they occur
and not when the bubble reaches the surface.
2.12.6.1 Solubility Limits and Bubble Point Pressure
The solubility of gas/liquid mixture is generally expressed as the amount of free gas in scf/bbl that can
go into solution at a given temperature and pressure. The solubility of gas in liquids is a function of the
gas and liquid composition, pressure and temperatures. Generally solubility will increase as pressure
increases, as temperature decreases and as the molecular similarity between the gas liquid components
increases.

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Closely related to solubility is the bubble point pressure, which is defined as the pressure at which the
first bubble of free gas breaks out of solution at a given solution gas/liquid ratio and temperature. At the
bubble point depth all of the mud above this point would likely have been ejected from the hole when
gas broke out of the mud. Disregarding the loss of hydrostatic pressure, such an event would cause a
mess and create a hazard to the crews if mud and gas were allowed to be blown onto the floor.
2.12.6.2 Close In Procedures While Drilling With Oil Base Mud
Subsequent to a kick indication such as drill break, increase in return flow, pit gain or decrease in pump
pressure and increase in strokes etc., consideration may be given to closing the well even if flow check is
inconclusive. Because, no indication of flow does not necessarily mean that a kick has not taken place.
Therefore, it is recommended that after the well has been closed & no appreciable shut-in pressures are
recorded a bottom's up circulation through a fully open choke at a selected slow circulation rate may be
carried out.
Precautions While Drilling With Oil Base Mud
• Gas sensors must be installed.
• Any changes in background gas or connection gas should be critically analyzed.
• At no time, anything such as oil, oil base mud or diesel oil be transferred directly from or to the active
pits while drilling operations are in progress.
• Flow checks, subsequent to a kick indication, should be extended to 15-30 minutes and flow checks
should be more frequent. In the interest of minimizing the potential kick volume, an operator may
instead choose to shut the well in and use the drill pipe pressure gauge as the kick confirmation tool.
• The mud gas separator and related equipment must be sized and designed properly for the potential
mud and gas rates during a well control procedure.
• Pit level alarms should be set at a lower level or use of one of the more advanced kick detection
systems should be considered.
• Crew should be educated on the basics of gas solubility and how the gas behave differently in an oil
mud.
2.12.6.3 Precautions While Tripping
While circulation when back on bottom, if flow rate or pit gain indicate a kick, consider completing the
bottoms up circulating through the choke as it could indicate trip gas rather than an on bottom influx,
and circulation of required kill mud using the ordinary well control formulae at the time could result in
excessive formation overbalance.
2.12.7 Closed-in Condition Circulation
As gas influx is circulated up the annulus, the pressure of the influx reduces due to decreasing hydrostatic
head of fluid above it. Since bottom hole pressure is maintained constant, surface pressure on the annulus
side increases to compensate for this loss of mud hydrostatic. This increase in surface casing pressure
causes additional strain on the BOP equipment, the casing and casing shoe.
The maximum pressure at the casing shoe reaches when top of the influx is at the shoe and not when the
influx is at the surface. This is because once the influx is past the shoe, hydrostatic pressure below the
influx becomes constant provided bottom hole pressure is constant. Therefore closed-in well circulation
leads to:

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a) Decrease in Gas influx pressure.

b) Increase in pressure above the influx.
c) Pressure at any point below the influx will initially remain constant till kill mud starts entering the
annulus, thereafter it decreases & again becomes constant once kill mud reaches that point.
d) Increase in surface casing pressure.
Exercises on Influx Height, Gradient & Type
Exercise 1 :
Calculate the vertical height of influx with the following data:

Hole Size : 8 ½” Sin 10º : 0.1736

Well depth : 11460 ft Cos 10º : 0.984
Hole inclination at the bottom : 10º tan 10º : 0.1763
Drill Collars : 6 ½”, 2 5/8” ID, 360 ft
Open Hole x D/C capacity : 0.0289 bbls/ft
Open Hole x D/P capacity : 0.0451 bbls/ft
Pit Gain : 28 bbls

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Exercise 2 :
Calculate the influx gradient and find type of influx with the following data:
Mud weight : 12.3 ppg
SIDPP : 350 psi
SICP : 700 psi
Influx height : 963 ft

Exercises on Percolation Rate & Volume to bleed

Exercise 3
Well is shut in on a gas kick. After pressure stabilization, both the pressures are found to be rising 100 psi
in every 10 min. Calculate the gas migration rate.
TVD : 11,000 ft
Mud weight : 12.3 ppg
SIDPP : 350 psi
Gas gradient : 0.115 psi/ft

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WELL KILLING METHODS

3
3.1 WELL KILLING METHODS
The main principle involved in all well killing methods is to keep bottom hole pressure constant. The
various kill methods are as follows:
a) Driller's Method
b) Wait and Weight Method
c) Concurrent Method
d) Volumetric Method
In the first three methods the influx is circulated out and the heavy mud is pumped in the well keeping the
bottom hole pressure constant. The fourth method i.e. Volumetric method is a non-circulating method in
which the influx is brought out & heavy mud is placed in the well bore without circulation.
The Drillers method of killing may be preferred when sufficient barites or weighing materials are not
readily available and MAASP is not critical. As this method can be started immediately, it has an advantage
in case of salt water kicks as sand settling around BHA is minimum and in cases where gas migration may
create problems.
Wait and Weight method of killing has advantage of lower annulus pressures and can be used when casing
shoe strength is weak and MAASP is critical. The maximum shoe pressure will be lower if kill weight fluid
starts up the annulus before the top of the influx is displaced to the shoe. If sufficient weighing materials
are available at the site, the well can be killed in one circulation thereby saving time. Concurrent method
is used when mud density cannot be increased to kill weight during the initial circulation, at least two
complete circulations are required.
3.2 BRINGING THE PUMP TO KILL SPEED ON SURFACE / JACK UP RIG
It is important to understand the startup procedure, irrespective of kill method, for bringing the pump
up to kill speed.
Pump should be brought to kill speed patiently. During this period if the casing pressure is allowed to
increase it can cause formation breakdown or if the casing pressure is allowed to decrease it can cause
entry of more influx into wellbore. To prevent this, following procedure is suggested.
a) Bring the pump to kill speed holding casing pressure constant by manipulating choke. Record drill
pipe pressure as the correct initial circulating pressure (ICP). Compare it to the pre calculated ICP
value.
b) When the pump is at the desired kill speed follow the pressure schedule according to the kill method
being used.
Note: While bringing the pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant, there might be slight
reduction in bottom hole pressure due to expansion of gas but this is compensated by the annular
pressure losses.

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If actual ICP is greater than the calculated ICP, use the actual ICP and correct same on the kill sheet. If the
actual ICP is less than the calculated ICP, stop the pumps, close in the well and determine if a problem
exists in the circulating system. Then retry bringing the pump on line.
3.3 DRILLER'S METHOD
Formulae required:

In Driller's method the killing of a well is accomplished in two circulations

• In first circulation the influx is removed from the well bore using original mud density.
• In second circulation the kill mud replaces the original mud and restores the primary control of the
well.
Killing Procedure (Drillers Method)
In this method the well is killed in two circulations.
• First Circulation
a) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke holding casing
pressure constant.
b) When the pump is up to kill speed, maintain drill pipe pressure constant.
c) Circulate out the influx from the well maintaining drill pipe pressure constant.
d) When the influx is out, stop the pump reducing the pump speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually closing
the choke, maintaining casing pressure constant. Record pressure, SIDPP and SICP should be equal
to original SIDPP.
Note: In case recorded SIDPP & SICP are equal but more than original SIDPP value, it indicates trapped
pressure in wellbore. Whereas if SICP is more than original SIDPP, it indicates that some influx is still in
the wellbore.

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Figure 3.1: Pressure Profile- 1st Cycle of Driller's Method

• Second Circulation
a) Line up suction with kill mud.
b) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke, holding casing
pressure constant.
c) When the pump is at kill speed, pump kill mud from surface to bit, maintaining casing pressure
constant.
d) Pump kill mud from bit to surface, maintaining drill pipe pressure constant equal to FCP.
e) When the kill mud reaches surface, stop the pump reducing the pump in steps of 5 SPM, gradually
closing the choke maintaining casing pressure constant. Record pressures, SIDPP and SICP both
should be equal to zero.
Open & observe the well. Add trip margin before resuming normal operation.

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Casing Pressure Graph

A-B Casing pressure rises as influx expands in drill collar annulus.
B-C Casing pressure decreases as influx crosses over from drill collar annulus to drill pipe annulus
& losses height.
C-D Casing pressure again rises as influx now expands in drill pipe annulus and it becomes
maximum when influx reaches surface at point 'D' on the graph.
D-E Casing pressure reduces sharply as influx is removed from the wellbore.

Figure 3.2 : Pressure Profile- 2nd Cycle of Driller's Method

Drill Pipe Pressure Graph
I-J Drill pipe pressure is held constant till the influx is removed from the wellbore.
Casing Pressure Graph
F-G Casing pressure is held constant till kill mud is pumped from surface to bit.
G-H Casing pressure reduces to zero as kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.
Drill Pipe Graph
L-M Drill pipe pressure reduces as kill mud is pumped from surface to bit. During this period SIDPP
drops & becomes zero whereas KRP increases to FCP value. On the whole drill pipe pressure
reduces from ICP to FCP.
M-N Drill pipe pressure is held constant as the kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.

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3.4 WAIT AND WEIGHT METHOD

• In Wait and Weight method well is killed in one circulation using kill mud.
• In this method operations are delayed (wait) once the well is shut in, while a sufficient volume of
kill (weight) mud has been prepared. As the kill mud is pumped to the bit the hydrostatic pressure
in the Drill Pipe increases, this causes the drill pipe pressure to fall. At the same time, influx which
is on its way up the annulus expands continuously and gains volume / height, thereby causing the
hydrostatic pressure in annulus to fall and casing pressure to rise. Because of this , for maintaining
BHP constant a calculated step down plan for the drill pipe pressure must be used while pumping the
kill mud from surface to the bit .

3.4.1 Killing Procedure (Wait and Weight Method )

a) Line up suction with kill mud.
b) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke, holding casing
pressure constant.
c) When the pump is at kill speed, pump kill mud from surface to bit, maintaining drill pipe pressure as
per step down schedule( during this step drill pipe pressure will fall from ICP to FCP ).
d) Pump kill mud from bit to surface, maintaining drill pipe pressure constant equal to FCP.
e) When the kill mud reaches surface, stop the pump reducing the pump speed in steps of 5 SPM,
gradually closing the choke maintaining casing pressure constant. Record pressures, SIDPP and SICP
both should be equal to zero.

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Open & observe the well. Add trip margin before resuming normal operation.

Figure 3.3: Pressure Profile- Wait & Weight Method

Casing Pressure Graph
A-B Casing pressure rises as influx expands in drill collar annulus.
B-C Casing pressure decreases as influx crosses over from drill collar annulus to drill pipe annulus
& losses height.
C-D Casing pressure again rises as influx now expands in drill pipe annulus.
D-E Casing pressure continues to increase but initially at a slower rate as at this stage kill mud starts
entering the annulus, later on casing pressure increases at a faster due to rapid expansion of
gas.
E-F Casing pressure reduces sharply as influx is removed from the wellbore.
F-G Casing pressure further reduces as original mud is replaced by kill mud.
Drill Pipe Pressure Graph
H-I Drill pipe reduces from ICP to FCP as kill mud is pumped from surface to bit.
H-J Drill pipe pressure is held constant at FCP as kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.

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3.5 COMPARISON OF METHODS

Driller's Method
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simple to understand Higher annulus pressure
2. Minimum calculations Higher casing shoe pressure in gas kick.
3. In case of salt water kick, sand settling Minimum two circulations are required. More time
around BHA is minimum. on choke operation.
Wait and Weight Method
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Lower annulus pressure. High non circulating time.
2. Lower casing shoe pressure when open In case of salt water kick, sand settling around BHA is
hole volume is more than string volume. maximum.
3. Well can be killed in one circulation. Calculations are more.
4. Less time on choke operation. More chances of gas migration.
3.6 PRESSURE BEHAVIOUR AT DIFFERENT POINTS DURING WELL KILLING
Pressure behaviour at different points of annulus during the process of well killing can be analysed by an
example discussed below. For the purpose of understanding, the annular hydrostatic has been divided
in two parts i.e hydrostatic pressure below & above the casing shoe. The well is shut-in & the killing has
started with influx at bottom, it is assumed that while killing the well the BHP has been kept constant
equal to formation pressure i.e 1200 psi. (Refer figure 3.4)
Stage A: Well is shut – in
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure below shoe Hydrostatic Pressure above shoe+SICP
BHP = 400 + 600 + 200 = 1200 psi
Pressure at shoe = 600+200 = 800 psi
Stage B : Well killing in progress
As there will be expansion of gas so hydrostatic pressure below the shoe reduces (suppose now it is 350
psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr
= 350 + 600 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure = 1200 - (350 + 600) = 250 psi
Pressure at shoe=250 +600 = 850 psi
Stage C : Top of Influx at Shoe
As there will be further expansion of gas so hydrostatic pressure below shoe will reduce further ( suppose
now it is 300 psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr.
= 300 + 600 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi

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Therefore, Casing pressure = 1200-(300+600) = 300 psi

Pressure at shoe=300 +600 = 900 psi (maximum pressure at casing shoe)
Now let us compare Driller's Method (First circulation ) with Wait & Weight Method. If we are killing the
well by W& W method then there will be some kill mud in annulus, provided open hole volume is more
than drill string volume. In that case hydrostatic pressure below shoe will be more than 300 psi (suppose
now it is 325 psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr
= 325 + 600 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure for Wait & Weight Method = 1200 - (325 + 600) = 275psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =275 +600 = 875 psi (maximum pressure at casing shoe)

Figure 3.4: Pressure Behaviour during Killing

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Stage D : Influx in casing

In case of Driller's Method now annulus below shoe is full of original mud. If we refer to first condition
when influx was at stage A, the hydrostatic pressure below shoe was 400 psi when it comprised of original
mud and influx. So now hydrostatic pressure below shoe will be more than 400 psi since influx has been
displaced inside the casing ( suppose now it is 450 psi).
Hydrostatic pressure above shoe = 300 psi
(since, now the influx has entered the casing the hydrostatic above shoe has reduced considerably to 300
psi) BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr.
BHP = 450 + 300 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure for drillers method = 1200-(450+300) = 450 psi
Pressure at shoe for driller's method =300 +450 = 750 psi
In case of wait & weight method annulus below shoe is now full of kill mud, whereas in case of driller's
method at this stage annulus below shoe was full of original mud. Because for driller's method the
pressure below shoe was 450 psi, so in case of wait & weight method pressure below shoe will be more
than 450 psi( suppose it is 500 psi).
BHP = 500 + 300 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure for wait & weight method = 1200-(500+300) = 400 psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =300 +400 = 700 psi
Stage E : Influx at surface
Due to further expansion of gas there will be further reduction of hydrostatic head above shoe(Suppose
it has reduced to 150 psi for drillers method).
i) Drillers method
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr.
BHP = 450 + 150 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure for drillers method = 1200-(450+150) = 600psi
Pressure at shoe for drillers method =150 +600 = 750 psi
ii) Wait & weight method
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr.
BHP = 500+ 200 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
In this case the hydrostatic pressure above the shoe will be more as compared to that of driller's method,
because of entry of kill mud in this section ( say 200 psi )
Therefore, Casing pressure for w & w method = 1200-(500+200) = 500psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =200 +500 = 700 psi

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Above information is tabulated below:

Stage Method Hyd. Pressure Hyd. Pressure Casing Pressure BHPat shoe Pressure
Below shoe above shoe
A Both Methods 400 600 200 1200 800
B Both Methods 350 600 250 1200 850
C Driller's Method 300 325 600 600 300
W& W Method 275 1200 1200 900 875
D Driller's Method 450 500 300 300 450
W& W Method 400 1200 1200 750 700
E Driller's Method 450 500 150 200 600
W& W Method 500 1200 1200 750 700

Following conclusions are drawn from the above example:

a) Pressure at surface is increasing and it will be maximum when top of influx is at surface.
b) Maximum pressure at surface is more in case of driller's method as compared to wait & weight
method.
c) Maximum pressure at shoe is less in case of wait & weight method if open hole volume is more than
drill string volume.
d) Pressure at any points above the bubble increases.
e) Pressure at any point below the bubble is constant for drillers method. For wait & weight method
pressure at any point below bubble remains constant so long there is no kill mud in annulus. Once
kill mud starts entering in to the annulus the pressure at any point below the bubble starts falling
and it will continue to fall till the kill mud reaches that point. There after pressure at that point
become constant.
f) Pressure of influx decreases due to expansion of gas.
g) Pressure at shoe increases as influx rises up in the annulus, becomes maximum when top of influx
is at shoe thereafter as influx enters the shoe the pressure at shoe decreases & becomes constant
once hydrostatic pressure below the shoe becomes constant. After the influx has entered the shoe
& hydrostatic below the shoe has become constant, the pressure at shoe will be less as compared to
the shoe pressure at the time of initial shut-in.

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Figure 3.5 : Casing Shoe Pressure Profile

3.7 VOLUMETRIC METHOD OF WELL CONTROL
The volumetric method is a non-circulating killing method used for removing gas influx when there is
little or no drill pipe in the hole, a wash out in the string or when the hole cannot be circulated. It
works equally well for a situation where the well is closed-in and waiting on orders or equipment or for
stripping in or out of hole. In this method the influx is brought up to the surface by means of migration &
controlled expansion. This process involves bleeding of calculated volume of mud at the surface till the
influx reaches the surface, thereby allowing the casing pressure to increase to maintain BHP constant.
After the gas influx is brought to the surface in this manner of controlled expansion, the calculated volume
of mud is pumped in to the well & gas influx is bled thereby allowing the casing pressure to decrease
while maintaining BHP constant.
The basis of the volumetric method is that each barrel of mud contributes a certain pressure to the
bottom of the hole. This may be measured as psi/bbl. This term of psi/bbl must be co-ordinated with pit
volume or trip tank volume so that the number of barrels can be read directly.
A record of casing pressure is kept, if the casing pressure rises mud can be bled from the well according
to the psi/bbl value calculated to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure.
The volumetric method works by bleeding off (or adding) mud because the BHP is the sum of the casing
pressure & the pressure exerted by the mud column.

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The Volumetric method of well control should not be equated with classic well killing methods . Volumetric
method is used to control BHP within limits by co-ordinating the increase ( because of gas migration ) or
decrease ( because of bleeding of gas ) in annulus surface pressure with the corresponding decrease or
increase in annular hydrostatic pressure ( by decreasing or increasing height / weight of mud column in
the annulus ).
Volumetric method is implemented mainly in two steps namely the “bleeding” and “lubrication” process.
In the bleeding process the gas influx is allowed to migrate in the annulus and thereby causing an increase
in the annular surface pressure as well as the BHP. The goal of maintaining the BHP constant is achieved
through corresponding reduction in annular hydrostatic pressure by bleeding calculated volume of mud
which in turns reduces the mud column height in the annulus and allows the gas to expand. The bleeding
process has to be repeated several times till the gas reaches the surface.
Once the gas is at the surface the process of lubrication starts. In lubrication process annular hydrostatic
pressure is increased by injecting a calculated volume of same or heavy mud through kill line while the
BHP is maintained constant by bleeding gas through choke and reducing surface pressure by the same
amount. The process may be repeated several times till all the gas influx is fully removed from the annulus
and the annular surface pressure is brought down to zero or at a level wherein tripping / stripping of the
bit to the bottom or removing/ replacing of choked or damaged string becomes feasible . Once the bit is
at the bottom, the well can be killed / circulated with appropriate kill weight mud.
3.7.1 Volumetric Kill Calculations
Example:
Well TVD = 10,000 ft
Influx = 20 bbl
Mud weight = 10.0 ppg
Annular volume = 0.047 bbl/ft (8 ½” x 5”)
SICP = 500 psi
SIDPP = 0 psi
As indicated by SIDPP value ( 0 psi ) the bit nozzles are plugged, therefore the well has to be killed by
Volumetric method.
Calculations :
a) For Bleeding process
Let the incremental increase in casing pressure would be 100 psi
Mud Gradient = 0.052 x 10 = 0.52 psi/ft
Height of mud column for 1 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 1 /0.52 ft
Height of mud column for 100 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 100 / 0.52 ft
= 194ft
Volume of Mud for 100 psi hydrostatic pressure = 194 x 0.047 = 9.04 bbl

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b) For Lubrication process

Calculation of kill mud weight for lubrication

As the SIDPP may not be known SICP may be taken in place of SIDPP. If the value of SICP is very high then
SIDPP can be calculated by assuming some gas gradient by the following formula :-
Since kill mud is to be placed only in the top section of the well which is being occupied by gas, the height
of gas column is to be calculated.
Total pit gain = Initial pit gain + Total amount of mud bled
= 20 bbl + 100 bbl (say) = 120 bbl

3.7.2 Killing Procedure (Volumetric Method)
Volumetric killing is accomplished in two steps, namely 'Bleeding' & 'Lubrication'.
3.7.2.1 Bleeding
a) Allow the casing pressure to increase to 650 psi, this causes the BHP to increase by 150 psi , don't
start bleeding now ( this 150 psi may be kept as safety margin).
b) Allow the Casing pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 750 psi , this causes the BHP to increase
by 250psi. Since it is planned to keep only 150 psi extra pressure at the bottom as safety margin, we
can now reduce 100 psi of BHP by bleeding 9.04 bbl of mud. While bleeding mud the surface casing
pressure should not be allowed to reduce more than 100 psi which may require the bleeding to be
completed in number of steps.
c) Allow the pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 850 psi and bleed 9.04 bbl of mud in the same
way.
d) This procedure should be repeated until gas reaches surface . Thereafter, Lubrication technique is to
be used for reducing the casing pressure.

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Figure 3.6: Mud Bleeding Process

3.7.2.2 Lubrication
The lubrication technique is used to Kill the well / reduce the casing pressure when gas is at the surface
so that other operation such as tripping / stripping can be performed.
1. Slowly pump the calculated volume of mud (6.55 bbl) which shall give 100 psi equivalent hydrostatic
pressure into the annulus. Allow the mud to fall through the gas. This is a slow process, but can be
speeded up by using a low yield point mud.
2. Bleed gas from the annulus until the surface pressure is reduced by 100 psi or the amount equal to
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud pumped in. In no case mud is to be bled off.
3. Repeat the process until all of the gas has been bled off and the well is killed or the desired surface
pressure is reached.
Note: During the pumping and gas bleeding process, it will usually be necessary to decrease the volume of
mud pumped before gas is bled off particularly near the end of the operation. This is because the annular
volume occupied by the gas decreases with each pump & bleed sequence. Watch the pumping pressure
closely and when it reaches 50-100 psi above the shut in casing pressure, stop pumping. Measure the
volume of mud pumped, calculate the hydrostatic pressure of that volume in the annulus and bleed
sufficient gas to drop the casing pressure by the amount of hydrostatic pressure plus any increment of

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Table of volume and Pressures during Top Kill

(Assuming maximum surface pressure of 1900 psi at the end of bleeding operation)

Volume to lubricate, bbl Pressure to Bleed (psi) Remaining casing pressure (psi)
(cumulative)
0 0 1900
6.55 100 1800
13.1 100 1700
19.65 100 1600
26.2 100 1500
32.75 100 1400
39.3 100 1300
45.85 100 1200
52.4 100 1100
58.95 100 1000
65.5 100 900
72.05 100 800
78.6 100 700
85.15 100 600
91.70 100 500
98.25 100 400
104.80 100 300
111.35 100 200
117.9 100 100
124.45 100 0
3.8 CONCURRENT METHOD
Start circulating immediately and simultaneously start increasing mud density as soon as possible. Build
mud to kill weight while circulating. It allows circulation to begin immediately after Well closure, but
requires coordination of drill pipe pressure with increasing mud density in order to maintain a constant
bottom hole pressure. Casing and casing seat pressure are between the Wait and Weight and Driller's
method.
3.9 STRIPPING AND SNUBBING OPERATIONS
The operation is termed as stripping when the resultant of upward and downward forces is acting
downward, thus forcing the string into the well. Stripping is a technique for moving the string through
BOP stack when the well is shut in under pressure. In most cases, stripping is required to return the
drill string to bottom after shutting in on a kick with the bit off bottom. Stripping requires a high level of
coordination among crew members.
The operation is termed as snubbing when the resultant of upward and down forces is acting upward,
thus forcing the string out of the well. Additional force will be required in this case to force the string
into the well. The snubbing operations require the use of a snubbing unit. An external force is applied by

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snubbing unit to counteract this force and the work string is pushed into the hole. The state is designated
commonly in the industry as a 'pipe light' condition. Pipe is stripped when the string enters the well
because of its weight, hence stripping refers to a 'pipe heavy' condition. Either one or both of the
techniques may be used in a given job.trapped pressure because of pumping operation.

3.9.1 Contingency Planning

• How to move the tool joint through the BOP
• The wear on BOP elements
• Level of redundancy in the BOP control system.
• High stripping pressures ( near MAASP)
• Monitoring of pressure and fluid volumes
• Organization and supervision of crew
• Gas migration
• Possibility of stuck pipe
• Manufacturer's information regarding BOP equipment
3.9.2 Factors affecting well pressures when stripping:
Compression: Fluids are compressed as pipe is lowered.
Under-bleeding: Not bleeding correct volume equal to closed end displacement.
Influx penetration: Pipe penetrating the influx causes the influx to elongate, resulting in additional
hydrostatic pressure loss.

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Gas Migration: Must be controlled properly.

Artificial Migration: Once pipe has penetrated the influx, additional pipe stripped will “pump” the influx
up the hole.
Restored overbalance: Occurs when last few stands are stripped to bottom and the hole is filled.
3.9.3 Selection of BOP for Stripping
S.N. Well pressure Length for stripping Preventer required
1. 1000 psi or less Any length Annular preventer
2. 1000 - 1500 psi 1000 ft Annular preventer
3. 1000 - 1500 psi More than 1000 ft Annular preventer +Ram preventer
4, 1500 psi or above Any length Ram preventer +Ram preventer
While stripping in the hole to maintain bottom hole pressure constant, mud is to be bled off at regular
interval. The amount of mud which is to be bled off should be equal to the closed end volume of the pipe
striped in. If more mud is bled off than the calculated volume the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus
decreases causing the bottom hole pressure to reduce. The string is also to be kept full by filling mud
at regular intervals. Care should be taken when the bit starts entering into the influx, as the increase in
height of the influx shall increase the surface casing pressure.
Example:
A well started flowing after pulling out 20 stand of drill pipe. It was shut in and after analysing the
pressures it was decided to strip the pipe back in to the hole and circulate out the influx using Driller's
method. Well data is as follow:
Well depth : 10000 ft Mud in use : 12 ppg
5”d/p capacity : 0.0178 bbl/ft d/p Steel Displacement : 0.0082 bbl/ft
Average stand length : 92 ft
Calculate : a) The amount of mud to be bled off after stripping-in one stand.
b) The amount of mud to be filled in the pipe after stripping-in one stand.
Solution:
Closed end volume of the pipe = 0.0178 bbl/ft + 0.0082 x bbl/ft
= 0.026 bbl/ft
Length of one stand = 92 ft
Amount of mud to be bled off after one stand = 0.026 bbl/ft x 92 ft
= 2.39 bbls
Amount of mud to be filled in the pipe after one stand = 0.0178 bbl/ft x 92 ft
= 1.63 bbls
3.9.4 Stripping using the Annular Preventer
Stripping into the hole using the annular preventer is a common practice but it is limited to a surface
pressure of 1500 psi and a maximum length to be stripped as 1000 ft. Following points shall be kept in
mind while stripping into the hole using annular preventer.

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a) Drill pipe rubber i.e. bettis protectors should be removed while stripping through annular preventer.
b) The pressure regulating valve of the annular preventer allows the hydraulic fluid from the annular to
pass back through it when a tool joint passes through the annular preventer as the annular preventer
has to open slightly. This valve must be in good condition. The lines from the valve to the annular
preventer also have to be large enough to let the fluid come back. On some rigs with subsea BOP
stacks, there is an annular preventer accumulator bottle for this purpose.
c) Use closing pressure as low as possible. The operating pressure should be reduced until the annular
weeps when the pipe is being stripped in. Low pressure on the annular preventer will prevent the
packer from early wear or destruction.
d) If the closed in annular pressure is too high, the pressure will push the pipe out of the hole or
prevent it from stripping-in without a push down. To strip-in the hole with an annular preventer, the
weight of the drill pipe and collars must be greater than the force acting upwards. If drill string does
not strip-in on its own weight, additional downward force will be needed to push the string in the
well. For an early estimate of possible conditions, the following equation can be used.
String weight =
T.J.D. = Tool Joint Diameter
String weight = Lightest weight string that will strip in without snubbing unit.
1000 lbs is added to compensate for frictional force between pipe and packer element.
String weight = [(T.J.D)2 Annular Pressure] + 1000 lbs 4
T.J.D. = Tool Joint Diameter
String weight = Lightest weight string that will strip in without nubbing unit.
1000 lbs is added to compensate for frictional force between pipe and packer element.
Procedure
a) Adjust the pressure on the annular preventer until it weeps when the pipe is going in the hole. On
rigs with subsea stacks, use the value from the operating characteristics table.
b) Run the pipe not faster than one foot per second and slower when passing the tool joint through
the annular preventer. On rigs with subsea stacks, a measurement will have to be made to check this
area. If the vessel is heaving, it may be better to go ahead and not slow down when going through
the annular to avoid reversing the direction of the tool joint when in the preventer.
c) Maintain the annulus pressure constant with a choke as the pipe goes in the hole. The mud displaced
out of the hole can be measured and corrections made to get the exact annulus pressure changes as
stripping in the hole continues. For most stripping jobs, holding the casing pressure constant should
be adequate.
d) Every stand of pipe should displace mud. If the stands do not displace mud, circulation has been lost.
e) If the pressure starts rising between stands it means gas migration is taking place, use the volumetric
correction.

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3.9.5 Stripping Using the Ram Blow out Preventers

Normally, the rams would be used in place of the annular preventer for stripping if the annulus pressure
is more than 1500 psi & stripping length of over 1000 ft or if there are drill pipe rubbers on the pipe that
could not be taken off.
For an estimate of maximum stripping pressure without a snubbing unit, earlier equation can be used.
Procedure
a) Select the two rams to be used and measure the distance from the rotary table to the top of the
upper ram and to the top of lower ram.
b) Reduce the closing pressure on the ram to 500 psi, or upto OEM recommendations.
c) With the upper ram closed, lower pipe slowly measuring it until the tool joint is two feet above the
upper ram. (On floating rigs the distance would include an allowance for vessel heave).
d) Stop lowering, close the lower pipe ram.
e) Bleed off the pressure between the rams and open the upper ram.
f) Lower the pipe, measuring it until the tool joint is between the two rams.
g) Stop lowering & close the top ram.
h) Pressurize up to well pressure between the rams with the test pump. Open the bottom ram.
i) Continue by going back to step no. 3.
While doing this, maintain the casing pressure constant by bleeding mud from the choke. For most
stripping jobs, if gas migration is not taking place holding the casing pressure constant should be
adequate. If the pressure starts rising between stands it means gas migration is taking place, use the
volumetric correction.
Note : While stripping Ram to Ram, the hydraulic pressure required to open ram with wellbore pressure
acting below depends on opening ratio of ram. e.g. if the opening ratio for the preventer being used
for stripping is 2.3 and manifold pressure is 1500 psi, then the maximum well pressure at which ram
preventer can be opened would be:
2.3 x 1500 = 3450 psi
With manifold pressure kept at 1500 psi , rams with high differential pressure across it will not open.
Generally , rams are not opened with differential pressure across it and it is safe practice to equalize the
pressure before opening.
3.10 MAXIMUM CASING PRESSURE, SHOE PRESSURE AND PIT VOLUME
If the gas is not allowed to expand in a controlled manner, the surface pressures will become too great
and it might lead to:
• Formation failure at shoe
• Casing failure
• Well head failure
• BOP failure etc.

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Since the casing pressure and pit level must be allowed to increase as a gas kick is circulated out, the
maximum of these values can be calculated as below :
Pcsg maximum =
Where P - Formation pressure in thousands of psi ( Pressure of gas at bottom of hole )
V - Pit gain in bbls
W - Kill mud weight in ppg
C - Annular capacity at surface, bbls. / 1000 ft.
Vgain maximum =
Where Vgain maximum is the total of the original gain and the pit gain due to gas expansion. So, the gain
due to expansion is
Vexpansion = Vgain maximum - V
These are not exact equations, but are as close as can be estimated.
3.11 WELL CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS IN HORIZONTAL WELLS
The basic well control parameters/procedures such as causes of kick, warning signs, well shut-in & well
killing etc. are same for both vertical & horizontal wells. But due to non-vertical section of horizontal
wells there exist following differences from well control point of view.
• Influx Volumes
For the same difference between formation pressure & mud hydrostatic & for the same duration during
which the well remains under-balance, the influx volume can be greater for horizontal wells as compared
to vertical wells. This is due to the fact that the horizontal wells expose more productive formation to the
well-bore & therefore the rate at which the influx enters the well-bore is considerably higher.
This shall result in high pressures at the casing shoe which may lead to an underground blow out.
• Shut-in Pressures
In a well kick situation during drilling, if the influx is in the horizontal section then the stabilized SIDPP
& SICP shall be same for a horizontal well whereas for a vertical well there shall be difference in the two
shut- in pressures. In case of a swabbed-in kick in a horizontal well, both SIDPP & SICP shall be zero as
long as the influx is in horizontal section whereas in case of a vertical well under similar condition both
the above pressures shall be equal & more than zero. Therefore, a swabbed-in kick situation ( i.e influx
below the bit) in a vertical well having both SIDPP & SICP equal does not require the mud density to be
increased to kill the well. Whereas, in horizontal wells even with a kick entering during drilling shall result
in stabilized SIDPP & SICP being equal & will require an increase in mud density in order to kill the well.
• Well Killing Procedures
While using wait & weight method in a vertical well the drill pipe pressure drops linearly as kill mud goes
down the bit. Whereas, in case of a horizontal well the drill pipe pressure schedule will be different as the
build & horizontal section shall not have same linear pressure decrease as in vertical well. Lost circulation
may occur due to overbalance situation if a linear drill pipe pressure schedule is followed in a horizontal
well.

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It is prudent to note that during killing in horizontal wells, the gas removal is not very effective as the
gas has a tendency to get segregated to top side of the hole especially due to annular velocities while
killing at slow pump rates. Due to this reason, more circulation time may be required than calculated.
This problem can also be dealt by killing the horizontal wells at comparatively higher pump rates in cases
where the possibility of loss circulation due to increased annular pressure losses is not anticipated.
While drilling a horizontal well there is a possibility to come across several faults which may not be having
same pore pressures hence lost circulation often occurs in faults where the pore pressure are less than
the BHP.

Figure 3.10: Gas Kick From Higher Pressured Zone

Figure 3.10: Gas Kick From Higher Pressured Zone

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Figure 3.11: Step Down Schedule for a Highly Deviated Well

Figure 3.12: Step Down Schedule for a Horizontal Well

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3.12 WELL CONTROL IN MULTILATERAL WELLS

In recent years many multilateral wells have been drilled both on-shore & off-shore for the purpose of
cost reduction in development of the field & improved oil recovery. Drilling of these wells has application
in the following areas :
1. Reservoirs consisting of several isolated zones
2. Reservoirs having low permeability & therefore requiring high well density
Multilateral wells basically are off-shoot of horizontal wells where a mother well has two or more
branches below the junction point called laterals. Depending upon the multi-lateral junction techniques
multi- laterals can be divided in to following six principle categories & one sub category.
Level 1
• Wells having open or unsupported junction.
• They can also be described as standard “open hole” sidetracks.
Level 2
• Wells having mother bore cased & cemented with open lateral
• In these wells whip stock & milling technology is used to exit the existing casing string.
Level 3
• Wells having mother bore cased & cemented with lateral cased but not cemented.
• These wells require special equipment & techniques so as to attach the lateral liner with main casing
without any cement support.
Level 4
• Wells having mother bore and lateral cased & cemented.
• In these wells the lateral liner is attached to the main casing & cemented.
Level 5
• Wells having pressure sealed multilateral junction which is achieved with the completion & cement
is not considered as the sealing mechanism. The junction pressure seal capability has significant
increase in the cost of the well.
Level 6
• Wells having pressure integrity at the junction which is achieved with the casing & cement is not
considered as the sealing mechanism.
Level 6S ( sub category)
• Wells having junction pressure seal & down hole splitter i.e large main hole with two smaller laterals
of equal sizes.

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3.12.1 Well Control aspects in Multilateral Wells

Important aspects of well control in case of multilateral wells vis- a- vis conventional wells are discussed
below:
• Kick Prevention
Though practically all the measures considered for preventing kicks in conventional wells hold true for
multi-laterals as well, some of the additional considerations on account of high angles, longer lateral bore
holes & small hole sizes are as follows:
i) High kick intensity
ii) Relatively higher ECD effects, which requires flow checks between connections.
iii) Relatively higher swab pressures during pulling out, which require mud conditioning prior to pulling
out & controlled tripping speeds.
• Kick detection
Although all the conventional well kick indications are valid for multi-lateral wells too, but since a
multilateral has more than one bore holes, the specific indications need to be evaluated in order to know
that whether it's the static or the active bore hole which is kicking. Following points may help in making
the judgement.
a) Indications of a kick from active well bore(containing drill string):
i) A drill break or an increase in drilling rate followed by a kick
ii) When the kick has entered the active bore hole which is non-horizontal, the shut- in casing & drill
pipe pressures shall be different
b) Indications of a kick from static well bore:
i) When the active borehole is non-horizontal & if both shut-in casing & drill pipe pressures are equal
subsequent to a kick, it clearly indicates a kick in the static well bore.
ii) During initial shut-in both SICP and SIDPP shall be same & thereafter during gas migration both
shall increase by same amount till the gas reaches the junction point. As the gas shall move past the
junction point, the SICP shall become more than SIDPP (though as gas continue migrating beyond
junction the rate of increase in both the shut-in pressures shall be same).
In case of multilaterals where there is a tendency of losses in one of the well bore, this may create a
situation where mud is being lost in one well bore while influx is taken from another. Such a situation may
mask both the basic kick indications e.g. pit gain and increase in return flow. In such cases well should be
monitored closely for any change in normal trends of pit levels, loss rate etc.
• MAASP Consideration
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP ) is the maximum pressure that can be held on
the annulus surface pressure gauge during well killing with complete safety. Even during planning of
conventional wells the casing seat design is based on MAASP, for example during drilling operations if at
any stage the difference between max. mud density & current drilling fluid density nears 0.5 ppg most of
the operators plan to lower a casing string rather than continue drilling. Similar consideration applies for
multilateral wells with slight modification in case the static well bore is not isolated , e.g.

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i) MAASP should be calculated for both active & static well bores considering the weakest formation &
respective mud densities in two holes.
ii) Smaller of the two MAASP values should be taken as the final MAASP.
• Shut In Procedure & Shut -In Pressure Interpretation
Since the multi-lateral wells are mostly horizontal or highly deviated wells following considerations
should be noted.
i) On detecting a kick, preferably use hard shut-in method so as to minimise the influx volume.
ii) After shutting-in the well with definite pit gain during trips ( i.e swabbed in influx) if it is found that
both SIDPP & SICP read zero, it does not mean that there is no kick rather it implies that the kick is
in horizontal or highly deviated section of the borehole.
iii) On detecting a kick during drilling, if after shutting-in the well it is found that both SIDPP & SICP are
nearly equal, it means that the kick is in horizontal or highly deviated section of the borehole.
iv) When the kick is taken from highly deviated section during drilling, as the SIDPP & SICP are almost
equal, it becomes difficult to analyse that whether the influx is gas or liquid. However the continuous
increase in shut-in surface pressures indicates that the kick is gas & has started migrating.
• Kill Procedures
a) Kick from active well bore
When the kick is taken from the active well bore the standard well killing methods i.e Driller's & W & W
method may be used in the similar fashion as these methods are used in case of kicks in single well bore.
However, as stated earlier due consideration should be given to the MAASP of static well bore.
b) Kick from static well bore
In case the kick is taken from static well bore the standard well killing methods with certain modifications
can be used due to following reasons :
i) The part of the static well bore from junction point to zone of influx cannot be circulated if the
standard killing method is followed with string in active well bore.
ii) Due to above reason after the kill there shall be some remaining surface pressure.
Hence, the alternative would be to calculate the kill mud weight based on the depth of the junction point
( due consideration should be given to MAASP) & circulate the active well bore with this mud. After the
well is circulated with this mud there would not be any remaining surface pressures. Now the string can
be pulled out from active well bore & tripped in to static well bore monitoring the returns closely . After
the influx is above bit, it would be required to close the well again & circulate. After which the BOP can
be opened & tripping continued again monitoring the returns. (It may be noted that while tripping below
junction point it might be required to close the well & circulate at more than one occasion). When the
bit is at bottom in the static well bore, the well should be circulated with required mud density (to be
calculated considering the initial SIDPP & TVD of static well bore ).
After adding the trip margin, the string can be stripped out from the static well bore up to junction point
& tripped in to active well bore. When the bit is at bottom of active well bore, it would be required to
circulate with the same density mud as was finally used in static well bore.

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3.13 ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS – SOME CONSIDERATIONS

• Higher Pressures Than Surface Equipment Rating
When such a situation arises during a well killing operation, consideration should be given to low choke
pressure method which is explained in chapter on “Unusual Situations”.
• Casing Burst
In deep holes, where the liner is set below a long string of casing, it is possible that during killing the
surface pressure may approach the burst rating without inducing a fracture at shoe. Therefore, while
planning such a liner job this aspect should be given due consideration. In the event of surface casing
pressure approaching casing burst value, low choke pressure method may be considered.
In cases where casing string is set relatively at shallow depth, it is difficult that surface pressure build up
can approach the casing burst rating since the shoe shall fracture first.
• Under Ground Blow Out
This involves significant down hole flow of formation fluid from a zone of higher pressure to a zone of
lower pressure. The direction of the flow may be from a lower kick zone to upper weak zone, which is
the case most of the times or it may be to a lower weak zone from an upper kick zone & is an important
criteria for deciding the control procedure. When the underground blow-out occurs after the BOP has
been closed on a kick while drilling, the flow will normally be from the kick zone to some shallow weak
zone. In the second scenario, it is the occurrence of loss circulation at bit while drilling a naturally fractured
or weak zone which causes the hydrostatic pressure to fall considerably against an upper zone & allows
this zone to start kicking. In a drilling well the indications of a underground blow out are as below :
a) Initial build up in SIDP, SICP & then decrease as the fracture is induced. The drill pipe pressure may
drop down to zero.
b) After the fracture is induced & under-ground blow-out is initiated, the casing pressure may not
change much initially but will steadily increase with time.
c) No direct communication between drill pipe & casing pressure.
In some cases the drill pipe pressure may be found to be higher than the casing pressure, which usually
is the result of formation fluid entering the drill string after the underground blowout has been initiated.
Consequences of underground blow out
• Loss of reservoir
• Contamination of fresh water zones
• Loss of rig if surface broaching occurs
Control methods of underground blow out
Though there are no set kill procedures for handling underground blowouts. Some control methods are
discussed in next chapter. The adequate knowledge of loss zone vis-à-vis the kick zone helps using these
methods more effectively. Some of the loss zone detection techniques are given below :
a) Temperature Log :
This is the most common tool used to detect the loss zone. The tool when lowered in the drill string shall
show thermal anomalies on temperature log depending upon position of loss zone vis-à-vis kick zone if
the underground blow-out is in progress, e.g.
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Case 1. If loss zone is above the kick zone then there shall be higher temperature then normal
temperature gradient across loss zone.
Case 2. If kick zone is above the loss zone then there shall be lower temperature then normal
temperature gradient across loss zone.
b) Noise Log
This is a sonic tool that records the sounds created by fluid movement down-hole. Indications on
Noise log can delineate the static fluid column above the loss zone from the dynamic fluid column
below it.
c) Radioactive tracer
A radioactive tracer tool is a logging tool, usually a gamma ray detector. A radioactive material is
pumped in the well, the depth at which high radioactive concentration is found is assumed to be the
loss zone.
• Volumetric Considerations for Wells with Long liners
It is a common practice to consider upper annular capacity when calculating the volume of mud to bleed
as influx is brought to surface during killing by volumetric method. This may result in the well becoming
under balance if the influx is in the smaller annular section associated with long liner. This can be corrected
by implementing one of the following procedures:
a) Use the smaller annular section to calculate the volume to bleed for first cycle only & then use the
upper annular capacity for remaining bleed cycles.
b) Use a larger value for the safety margin( 200 to 300 psi) & use the upper annular capacity for
calculating the volume to bleed each cycle.
• Checking for trapped shut in pressures
Though it is not always recommended to check for trapped pressures after the well is initially shut-in,
however, if the pumps are still running when the well is shut-in, pressure may be trapped in the well. In
such a case the check for trapped pressures can be made as below :
a) Open choke slowly and bleed about ¼ bbl of mud from the well.
b) Close choke and record shut-in pressures.
c) If casing & drill pipe pressures are reduced then repeat step 'a'.
d) If casing and drill pipe pressures remain constant then accept these values as correct shut-in
pressures.
• Unusual shut-in pressures
Sometimes after the well has been shut in & surface pressures have stabilized, it may be observed that
the SIDPP is more than SICP. Though this could be quite confusing, however the possibility of such a
scenario could be evaluated in context of following :
a) Annulus loaded with cuttings
b) Influx in drill string
c) Density of influx greater than drilling fluid

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d) Blockage down-hole
e) Gauge inaccuracies
• Kick in Uphill Section ( Fish hook profile)
In the recent past there has been instances of drilling uphill holes (i.e hole angle more than 90 degrees)
for exploratory purposes. One such well data where a kick has been taken when the hole angle was 130
degrees is given below .
9 5/8” Casing shoe - 8136 ft MD/TVD
Lowest Point of the well - 12989 ft MD/12070 ft TVD
Kick Taken at - 15283 ft MD/11231 ft TVD
Hole Angle at 15283 ft MD - 130 degrees
Mud Weight - 10.7 ppg
Pit Gain - 7.3 bbl
SIDPP - 1849 psi
SICP - 1956 psi
Here kill mud shall be calculated with well TVD of 11231 ft & not 12070 ft.
• Gas Kicks – Some special considerations
Influx in a well-bore consists of either water, oil or gas, or combinations of these three. Since gases are
compressible, they behave differently as compared to oil or water kicks. The volume occupied by gas
depends upon both pressure & temperature. Gases also exert same pressure in all directions. Therefore
as a gas kick is circulated out of the well-bore, it must be allowed to expand so as to decrease its pressure
in order to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
Gas Expansion:
As per the Gas law, ignoring gas compressibility, the gas expansion follows following equation :

Assuming a Gas kick of one barrel at a depth of 10000 ft & bottom hole temperature of 200 o F in a well
having mud density of 10 ppg, shall expand to 179 bbls ( assuming surface atmospheric pressure of 14.2
psi & temperature of 98 o F) if the well is not shut-in & gas is allowed to expand freely. During well killing,
the gas is not allowed to expand freely as it shall result in unloading the well mud at the surface & shall
result in considerable reduction in bottom hole pressure. The diagram below shows the relationship
between the free expansion of gas v/s well depth.

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Figure 3.13: Free Expansion of Gas as it Rises to the Surface

Gas Migration :
After the well has been shut-in on a gas kick, the gas being lighter fluid can start migrating or percolating
up in the hole as the well remains shut-in. The average migration speed accepted by the industry world-
wide is about 1000 ft/hr, though in some cases it could be more or less than this value since the migration
speed depends upon several factors which are listed below:
a) Degree of mixing : The rate of migration depends upon the degree of mixing of gas with well-bore
fluid as it enters the well. For example, a swabbed in gas kick being largely in continuous phase shall
migrate faster as compared to a gas kick taken during drilling as in this case the gas gets dispersed in
the drilling fluid till the time the pumps are stopped.
b) Density difference: The rate of migration also depends upon the difference in densities of drilling
fluid & gas influx, the larger the difference the faster shall the gas migrate.
c) Viscosity of drilling fluid : The higher the viscosity the lower shall be the gas migration rate.
d) Annular Clearance : The gas percolates in the annulus on one side whereas the drilling fluid falls
below the gas on the other side. The smaller the annular clearance the lower shall be the migration
rate.
It may also be noted that during well killing too the gas percolation occurs & therefore the gas reaches
the surface earlier than the estimated time lag. The higher the annular velocity of mud the faster shall
the gas migrate during killing.

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3.14 WELL CONTROL IN HPHT WELLS

Exploration and appraisal wells where the undisturbed bottom hole temperature is greater than 300F
(150C) and where either the maximum anticipated pore pressure gradient of any formation exceeds 0.8
psi/ft, (18.1 kPa/m, 15.4ppg)
Or
Where RWP requirement of pressure control equipment exceeds 10000 psi (69,000kPa), such a well can
be termed as High Pressure, High Bottom Hole Temperature wells, or HPHT.
The following should be kept in mind during operations on this type of well.
• In HPHT wells, usually the margin between fracture gradient and pore pressure gradient is small.
Formation breakdown is always a possibility.
• HPHT wells also have a tendency towards problems due to hydrate formation.
• Temperature effect on fluid density: Mud expansion due to heating is a very common phenomenon
in HPHT wells. The expansion rate will depend on the initial temperature differential between the
bottom of the hole and the mud. It may take days for the fluid column to achieve equilibrium with
the geothermal gradient but in general most expansion takes place in the first few hours. Expansion
leads to an effective well bore fluid density which is lower than the one measured at surface mud
tanks. As a result hydrostatic pressure is reduced if corrective measures are not taken.
3.14.1 Flow Checks in HPHT wells
The importance of accurate flow checks cannot be overstated. These should be performed
• On bottom prior to POOH.
• At the casing shoe
• At a point half way between the shoe and the BOP
• Prior to pulling the BHA through the BOP
• And at any time the hole fill deviates from the expected
In short, the string should not be pulled if there is any doubt that the hole is in a instable condition.
Remember, a negative flow check means that the permeable zones in the well are apparently balanced
by the mud column. It does not mean that there is NOT an influx in the hole.
3.14.2 Ballooning
Hydrocarbon bearing source rocks when subject to high temperature and high mud weights approaching
the fracture gradient exhibit a behavior described as 'wellbore breathing' (Supercharging or Ballooning)
leading to a Loss / Gain situation.
Well ballooning is a common phenomenon in which the formation absorbs drilling mud while the rig's
pumps are activated and then releases the mud back into the well when the pumps are off. This creates a
situation where the borehole returns more or less drilling mud than what would be expected compared
to the normal rigid wellbore volume. This can be misinterpreted as a kick. Rig crews can therefore miss
critical kick indicators if they mistakenly believe that ballooning is occurring in the well.

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Figure 3.14: Ballooning Effect

Usually any flow during drilling is interpreted as an influx of the formation fluid and the common solution
is to increase the mud weight and ensure an adequate overbalance. But if the mud weight is increased and
the influx is only mud return, the situation will get progressively worse with a rise in equivalent circulating
density (ECD). Mud losses will continue (initially dynamic mud loss) and the fracture propagation pressure
may even be exceeded, resulting in total losses (static loss).
Indications:
• Partial mud losses during circulation /drilling followed by an influx when the pumps are off after flow
check:
• Mud returns are observed.
• Tendency of the return rate to decrease with time (flow back signature)
How to Identify Well Ballooning
To recognize Ballooning phenomenon in HPHT/deep well, Fingerprinting of well is one of the method to
identify whether well is flowing due to ballooning or normal kick.
Fingerprinting: The principal objective of fingerprinting is to identify influx by comparing real-time data
to previously recorded data. Fingerprinting is done to calculate flow back volume and shut in pressures
before drilling out of casing and immediately after drilling through the shoe establishes a base line profile
for stable flow back. Tracking and comparing subsequent flow back volume to the base line provides an
important means to help identify wellbore breathing or ballooning and distinguish it from an actual kick.
3.14.3 Fingerprinting or Profiling Well Behaviour to differentiate Ballooning or actual
kick Steps for Finger printing prior to drill shoe
• Create a profile for thermal expansion using competent cased hole before drilling the shoe track.
• Run a profile check after displacing to SOBM.
o Monitor well on trip tank during connections (trip tank pump off).
o Determine the expected volumes from connections before running in below casing.
o Conduct dummy connection in the cased hole prior to drilling ahead.

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• Measure drain back volume (pit gain in trip tank after stopping pump) for different circulation rate in
use, time for pits to stabilize, shut in pressure if any etc.
• Measure volumes taken for all mixing and transfer pumps, mud cooler, degasser. Determine the
possible combinations that may happen and name the assignments so that an accurate volume is
available.

Figure 3.15 : Pressure and Volume graph

During finger-printing of well, when the well is closed in (shut-in) on the BOP, the formation is charged up
to some degree and there will be some temperature effect. So there will be a pressure build up & volume
gain after stopping pump due to ballooning or formation charging as shown in figure 3.15.
A check trip on bottom is a technique often used on HPHT wells. The well is flow checked on the trip
tank for 15 minutes with the kelly cock shut. The string is then pulled back by the length of a stand (or as
high as possible if using a kelly) and run back down to TD, say five times, to simulate the pulling of five
stands. The well is then flow checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes and then circulated bottoms up.
After bottoms up, check shakers for cavings and confirm for any swabbed gas peak with the mud loggers.
Flow check again, and if the well is stable, pump a slug and POOH.
How to differentiate kick due to Ballooning effect or Normal Kick
If the kick occurs due to normal kick, after opening the remote or manual choke more influx comes inside
the wellbore results in increase in surface casing pressure (SICP) after shut in while there is no change
or very little drop in SIDPP. If the kick occurs due to ballooning effect, after opening choke SICP remains
same or little drop while SIDP drops as the well is allowed to relax.

Effect of Bleeding off shut in pressures (OPENING CHOKE)

Normal kick Ballooning
SICP Increase Same or drop
(more influx taken) when choke closed again
SIDP Remain same Drop little
(ballooning effect is allowed to relax when well shut in)
PIT GAIN Rises No change or decreasing trend

3.14.4Secondary Well Control

The Driller's method is usually the chosen technique for secondary well control after an apparent well
flow. The reason being that often it is very difficult to determine an accurate stabilized shut-in drill-pipe
pressure. The Driller's method can be employed to remove the influx first, then determine the required
kill mud density.

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4 BARRIER CONCEPTS AND CONTINGENCIES

4.1 BARRIER CONCEPT

A barrier or barrier element is defined as any device, fluid or substance that prevents the flow from
a well. They are envelopes of one or more independent barrier elements to prevent fluids or gasses
from flowing unintentionally from a formation, into another formation or back to surface. The type and
number of barriers that must be in place depends upon the operation, company policy, local legislation
and commonly accepted industrial practices.
Well barrier should be clearly defined prior to commencement of any operation by description of the
required well barrier elements to be in place and the specific acceptance criteria. Well barrier acceptance
criteria are technical and operational requirement that need to be fulfilled in order to qualify the well
barrier for its intended use.
There must always be two independent and tested well barriers (primary and secondary) to prevent flow.
Both must be risk assessed, verified, approved and monitored during any operation on the well.
Well barriers must be tested in line with the well owner's performance standards and where applicable
legislative requirements.
Any deviation must follow a Management of Change (MOC) process, be specified and documented
including:
• Mitigation actions and responsibilities must be in place and understood by all personnel.
• A note of approval from senior person of the well owner management team who is accountable for
the integrity of the well.
Barriers are classified into two categories:
Primary barrier : A primary barrier is the first well barrier that prevents flow from a source. Generally, a
fluid or a closed barrier.
Secondary barrier : A secondary barrier is the second well barrier that prevents flow from a source in
case the primary barrier fails. Generally, a closable barrier e.g. BOPs
The barriers may be fluid or mechanical barriers. A fluid is considered a barrier only when the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid is more than the formation pressure. Combination of one or more well barrier
elements which surround or enclose the area to prevent flow of fluids are known as “barrier envelope''.
For example in a flowing oil or gas well, the tubing and packer isolate well pressure from the casing and
the casing gives secondary pressure containment if the tubing or packer leaks. Some of the elements that
form barrier envelope (at the time of drilling /tripping) are: Casing/Cement/Safety valves/Choke and kill
line valves /well head/Rams/BOPs/Drill string.
In a drilling operation:
Primary Barrier - Overbalanced drilling fluids
Secondary Barrier - Rams / annular BOP

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Figure 4.1 : Well Barriers schematic

Mechanical barriers in the oil and gas industry are of two types: closed and closeable. Closed barriers
remain closed during operation, while closeable barriers are kept open during operations and are closed
when needed. Examples of these two types of barriers include:
Closed barriers:
• Rotating control head in managed pressure drilling/UBD
• Stuffing Box
• Grease control heads (In wireline units)
Closeable barriers:
• All BOP's (Blowout Preventer)
• FOSV/DPSV
• IBOP (Inside Blowout Preventer)
Barriers are also categorized as Active and Potential barriers.
An active barrier actively prevents unplanned escape of fluid from the well, e.g. overbalanced drilling – a
hole full of the correct weight fluid.
Underbalanced wireline logging– the stuffing box. Producing wells- the Xmas tree
Managed pressure drilling–the rotating control device.

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A potential barrier does not actively control flow from the well but is activated if required. The main
potential barrier during drilling is the rig BOP which is open during normal operations but can be closed
quickly when needed.
4.1.1 Verification of barrier
To verify a well barrier element, it must be installed where it is it intended to be used and must be
function and integrity tested when installed. A mechanically activated well barrier element must be able
to contain well bore fluids by their own control system regardless of power failure. Integrity testing a
mechanical well barrier element is done by applying pressure against the barrier in the direction of flow.
Where this is not possible, integrity can be confirmed by decreasing pressure on the downstream side
of the barrier (inflow testing/negative testing). For a shear/seal device to qualify as a mechanical well
barrier element, it must be able to first shear tubular and then seal the well bore. To qualify a hydrostatic
well barrier, the fluid level and properties must be monitored and maintained.
All barrier/well integrity tests should be documented and signed by an authorized person. The authorized
person can be Pump operator, operator's representative & Contractor's representative. The chart and
test documentation should contain details regarding the type of test, test pressure, test fluid and system
or components tested.
4.2 INFLOW TEST / NEGATIVE PRESSURE TEST
An inflow test involves assessing integrity of a barrier system like liner lap, bridge plug , cement plug etc.
in the direction of anticipated flow. This is performed by reducing the hydrostatic head above the item to
be tested by providing a drawdown or by circulating & displacing to a lighter fluid. This creates a managed
net pressure load against the physical barrier. In addition, the method by which the hydrostatic barrier
will be re- established at the conclusion of the inflow test, or in case an anomaly is detected during the
inflow test, should be considered. A contingency plan for re- establishing appropriate barriers should be
prepared in case the barrier being tested does not pass the inflow test.
Sometimes it may not be possible to test a barrier from the direction of flow, and in that case the only
option is to pressure test the device from above, provided the barrier is constructed to seal from both
directions.
4.2.1 Function and Pressure Integrity Test of Well Barrier Elements: All the well barrier elements should
be function and pressure integrity tested as per guidelines mentioned in API-STD 53. The frequency of
test should also be maintained as per the guidelines.
4.3 WELL CONTROL DURING SPECIFIC SITUATIONS
4.3.1 During lowering of casing:
Casing or Liner lowering requires some precautions to be taken in view of possibility of well kick during
these operations. Probable factors for inducing a kick in this phase are
1. Swabbing while P/O casing/Liner
2. Loss induced by excessive lowering speed reduces the level in annulus which causes Kick
Closable barriers for annulus in this case are Annular BOP, Ram BOP matching to the casing size or Variable
Ram BOP used at the time of drilling with size limit of more than casing. Generally minimum one ram is
dressed with the Casing/Liner size packer before starting the casing/liner operation. NRV in the shoe and

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float collar act as two temporary internal barriers. An arrangement of stabbing of FOSV with X-Over to
match the casing thread should be kept ready on derrick floor.
While lowering casing/liner, every joint should be filled with mud to maintain sufficient hydrostatic
pressure in the casing. If the casing is lowered without filling, differential across the shoe may break the
NRV in shoe / float collar resulting in the annulus mud rushing into the casing to fill the empty casing. This
will lead to decrease in the mud level in annulus and reduce the BHP of well and may cause kick if BHP
reduces below formation pressure.
Sometimes operators prefer Auto Fill Float Shoe or self-fill float assembly which permits the casing to fill
automatically while being into the hole. It is in the open position while running in allowing maximum filling
of the casing as it is lowered into the well bore. The circulation may be established at any time during or
after casing is run. The flapper type back pressure valve does not become operative until the drop ball
is dropped or pumped down. From this point onwards like Differential Fill-up Shoe, Auto Fill Float Shoe
acts as conventional Floating Equipment. Self-fill float assembly are PDC drillable and minimizes trip time
while also reducing surge pressures.
Trip tank monitoring should be done while lowering or P/O of casing to check for any loss or swabbing.
In case the well is not taking proper volume then string be run in to bottom on drill pipe monitoring the
returns for safe removal of swabbed fluid by circulation by Drillers' method first cycle.
While lowering casing, the clearance between the casing and well walls is less for the entire length of
string and this condition is very conducive for surging or swabbing if string is to be pulled out for some
reason. If the casing lowering speeds are not checked, it may induce losses. If the losses are minor, stop
lowering and monitor the well. If well is static, circulate to correct the mud properties and then resume
lowering with reduced speed.

If the loss is major or total loss is observed, then stop lowering the casing and start filling the annulus with
lightest possible fluid available at site to maintain hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. If well permits, try
to place LCM pill and check the losses later. The volume displacement for casing should be the closed end
volume for lowering the casing.
SHUT-IN procedures while running casing if NRV is holding
a) Close annular BOP or casing rams
b) Stab FOSV on casing joint using necessary x-over or swage.
c) Make up Kelly or top drive
d) Open HCR on choke line.
e) Open FOSV
f) Record shut in pressures.
4.3.2 During cementation:
There is a high probability for well activity during and after the cementation jobs. Many worst well control
incidents happened in the industry are having the cementation job connection.
During cementation, as the heavy cement slurry comes out in the annulus, the BHP starts increasing till
the end of the cementation job. However as the settling of cement starts, the hydrostatic of this column

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tends to become equivalent to water and there is a reduction in the BHP. As the slurry thickens and sets,
it creates a barrier blocking the entry of formation fluid in the well bore. However, the barrier success
depends on integrity of the cement, and there is a possibility of micro channeling if the well starts to flow
during the setting phase. This further spoils the cement bonding and may cause well activity.
For ensuring the perfect cementation job, pressure profile of pumping and returns at shakers should be
monitored. Recording of correct plug bump pressure will also check for casing joints integrity.
In case the well starts to flow during displacement keep circulating through choke with required back
pressure as per drillers method first cycle till the influx is out. Thereafter, shut the well and evaluate the
condition.
If the well flows while waiting on cement, shut the well and go for volumetric method. Record CBL-VDL
logs for checking the cement bond. If well permits, plan for creating a path through casing to the free
annulus for conventional killing.
4.3.3 During running of completion string:
Where the formation is exposed, completion fluid and casing will act as the primary barrier. BOP is the
secondary barrier. A stab in valve must be kept on drill floor at all times for installation on top of the
tubing string in case of any well activity. In later stages of running in, the DHSV can act as a barrier.
During removal of BOP and installation of X- mas tree, the packer/tubing and the tubing hanger will act
as a barrier for the annulus. Fluid in the tubing is the only barrier during this time and installation of
mechanical tubing plugs is recommended.
4.3.4 During wire-line / logging operations:
During wire line jobs, if the viscosity of mud and pull out speed is high, it can create appreciable swabbing
in the well leading to reduction in BHP and may cause formation fluid to enter into the well. In similar
fashion, surging may also occur. For monitoring of well it is advised to maintain watch on well by filling
the hole continuously through trip tank. Mud properties should also be maintained to the required level
prior to handing over the well for logging. In case of activity while logging overbalanced well, shut the
annular BOP on cable. If not holding then cut the wire line by hydraulic cable cutter, drop the line and
close the SBR. In just balanced conditions, install a shooting nipple with lubricator on top and change the
ram seals corresponding to the size of the shooting nipple.
4.4 UNUSUAL SITUATIONS IN WELL CONTROL
Following are some of the unusual situations normally faced during well killing operations.
4.4.1 Plugged or washed bit nozzles
During well killing operations the bit nozzles may get plugged or washed out. Plugging could be partial
or total. Large amount of barite without addition of sufficient quantity of suspension agent (i.e gel or
bentonite) or stirring of suction pits can cause nozzle plugging while circulating with kill mud.
A plugged bit nozzle shall be indicated at surface by sudden increase in circulating drill pipe pressure with
no corresponding increase in casing pressure. Normal reaction in such situations would be to open the
choke to maintain drill pipe pressure and doing so shall result in a decrease in casing pressure and bottom
hole pressure, which may allow additional influx. If unchecked, it will make well control more difficult.

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4.4.1.1 Partial Plugging

Partial plugging does not affect the U-tube communication and only the circulating pressure as kill rate
increases due to additional friction losses caused by plugging. Therefore, it might be necessary to reduce
the kill SPM to avoid excessive drill pipe pressure. In such situations, well should be shut-in keeping casing
pressure constant and new SIDPP& SICP should be recorded. The new SIDPP should be compared &
adjusted with respect to calculated/ original SIDPP. The pump should now be brought to kill rate keeping
casing pressure constant, thereafter new drill pressure should be kept constant if kill mud has passed the
bit. If heavy mud has still not reached the bit, new drill pipe pressure schedule should be computed and
followed. There can be sudden fall in drill pipe pressure in case the nozzle becomes unplugged. If this
happens, the original pressure schedule has to be followed.
4.4.1.2 Total Plugging
When total plugging takes place, circulation through drill pipe will not be possible. In such a situation
the drill string may have to be perforated nearest to the bit to circulate out maximum volume of influx,
and the new reduced circulating pressure should be determined at regular intervals. While waiting for
perforation, the casing pressure should be monitored. Increasing casing pressure while the well is shut-in
shall indicate gas migration. Volumetric method should be used to keep bottom hole pressure constant
by bleeding calculated volume of mud.
Sometimes, the bit may get plugged even before start of the well killing operation. In case of a gas kick
this will be indicated by rise in casing pressure, with no corresponding increase in drill pipe pressure. In
this case too, perforation may be necessary above bit to start circulation. During waiting for perforation,
volumetric method should be tried to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
4.4.1.3 Washed out bit nozzle
It is indicated by sudden drop in drill pipe circulating pressure without a corresponding change in casing
pressure. Since a washed out drill string shall also give similar indications, the amount of pressure drop
should be noted to substantiate the loss of bit nozzle . In such situations, pump should be stopped
keeping casing pressure constant, the well be shut in and new SIDPP& SICP should be recorded. The new
SIDPP should be compared & adjusted with respect to calculated/ original SIDPP. The pump should now
be brought to kill rate keeping casing pressure constant, thereafter new drill pressure should be kept
constant if kill mud has passed the bit. If heavy mud has still not reached the bit, new drill pipe pressure
schedule should be followed. (The probability of washing out of nozzle at slow circulating kill rate is
usually less than that of choke washing out.)
4.4.2 Pump failure
Pump failures are indicated by erratic or decreasing drill pipe circulating pressure & erratic movement of
rotary hose etc. In case of problem with pump during killing operation, shut in the well and switch over to
the second pump. Record new SIDPP & SICP. Check & tally the new SIDPP with calculated/ normal value
of SIDPP. Adjust the casing pressure (pressure at the time of switch over) constant till the second pump
attains kill speed. Now if the kill mud has not reached the bit or if KRP of second pump is different, new drill
pipe pressure schedule should be followed. If the heavy mud has passed the bit, keep this d/p pressure
constant. Often, pump may not completely fail there may be change in efficiency due to a bad valve or
some other problem. This can be detected by erratic or decreasing drill pipe pressure. (if this situation is
not detected, the normal reaction for choke operator would be to go on reducing the choke size to keep
up the drill pipe pressure, creating a higher bottom hole pressure). If partial pump failure is detected and
no stand by pump is available, a new reduced circulating pressure with partially effective pump may be
determined, by bringing the pump to kill rate while maintaining the casing pressure constant.

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In case of complete failure of pumps, constant bottom hole pressure may be maintained by bleeding
through choke (if the influx is gas) and keeping shut-in drill pipe pressure constant until the pump is
repaired or replaced.
4.4.3 Plugged or Washed Chokes
4.4.3.1 Plugged Choke
During killing operations chokes are liable to get plugged with sloughing shale and annulus cuttings. This
condition is indicated by rapid rise in drill pipe and casing pressures and it may be accompanied with
audible effects. One reason for killing at reduced circulation rates is to reduce the risk of hole damage in
the event of choke getting plugged. The best corrective method would be to stop the pump immediately
and release the trapped pressure through the standby choke by bleeding small volumes at intervals till
shut in drill pipe pressure comes back to normal/ calculated value. Now the well control operations can
be resumed in conventional manner through the alternate choke.
4.4.3.2 Washed out choke or choke manifold
Abrasive sand particles can washout choke and is indicated by decrease in drill pipe & casing pressure
which cannot be corrected by choke manipulations. In such situations stop the pump, isolate the defective
choke line /valve. Record new SIDPP & SICP. Check & tally the new SIDPP with calculated/ normal value
of SIDPP and resume kill operations with the alternate choke. If a leak occurs in the choke manifold, that
cannot be bypassed, the well can remain shut-in till the problem is corrected. During such time keep a
watch on the shut-in pressure, if found increasing due to gas migration, release the pressure through the
kill line / auxiliary choke line keeping SIDPP constant.
4.4.4 String washout
A drill string washout is indicated by (a) decrease in pump pressure with no corresponding effect on
casing pressure and (b) increase in pump strokes. Temperature of the return mud will decrease when
most of the circulation is established through the leak point at shallow depth. Approximate location of
leak can be evaluated in terms of decrease in circulating pressure.
In case of first circulation of Driller's method if the well is shut-in the SIDPP and SICP shall be equal when
the influx is below the communication & in this case it will not be possible to circulate out the kick with
constant bottom hole pressure techniques. In case of gas influx one alternative is to allow the influx
to migrate above the leak point by volumetric method and to circulate out thereafter by conventional
well control techniques. Another alternative, if depth and pressures are not too high & washout is at
shallow depth, is to strip out, replace the leaking joint, strip back to bottom and kill the well. Yet another
alternative is to run a smaller string or tubing inside the drill pipe with a packer at the end and circulate
with smaller string with new KRP and pressure schedule.
If the well is shut-in and the influx is above the leak point, the shut-in drill pipe pressure shall be less than
shut in casing pressure. Since the influx is in U-tube the well can be killed in conventional way. A new
circulating pressure will have to be established keeping the casing pressure constant while bringing the
pump to kill speed. Thereafter keep the drill pipe constant till influx is circulated out.
In case wait and weight method was being used, the analysis becomes little complicated. Since kill mud
has been pumped in, the new shut in drill pipe pressure now shall depend on how far the kill mud has
gone inside drill pipe or if it has gone past the bit. Thereafter the difference between the mud hydrostatic
in drill string and annulus has to be taken into account to determine the relationship between shut-in drill
pipe and shut in casing pressure. Once the relationship is established the alternatives are the same as in
case of killing by Driller's method.
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However, it must be remembered that while circulating with a hole in drill string, hole enlargement will
occur which will continuously change the circulating pressure. Therefore, it is required to re-establish the
circulating pressure periodically during well killing.
4.4.5 Lost Circulation
Lost circulation can be caused by poor cementation , formation fracture due to pressure surges, heavy
mud weight, or excessive back pressure due to large kick volumes or mishandled kicks. While killing
a well, where there is a chance of lost returns, pit gain trends should be precisely monitored & if any
deviation is
noticed, the choke size should be increased or decreased and it should be checked whether drill pipe and
casing pressure, both, ( for response on drill pipe gauge lag time should be accounted for ) respond to it
or not. If these pressures do not respond uniformly to choke operation, it indicates that mud is being lost
downhole and well may not be killed in normal way. However lost returns often involve only a percentage
of the mud being lost downhole. It might be possible to kill the well by conventional methods provided
the well maintains 50-75% returns, because the pressure at the loss zone shall become less when the gas
bubble gets past this zone. Pressure can be reduced at the weak zone by
a) Using as slow a circulating rate as possible
b) Using the 'wait and weight' method.
(Add some LCM material in the circulating mud if bit is run without nozzles)
In case of partial loss during kick control operation, several techniques can be tried in following order :-
I. If the loss is not substantial and mud volume can be kept up by mixing, continue with 'Wait and
Weight' method.
II. Reduce the drill pipe circulating pressure by a small amount (in any case drill pipe pressure should
not be reduced more than the amount of annular frictional loss, so as to avoid additional influx) and
wait to see, if it increases the return. Continue to do this until lost returns are reduced enough so
that the mixing of new mud can make up for the loss
III. Stop and shut in the well. Wait for 1 to 4 hours to cure itself. During this time keep SIDPP constant
by bleeding through choke/filling through kill line.
IV. Pump heavy slug of mud at the bottom of the hole if loss is taking place above kick zone. Thereafter
solve the loss problem.
Note : In simultaneous loss & kick situations , generally the complication which is at the bottom is
handled first.
V. If none of the above work, use a barite or gunk or cement plug to seal off the kick zone, then solve
the loss problem.
4.4.5.1 Total loss situations
In case of total loss situation in a kicking well following actions are required :
4.4.5.1.1 Attempts should be made to keep the hole full by -
a) Pumping lighter density fluid that can be supported by the fractured formation and keep the annulus
topped up(add lost circulation material to seal the fractured formation, continue with water if mud
is exhausted.)
b) Pumping intermittently down the string to keep string full and bit nozzles clear.

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4.4.5.1.2 Control operations

a) Control with Heavy Mud :
Pump and place heavy mud in between bottom of the hole and loss zone. In order to decide the mud
weight, it is necessary to take into account the true vertical distance between the bottom and loss zone
& the maximum recorded SIDPP value. It is desirable that a volume of heavy mud 2-3 times the capacity
of the annular volume between bottom and loss zone is displaced in the annulus at high rate.
Volume of heavy mud to be pumped at the bottom when thief zone is above the kick zone:
Pump heavy mud about 2-3 times the capacity of the annulus below the loss zone . The excess volume is
to allow for severe contamination of the kill mud by the influx from the formation.
Example:
A well was shut-in after kick indications. The closed-in pressure initially built up and subsequently
decreased. Maximum built up SIDPP was recorded as 500 psi. Other well data is as below.

Well depth - 10,000 ft Casing depth - 7,000 ft

Mud density - 10 ppg Drill collar - 450 ft
Annular volume drill pipe open hole - 0.0447 bbl/ft
Annular volume drill collar open hole - 0.03 bbl/ft
Find out the volume of heavy slug to be pumped at bottom.
Solution:
Maximum SIDPP = 500 psi
In loss situation though SIDPP is not a true indicator of formation pressure, still maximum value of SIDPP
can be considered for calculating the density of heavy mud to be placed at bottom. In this case minimum
500 psi increase in hydrostatic is required in the annulus below the loss zone & assuming the loss zone is
in the vicinity of the shoe.
Additional 500 psi of head can be obtained by either 14, 15 or 16 ppg mud as per calculations given below :
Height of 16 ppg mud = 500 ÷ {(16-10) x 0.052} = 1,600 ft
Height of 15 ppg mud = 500 ÷ {(15-10) x 0.052} = 1,923 ft
Height of 14 ppg mud = 500 ÷ {(14-10) x 0.052} = 2,404 ft
Selecting 15 ppg mud of 1,923 ft height, annular vol. can be calculated as:
Annular Volume against drill collar = 0.03 x 450 = 13.5 bbl
Annular Volume against drill pipe = 0.0447 x (1,923-450) = 65.8 bbl
Total volume of 1,923 ft annular column = 13.5 + 65.8 = 79.3 bbl
Volume of slug of 15 ppg to be pumped = 3 x 79.3 = 238 bbl
Note : The above method of gaining control is basically a hit & trial method, therefore if 15 ppg mud
column of 1,923 ft does not work than the next higher mud density ( say 16 ppg mud, 1,600 ft column)
may be used.

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b) Barite Plug
In case repeated placement of heavy mud as described above does not solve the problem, it may become
necessary to attempt a barite plug. A barite plug bridges the hole due to high water loss and rapid setting
when pumping is stopped. Subsequent to placement barite settles and stops flow without contaminating
the drilling fluid system. The use of a barite plug has several advantages over the use of cement e.g.
barite has a higher density & has more tendency to set without any channeling and contamination to the
drilling fluid. Some back pressure either by means of hydrostatic or casing pressure helps barite to settle
without channeling/ honey combing. The plug volume depends upon hole size, depth and kick severity.
Normally, 450-500 ft of open hole is covered with barite plug. To avoid contamination and abrupt settling,
pumping should be done continuously & at higher rate.
Barite Required

Slurry Density lb/gal Pressure Grad. psi/ft Water vol. gal/sacks Barite sacks Slurry volume bbl
18.0 0.935 5.00 200 37.1
20.0 1.039 3.70 200 31.1
22.0 1.142 2.71 200 26.4
Note: 1 sack = 100 lb
The quantity of phosphate and caustic soda used for above slurry volume is 25 lb/bbl. For high well
temperature conditions, other thinners i.e. lignosulfonate up to 8 lb/bbl may also be used.
c) Gunk Plug
The gunk plug is very quick setting plug that is especially effective with water flows. It is mixture of
bentonite and diesel oil. The mixture does not set until it comes in contact with water. An oil spacer
should be run ahead and behind it, to avoid mixing and setting in the drill pipe. When the plug is pumped
down the hole, the oil is washed away from the gel which sets in the presence of water. The plug volume
should be enough to cover 200-250 feet of hole. When the plug is in place, pumping mud down the
annulus at about 1 bbl/ min. helps to hold it down and facilitates setting.
Gunk Mixture for a 250 feet column

Hole size Diesel oil Bentonite Total volume

(in) (bbl) (Sacks) (bbl)
6 8 24 10.5
8½ 12 42 17.0
12 ¼ 28 85 37.5
17 ½ 55 167 73.5
After placing the plug, strip out above the plug. Once the plug is set, thick slurry or coarse lost circulation
material might be used to bridge and plug off the upper zone. This can be pumped down the annulus.
4.4.6 Excessive Casing Pressure
Excessive casing pressures can cause surface equipment failure or formation break down during initial
closure or while circulating out a kick. This can lead to lost circulation, an underground blow-out or
flow broaching to the surface from outside the casing. If the casing pressure threatens to exceed the
maximum allowable annular surface pressure(MAASP) either during initial closure or while killing before
the influx reaches the shoe, one of the following options has to be considered:-

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a) Low choke pressure method

b) Use of Overkill method
c) Reversing out the influx through drill pipe
d) Use of heavy pill ahead of kill mud
e) Bull heading
With shallow casing the fracture pressure at casing shoe is small (much smaller in case of offshore).
Maximum allowable surface pressure therefore is very less and it is impossible to stop the flow
immediately without risking formation breakdown and a possible broaching to surface. There is risk of
underground blowout surfacing around the well in onshore operations and collapse of seabed and other
serious problems in offshore. It is for such contingencies that the diverters are used.
4.4.6.1 Low choke pressure method
The low choke pressure method consists of circulating and weighing up the drilling fluid at the maximum
rates while holding the maximum allowable casing pressure on the choke. In other words the method
includes killing procedure that uses less choke pressure than what would be necessary to prevent
formation fluid to flow. Chances and severity of second inflow depends mainly upon the permeability of
the reservoir being controlled. In high permeability formations this method should not be used unless
necessary - since it results in bottom hole pressure reduction which can cause high inflow rates and may
lead to a blow-out.
4.4.6.1.1 Low choke pressure procedure (using initial mud)
This involves circulation to be carried out with initial mud density holding the choke at maximum allowable
surface pressure. Since BHP shall be less than the formation pressure, additional continuous influx will
keep entering the well. Pump speed is increased to maximum possible to reduce the time during which
the well will remain under balanced. This will reduce the size of the secondary kick. During circulation
at low choke pressure, if at any stage the pressure returns to or exceeds the normal pump pressure
corresponding to the pump rate and density being used, this is an indication that further entry of influx
has stopped. Once the influx is out, attempts should be made to shut the well. If stabilised shut-in casing
pressure remains less than MAASP, normal procedure can be used to finally control the well.
4.4.6.1.2 Low choke pressure method (using heavy mud)
After closing the well & monitoring shut-in pressures, if the shut-in casing pressure threatens to exceed
the MAASP before stabilisation, it becomes necessary to pump down heavy mud as in wait and weight
method.
This helps in bringing down the casing pressure when the kill mud enters the annulus. In this case since
the well could not be closed for sufficient time required for SIDPP to stabilize, exact kill mud weight
cannot be ascertained. However an approximate estimate can be made at any kill rate used, taking the
drill pipe pressure in excess of the kill rate pressure (measured or calculated) as the amount of formation
pressure in excess of hydrostatic pressure. This pressure can be converted to find out equivalent mud
weight increase required. After weighing up to the estimated required fluid density, (during this time mud
is bled from choke to keep casing pressure less than MAASP) the circulation is started holding maximum
allowable pressure on the choke. Influx is circulated out till a reduction in choke size is necessary to
maintain maximum allowable casing pressure. At this stage the well is shut-in to record SIDPP. Normal
well control procedure can now be used to finally kill the well.

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4.4.6.2 Overkill method

In over kill method a mud density higher than the calculated kill mud weight is used for killing the well.
This method is used when it is anticipated that surface casing pressure may exceed MAASP ( with influx
still below the shoe ). In this method ICP and FCP are calculated & hydrostatic pressure because of extra
mud weight increase is subtracted from FCP so that there is no extra pressure because of additional
density.
Whenever the killing is stopped in between due to any reason, the casing pressure should be reduced by
an amount which is equal to extra hydrostatic pressure being exerted by additional mud density. If the
extra pressure exerted by additional mud density is not taken in to the consideration than it may lead to
further complication. As this method requires precise calculation and experience so this method is rarely
used.
4.4.6.3 Reverse Out The Influx Through The Drill Pipe
This involves pumping through the annulus & taking returns through the drill string. In this method drill
pipe is connected with choke manifold before starting reverse circulation. Therefore, when the influx is
reversed out, the pressure profiles for drill pipe & annulus are reversed, resulting in reduction in annulus
pressure when the wait and weight is used and a constant casing pressure when Driller's method is used.
This technique has been found to be useful especially when a large kick has been taken & MAASP is
critical.
Example :
Well depth - 10,000 ft Normal circulation rate - 6 bpm
Hole size - 8 ½” Slow circulating kill rate - 500 psi @ 3 bpm
Drill pipe size - 5” Fracture Gradient - 0.70 psi/ft
9 5/8” shoe - 4,000 ft Mud Gradient - 0.52 psi/f t
Annulus Pressure - 300 psi Drill pipe Pressure - 200 psi
Pit Level Increase - 10 bbl
Solution:
1. Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure
= (Fracture Gradient - Mud Gradient) x shoe depth
= (0.70 - 0.52) x 4000 = 720 psi
MAASP ( 720 psi ) should not be exceeded to avoid fracturing at casing shoe.
2. Flow rate can be determined by using equation Pc=KQ1.78
where,
Pc = Pressure losses in the circulating system
K = Constant
Q = Flow rate bpm
K = Pc ÷ Q1.78 = 500 ÷ 31.78 = 70.74

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Since the shut in annulus pressure is 300 psi, the maximum circulating pressure losses can be calculated
Pc = 720 - 300 = 420 psi
Flow rate encountering 420 psi circulating pressure loss can be calculated as:
Q = (Pc ÷ K) = (420 ÷ 70.74) = 2.78 bpm
Therefore, influx must be reversed at rates less than 2.7 bpm to prevent fracturing the shoe as follows :
• Pump the influx up the annulus 100 or 200 strokes keeping drill pipe pressure constant.
• Start reverse circulation by keeping the drill pipe pressure constant at 200 psi while bringing the
pump to approximately 2 bpm with the annulus pressure not to exceed 720 psi.
• Once the rate is established, read the annulus pressure & keep that constant until the influx is
completely displaced.
• When the influx is out, drill pipe pressure and the annulus pressure should read 200 psi after stopping
the pump.
• Circulate conventionally the kill mud to the bit keeping the annulus pressure equal to 200 psi
• With the kill mud at the bit, read the drill pipe pressure and circulate kill mud to the surface keeping
the drill pipe pressure constant.
• Circulate & weigh-up to provide trip margin.
4.4.6.4 Use of Pill Ahead of Kill Mud
This method is based on the fact that the use of kill weight mud to displace the gas influx reduces the
pressure in the annulus in wait & weight method. Therefore, further increase in mud weight would
further reduce the pressure at the casing seat. This technique is useful only if open hole volume is more
than string volume. However maximum density of pill should be less than fracture value and amount
should be less or equal to the open hole volume.
Ref. last example –
Mud gradient = 01.52 psi/ft
Fracture Gradient = 0.70 psi/ft.
Maximum pill density = 0.70 ÷ 0.052 = 13.46 ppg
Casing Annulus Capacity = 270 bbl
Open Hole Capacity = 180 bbl (approximately)
In this case the open hole volume is approximately 180 bbl. Therefore pill volume should be less than 180
bbl i.e. less than open hole volume as to have positive effect in reducing annulus pressure.
Note :Heavy pill method is difficult to handle if the drill pipe goes on a vacuum which happens in most
cases.
4.4.6.5 Bull heading
This is a method of forcing the kick back into the formation (it does not necessarily mean that influx will
go back from where it originally entered the well). The well is killed by pumping continuously into the
annulus. Bull heading is considered in following situations:-

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a) When kick calculations show that the casing pressure during conventional killing will exceed the
MAASP.
b) When normal circulation is not possible because
• Pipe has been sheared or no pipe in the hole
• String is off bottom.
• String or bit is plugged.
c) When a combined loss and kick situation is experienced.
d) H2S or high pressure gas influx which cannot be handled safely by rig personnel and equipment.
Bull heading is not a routine operation. Often well bore fluids will be pumped into the weakest zone
exposed in the open hole which may not be the formation that originally kicked. Therefore bull heading
is more successful if a casing is set deep and the open hole section is relatively short.
If gas influx is suspected, pumping rate for bull heading should be fast enough to exceed the rate of gas
migration. If the pump pressure increases instead of decreasing, it is an indication that pumping rate is
too slow to be successful. This can be a problem in large diameter holes.
4.4.7 Blockage In Annulus
When the mud's suspension capabilities are reduced, there is a chance of annulus getting packed off. The
increase in drill pipe pressure is usually more gradual and erratic due to hole pack off around annulus
and no response is seen in D/P gauges due to choke operation at the time of killing. This problem can be
identified conclusively by an increase in torque and/or drag if the drill string is being moved during the kill
procedure. The pipe is probably stuck at this point. No generic solution can be offered as every situation
is unique. But normal consideration will involve first volumetrically controlling any gas above the pack off
depth followed by regaining the ability of circulate from as deep as possible. Fishing the stuck drill string
should be postponed until pressure control has been ensured.
4.4.8 Hydrates Formation
Hydrates are compounds of water and hydrocarbon gas. They are solid substances with ice like
characteristics. Formation of hydrates can cause blocking of flow lines and BOP stacks, thereby preventing
fluid circulation and normal functioning of BOP stacks. Most favorable situations for hydrate formation
are during well killing (when gas is in the well) and well testing.
Various conditions conducive to formation of hydrates are:
a) Motionless Time
b) Low temperature
c) High pressure
d) Availability of free water
e) Presence of hydrocarbon specially methane
4.4.8.1 Prevention and removal of hydrates
I. Motionless time should be avoided when gas is near the surface (In offshore stopping of kick
operations when gas is within 200-500 ft of BOP stack should be avoided ).

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II. Pumping of methanol/glycol through kill line should be considered for deep water operations. It
can be used to both prevent the hydrate formation and to dissolve or thaw after they have formed.
In deep water well killing operation, it can be injected at the time when the gas is near the BOP
stack. Since location of the gas in the well bore cannot be evaluated with sufficient accuracy and
moreover if the gas enters slowly in the well, it gets uniformly distributed in small bubbles therefore
a continuous injection of methanol through kill line should be preferred.
III. Oil base mud is most suitable for minimizing the hydrate formation. Oil base mud minimizes the
available free water, also some quantity of hydrocarbon gas gets dissolved in the oil mud.
IV. Where oil base mud is not practical, salt mud should be used.
V. For removal of hydrates, the only reliable way is to increase the temperature by circulating warm
fluid around or near the hydrate plug which will help the plug to melt slowly.
(In offshore operations coil tubing can be run down the riser, near the plug and warm fluid can be
circulated.)
VI. Since high pressure may exist below the hydrate plug, use of snubbing unit may be considered while
melting / drilling the plug.

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4.5 WELL KILLING BY DRILLERS METHOD (First Circulation)

Well Depth : 5,579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 600 psi Mud Weight : 10.4 ppg
Annulus strokes : 2,700
4.5.1 Partial Nozzle Plugging
After pumping 350 strokes of mud increase in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle plugging. The following procedure must be
followed .
a) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess
pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep new drill pipe pressure constant for
remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.5.2 Nozzle Washout
After pumping 380 strokes of mud decrease in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle washout. The following procedure must be
followed .
d) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
e) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess
pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
f) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep new drill pipe pressure constant for
remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.5.3 Choke Plugging
After pumping 500 strokes of mud, increase in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed.
First increase in casing pressure then after lag time increase in drill pipe pressure will be observed This is
the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed .
a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR/ valve upstream of choke.
b) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess
pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep original drill pipe pressure constant
for remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.5.4 Choke Wash out
After pumping 600 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. First drop
in casing pressure then after lag time drop in drill pipe pressure will be observed. This is the problem of
choke washout. The following procedure must be followed .

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a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR /valve upstream of choke.
b) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess
pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep original drill pipe pressure constant
for remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.5.5 Pump Failure
After pumping 700 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. Drop in
the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of total pump failure. The following procedure must
be followed .
a) Close choke and bring pump throttle to zero. Line up alternate pump.
b) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess
pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep new drill pipe pressure constant for
remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.6 WELL KILLING BY DRILLERS METHOD (Second Circulation)
Well Depth : 5,579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 450 psi Kill Mud Weight : 12.0 ppg
Annulus strokes : 2,700 Original Mud weight : 10.4 ppg

4.6.1 Partial Nozzle Plugging

After pumping 350 strokes of mud, increase in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle plugging. The following procedure must be
followed .
a) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (350/900)= 275 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the new drill pipe pressure constant for remainingpart of circulation.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant &
keep new drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.

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4.6.2 Nozzle Washout

After pumping 380 strokes of mud, decrease in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle washout. The following procedure must be
followed.
a) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value.
Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450 x (380/900) = 260 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more, bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring
the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the new drill pipe pressure constant for remaining part of circulation.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant &
keep new drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.6.3 Choke Plugging
After pumping 500 strokes of mud, increase in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed.
Increase in casing pressure is observed first then after lag time increase in drill pipe pressure will be
observed. This is the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed
a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR /valve upstream of choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (500/900)= 200 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring
the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the drill pipe pressure constant for remaining part of circulation.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.6.4 Choke Wash out
After pumping 600 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed.
Drop in casing pressure is observed first then after lag time drop in drill pipe pressure will be observed.
This is the problem of choke Washout. The following procedure must be followed.

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a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR /valve upstream of choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (600/900)= 150 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the drill pipe pressure constant for remaining part of circulation.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.6.5 Pump Failure
After pumping 700 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. Drop in
the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of Pump Failure. The following procedure must be
followed .
a) Close choke and bring pump throttle to zero. Line up alternate pump.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (700/900)= 100 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the drill pipe pressure constant for remaining part of circulation.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.7 WELL KILLING BY WAIT & WEIGHT METHOD
Well Depth : 5579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 600 psi Mud Weight : 10.4 ppg

Strokes Pressure
ICP = 700 psi 0 700
KMW = 12 ppg 100 655
FCP = 289 psi 200 610
Pressure drop = (700-289) x 100 ÷ 900 = 45 psi 300 565
per 100 stroke 500 475
600 430
700 385
800 340
900 289

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4.7.1 Partial Nozzle Plugging

After pumping 350 strokes of mud increase in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle plugging. The following procedure must be
followed .
a. Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b. Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (350/900)= 275 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more, bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c. Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Note down the drill pipe pressure
at this stage. Let us assume drill pressure is 1,000 psi at 400 strokes.
d. Draw new Pressure schedule as per following: Drill pipe pressure at 400 strokes = 1000psi Pressure
drop per 100 stroke =45 psi
To draw new pressure schedule decrease 45 psi per 100 stroke to all the values of drill pipe pressure
in the new schedule.
e) Follow the new pressure schedule.

Strokes Old Pressure New Pressure

0 700
100 655
200 610
300 565
400 520 1000
500 475 1000-45=955
600 430 954-45=910
700 385 908-45=865
800 340 862-45=820
900 289 816-45=775
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure (New FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.7.2 Nozzle Washout
After pumping 380 strokes of mud, decrease in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing pressure
remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle plugging. The following procedure must be
followed .
a. Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b. Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (380/900)= 260 psi

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If the drill pipe pressure is more, bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c. Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Note down the drill pipe pressure
at this stage. Let us assume drill pressure is 500 psi at 400 strokes.
d. Draw new Pressure schedule as per following: Drill pipe pressure at 400 strokes = 500psi Pressure
drop per 100 stroke =45 psi
To draw new pressure schedule decrease 45 psi per 100 stroke to all the values of drill pipe pressure
in the new schedule.
e) Follow the new pressure schedule.
Strokes Old Pressure New Pressure
0 700
100 655
200 610
300 565
400 520 500
500 475 500-45=455
600 430 455-45=410
700 385 410-45=365
800 340 365-45=320
900 289 320-45=275
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure (New FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the surface
4.7.3 Choke Plugging
After pumping 500 strokes of mud, increase in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. increase
in casing pressure is observed first then after lag time increase in drill pipe pressure will be observed This
is the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed
a) Stop pump immediately, close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR/ valve upstream of choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (500/900)= 200 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Follow original Pressure schedule.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure (Original FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the surface.

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4.7.4 Choke Wash out

After pumping 600 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. drop in
casing pressure is observed first then after lag time drop in drill pipe pressure will be observed. This is the
problem of choke Washout. The following procedure must be followed .
a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR or close a valve upstream of choke. Line up alternate choke and
open HCR/ valve upstream of choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value. Remaining value of SIDPP = 450
– 450 x (600/900)= 150 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Follow original Pressure schedule.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure (Original FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the surface.
4.7.5 Pump Failure
After pumping 700 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed. Drop in
the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of pump failure. The following procedure must be
followed .
a) Close choke and bring pump throttle to zero. Line up alternate pump.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value.
c) Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450 x (700/900)= 100 psi
d) If the drill pipe pressure is more, bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and
bring the pressure to calculated value.
e) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
f) If KRP of second pump is different draw new pressure schedule otherwise follow original Pressure
schedule.
In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this case the
remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant then
keep drill pipe pressure (Original FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the surface. If KRP of second pump is
different follow the new FCP accordingly.

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BLOW OUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT

5 SURFACE / SUB SEA
BLOWOUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT
Blowout prevention equipment is composed of various components required to operate the blowout
preventers under varying rig and well conditions. The system consists of blowout preventers, kill line,
choke manifold, BOP control unit, diverter, marine riser and auxiliary equipment. The primary function
of this system is to confine well fluid to the well bore, provide means to add fluid to the well bore, allow
controlled volumes to be withdrawn, means to hang off string, shearing of pipe if necessary, disconnection
of risers from subsea well head and re-entry of temporary abandoned well. The underwater blowout
prevention equipment is designed to have 100% redundancy in equipment in the event of any one
function failing.
5.1 BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
When primary well control has been lost, it becomes necessary to seal the well to prevent an uncontrolled
flow of formation fluid. The equipment consist of inside blowout preventers also known as drill pipe
blowout preventers, drill pipe safety valve designed to stop the flow through drill pipe and annular
preventer or ram type preventer designed to stop flow from the annulus.
5.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BLOW OUT PREVENTERS
The quantity of pressure containment sealing components in the vertical wellbore of a BOP stack (total
number of ram and annular preventers) shall be used to identify the classification or “class” for the BOP
system installed. For example, a Class 6 stack designation indicates a stack with a combination of six ram
and/or annular preventers installed (e.g. two annular and four ram preventers or one annular and five
ram preventers). For example, a Class 6 BOP stack installed with two annular-type and four ram-type
preventers is designated as “Class 6-A2-R4”.
5.2 ANNULAR PREVENTER
The first preventer normally closed when shut-in procedure is initiated is the annular preventer. The four
basic segments of annular preventer are the head, body, piston and steel ribbed packing element. When
the preventer's closing mechanism is actuated, hydraulic pressure is applied to the piston, causing it to
move upward. This forces the packing element towards the well bore and it closes around the object in
the well bore. The preventer element is opened by applying hydraulic pressure to the piston in opposite
direction which slides the piston downward, and allows the packing element to return to its original
position.
Annular preventer can be closed on drill pipe, drill collar, casing pipes, square & hexagonal Kelly, tapered
pipe, tool joint, logging tool, wire line and on an open hole in case of any emergency. When annular
preventer is closed on open hole, the rubber packing element is subjected to high stress and the overall
life of the element is reduced. Therefore, the annular preventer should be closed on open hole only if
there is an emergency (Blind ram/BSR is failed) & the condition of the packing element is good. However
the operating pressure required to close in open hole will be more than normal operating pressure.

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Figure 5.1: Operating Pressure Graph of 13-5/8'', 5,000 PSI Hydril Annular Preventer

Figure 5.2: Operating Pressure Graph of 13-5/8'', 5000 PSI Shaffer Annular Preventer
Under certain conditions, hydraulic pressure has to be reduced so as to minimize any wear to rubber
of the packing element and to avoid any possible damage to large diameter tubular. Manufacturers
recommended closing pressures that depend on shut-in casing pressure, for stripping operations should
be followed. A special design feature of annular preventer is that it allows stripping operation to be
carried out while maintaining seal as pipe/tool joint passes through it. When sub-sea stripping is done,
surge bottle(s) have to be used for faster closure of annular preventer's element after tool joint passes.

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Figure 5.3: Hydril GK Annular Preventer

Figure 5.4: Closing Sequence of Annular Preventer

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Figure 5.5: Cameron 'D' Type Annular Preventer

Figure 5.6: Shaffer Spherical Annular Preventer

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Figure 5.7: Hydril 'MSP' Figure 5.8: Hydril 'GK'

Figure 5.9: Hydril 'GX'

(Different Models of Hydril Annular Preventer)

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Figure 5.10: Hydril 'GL' Annular Preventer

Figure 5.11: Different Hook ups of "GL" annular preventer

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Figure 5.12: WOM 13 5/8” Annular BOP

In subsea operations, annular preventer requires different operating pressures due to hydrostatic head of
drilling fluid in riser, which tries to force open the annular preventer when it is in closed position.
M/s Hydril is manufacturing different models of annular preventers for surface and subsea services. MSP
model is low pressure annular normally used as diverter, GK models are used on surface BOP, GL model is
used on subsea BOP and GX models are of higher rated working pressure used in both surface & subsea
BOP. The only difference in the GL & other models is that it has secondary chamber in addition to opening
and closing chambers. This secondary chamber can be connected to closing line or to the riser pipe with
a separator in between when used in subsea to compensate for riser mud hydrostatic head. If GL model
is to be used on surface than secondary chamber should be connected to opening chamber so as to
minimize packing element's wear.
5.3 VISUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURE OF ANNULAR PREVENTER
The control hoses from the BOP control unit should be isolated before starting visual inspection.
5.3.1 Packing Element
Packing element consists of a rounded elastomer, reinforced with steel segments that control rubber
flow and extrusion. When closing pressure is transmitted to packer, it displaces and deforms the rubber
radially inwards. This forms a seal around the object in the BOP bore, providing an effective barrier from
well bore pressure. The packing element rubber material should be suited for the mud system in use and
anticipated surface temperature.
Recommended Packing Element :

Type of Drilling Fluid Temperature Range Elastomer

Water Base -30°F to 225° F (- 34.44°C to 107°C) Natural Rubber
Oil Base 20° F to 190° F (- 6.66°C to 88°C) Nitrile Rubber
Oil Base -30°F to 170° F (- 34.44°C to 77°C) Neoprene Rubber

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Following checks and precautions for packing elements are suggested:

a) Cracked rubber surfaces and excessive wear like a section of rubber missing or worn away.
b) Ensure none of the steel segments are cracked protruding or missing.
c) Check the packing element is relaxing to its full opening diameter since due to age factor hardness
of rubber increases and it hinders the flow of rubber.
d) Inspection of slots between the packing element steel segments and void area above the packing
element is necessary in certain models. These are common locations where cement and other solids
become lodged, which can hamper or even prevent the packer from closing fully. Flushing with the
jetting tool or high pressure gun cures the problem.
e) Check for blistering or swelling which can be attributed to previous exposures to carbon-dioxide or
oil based mud environments.
f) Packing element should be stored in a cool, dry and dark place. This helps in maintaining rubber
integrity as heat, atmosphere & light can accelerate deterioration.
g) In emergency situations, packing element can be replaced with the string inside the well bore as
shown in figure 5.13, this involves splitting of the packer, cutting one side of the element between two
of the steel segments using a sharp knife. A hacksaw is not to be used to cut because it removes the
part of rubber, possibly affecting the performance. As the packing elements are manufactured with
the rubber in compression, placing the rubber surface in tension by spreading the steel segments
with a bar will help to make an easier cut. Once the packing is split it can be stretched apart and
slipped around the pipe. Instances have been recorded where split packers have prevented entry of
bits/tools from BOP on subsequent trips, to avoid this the cut packing element should be replaced
with unsplit packing element as soon as possible. It is important to note that changing a packing
element in an emergency situation can be dangerous and should only be attempted by trained and
experienced professionals. In general, regular inspection and maintenance of the BOP and packing
element are critical to preventing emergency situations and ensuring safe and efficient drilling
operations
5.3.2 Bore
• The bore of the annular should be inspected for key seating and gauging. Key seating occurs where
rotating or stripping pipe wears away at the bore in a localized area. This is easily recognized at the
top of the bore, where the varying wall thickness of remaining steel can be observed by using the
stainless steel ring groove as a reference. If wear has increased the bore diameter by more than 3/16
of an inch, it should be repaired as per the manufacturer recommendations.
• Metal burrs and rolled edges resulting from key seating or gauging can be carefully removed using
an emery cloth or fine file.

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Figure 5.13: Replacement of packing Element

5.3.3 Ring Grooves
• Ring grooves on a flanged connection gives metal to metal seal when bolted together with compatible
ring gasket between them. The primary sealing area is the outer surface of the ring groove. Minor
blemishing and light rust here can be removed by polishing with a very fine emery cloth of 300+ grit.
A more abrasive cloth can scar the groove, causing the flange connection to leak.
• Outer diameter having pitting, scratches and cracks requiring the ring groove to be welded, machined
and stress relieved.
• Ring groove inspection should not be limited to the bottom flange only. The top ring groove should
also be inspected as this has to provide an effective seal, as & when situations arise e.g. when
additional BOPs, snubbing unit, lubricator etc. are installed on the top of annular preventer which
require pres- sure integrity.

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5.3.4 Bolt Holes

The bolt holes surrounding the upper ring groove must be free of debris and allow studs to be fully
screwed in. Damaged threads of bolt holes may prevent proper equipment make up to the top of the
annular preventer, leading to a faulty seal between the connections. To maintain the integrity of the bolt
holes and the ring groove, all bolts should be used when installing a bell nipple.
5.3.5 Hydraulic Control Line Connections
• Inspect condition of threads, ensure there are no galled threads that could result in a line disconnect
or leak under pressure.
• Length of connecting nipple should be as short as possible so as to protect it from falling objects
5.3.6 Wear Sleeve
Some annular preventers have a wear sleeve installed to protect the piston. Ensure this is firmly attached
to the annular body and inspect the drainage slot for mud and cement. Debris trapped in the slot can scar
the piston and restrict piston movement.
5.3.7 Wear Plate
When the element moves it will try to wear the head of the annular, to avoid the wear of head some
manufacturers provide a wear plate which can be easily replaced in the field if worn out.
5.4 HYDRAULIC OPERATOR TEST
The hydraulic operator test determines the integrity of hydraulic chamber and associated seals. This test
identifies the leaks that go undetected during routine well site BOP pressure tests. To ensure that any
leak that is identified is in the annular preventer and not in the control unit, a hot line assembly should be
used to isolate the pressure between annular preventer and the control unit. The procedure is as follows:
• Close the annular preventer on the pipe size to be used, with 1500 psi closing pressure.
• Allow the element to stabilize. Due to large amount of rubber in the element it will take couple of
minutes for element to creep in.
• Close the isolation valve on the hot line assembly and monitor the pressure.
• Carefully remove the opening line and monitor the fluid draining out. Ensure the fluid is not
contaminated by mud & and is free from sand and other abrasives.
• If there is no pressure drop in 10 minutes, the seals are holding.
• If there is any pressure drop then there are two possible leak paths.
o Closing chamber to opening chamber.
o Closing chamber to the well bore.
• If fluid is continuously flowing out of the opening chamber, then the seal between the closing
chamber and opening chamber needs replacement.
• If fluid stops flowing out of opening chamber, then the leak is into the well bore and seal between
piston and well bore needs replacement.

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• To test the opening chamber side, remove the hot line connection from the close side and connect
it to the open side and open the annular with 1500 psi pressure. Close the isolation valve of hot line
and monitor the pressure.
• Monitor the fluid draining out of the closing chamber and inspect the hydraulic fluid.
• If the pressure remains constant for 10 minutes, seals are holding & test complete.
• If there is any pressure drop then there are two possible leak paths.
o Opening chamber to the closing chamber.
o Opening chamber to the well bore.
• If the fluid is continuously flowing out of the closing chamber then the seal between the opening
chamber and closing chamber needs replacement.
• If the fluid stops flowing out of the closing chamber the leak is into the well bore, and the seal
between the opening chamber and well bore needs replacement.
5.5 RAM TYPE PREVENTER
Ram type preventers are designed to seal the annulus by forcing two front packing elements which make
contact with each other and seal around the object in the well bore. The two top seals seal the annulus
area. The packing elements have rubber packing seals that affect the complete closure. Other than the
sealing mechanism, ram type preventers differs greatly from annular preventers because each type and
size of ram has a particular function and cannot be used for a variety of applications, the exception is the
variable bore ram.
For example, ram preventer bodies with a set of 5” pipe ram will seal on 5” pipe only and will not seal on
any other size of pipe, nor will it seal without pipe in the well bore. Ram type preventers are generally
considered to be more reliable in high pressure situations & are easily serviceable.
Ram preventers are manufactured with self-feeding action for the rubber sealing. As the rubber wears,
the small extrusion plates are forced into the increased area, which allows additional rubber to extend
past the ram face and aid in securing a seal. If the rams are not used properly, the self-feeding action will
cause the rubber seal to extend an excessive distance into the well bore, which will cause over stressing
and rapid deterioration of element. Because of this the pipe ram should not be closed if there is no pipe
in the hole.
5.5.1 Pipe rams are designed to seal the well bore around the fixed size of pipe for which it is designed.
The front packer (ram packer) of pipe rams has a groove in front to seal around the pipe in the well bore.
The front packer is enclosed between two steel plates because of the following reasons:
• To push extra rubber for sealing around the pipe in case the face of the front packer wears out.
• To prevent the extruding of rubber from top and bottom due to wellbore and closing pressure.

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Figure 5.14: Pipe Rams

5.5.2 Blind rams are designed to seal the well if there is no pipe in the well bore. The front packers of
blind rams are flat faced and contain a rubber section. When the ram is closed both the flat faced rubber
sections make contact with each other and seal the annulus.

Figure 5.15: Blind Rams

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5.5.3 Variable bore rams (VBR) have the capability to seal on several pipe sizes depending on the range
of variable bore ram. For example 3 1/2” - 5” variable bore ram can be closed on any pipe size from 3 1/2”
to 5” i.e. 3 1/2 “, 4”, 4 1/2” and 5” etc. The front packer of VBR have small steel segments embedded in
the rubber and will take the shape of the pipe around which it is closed.

Figure 5.16: VBR

5.5.4 Shear blind rams (SBR) are designed to shear the pipe in the well and seal the wellbore
simultaneously. It has steel blades to shear the pipe and seals to seal the annulus after the pipe. Shearing
capability varies with size of pipe & its weight. The shearing force will also vary with type and size of BOP.
When shear blind rams are closed, both upper and lower blade assembly moves closer and shear the
pipe in the wellbore, after shearing the upper blade moves over the lower blade. The blade packer seals
between the blades and top seals seal the annulus area. Some of the manufacturers use side packer
along with the top seals.

Figure 5.17: Shear/Blind Ram

Shearing operation should be done on no load condition which can be achieved by hanging the pipe/
string on the lower pipe ram to avoid any accident. Whenever the pipe is hanged the rams should be
locked properly.

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5.5.5 Dual rams are used when two production tubing strings are lowered for two separate zones. These
type of rams have front packers with two grooves which will seal around both the tubing strings when
ram is closed.
5.5.6 Stripper rams has special PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluro Ethylene) seal in front packer, which enables the
string to be reciprocated when stripper rams are closed and well is under pressure. When the stripper
rams are to be used for both reciprocation as well as rotation than the PTFE seals with anti-rotation
edges are used in front packers. These rams are normally used in a snubbing unit BOP& not in the normal
drilling BOP stack.
5.5.7 Slip rams are used to hold the string weight and not to seal the well bore. These types of rams
have a front packer made-up of steel with dies which will hold the pipe body when it is closed and will
not allow the pipe to move up or down. Such rams are used in snubbing units and sometimes in capping
stack in combination with inverted rams.
5.6 DESCRIPTION & VISUAL INSPECTION OF RAM PREVENTER
Ram type preventer consist of two ram blocks that have front packers and top seals, and are mounted on
independently operating piston rods that have a common hydraulic supply. Closing pressure forces the
ram blocks across the BOP bore into one another thereby providing the seal.
5.6.1 Bore
The bore of the ram preventer should be inspected for key seating and gauging. Key seating occurs when
rotating or tripping pipe wears away at a localized area in the bore. This is easily recognized at the top of
the bore, where varying wall thickness of the remaining steel can be observed by using the stainless steel
ring groove as a reference. If wear increases the bore diameter by more than 3 /16" of an inch, repair
should be done as recommended by BOP manufacturer. Metal burrs and rolled edges resulting from key
seating or gauging can be carefully removed using an emery cloth or fine file.
5.6.2 Ring Grooves
All ring grooves should be inspected including those on the side outlets. The primary sealing area of 6B
and 6BX flanges is the outer surface of the ring groove, which must be free from pits and scratches. Minor
blemishes and light rust can be removed by polishing the damaged areas using very fine emery cloth.
It is important to know that an abrasive cloth can scar the groove, thereby resulting into a leaking
connection. Ensure that ring grooves are clean and free of debris prior to installing a new ring gasket.
5.6.3 Flange Bolts & Nuts
BOP stack vibrations during drilling operations can actually stretch flange bolts. These bolts and nuts
should be inspected using a thread profile and the ones with galled or pulled threads should be replaced.
Ensure that the flange bolts are long enough, so that at least one full thread extends past the made up
nut.
5.6.4 Bonnet Doors
Ram blocks should be removed after opening the bonnet doors. The bonnet doors, body face and ram
cavities should be washed thoroughly. Rams have an elastomer gasket that seal between the bonnet
door and the BOP body face. The gasket fits in the groove machined into the bonnet door. The groove
should be clean and free of severe scars or pitting.

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Two types of gaskets are the most commonly used, one having only an elastomer and another having
an elastomer reinforced with steel. Both types of gaskets seal between the bonnet door and BOP body.
Minor groove pitting or scratches can be repaired using an emery cloth. Scarring or pitting on the outside
of the groove area will not affect the bonnet door seal. Ensure that there should not be any such damage
on the bonnet door which may prevent the bonnet door from closing completely. Note that the gaskets
which are not reinforced with steel should be replaced each time the bonnet door is opened.
5.6.5 Body Face
This area is often scarred or dented due to ram block contact during ram changes or mis-aligned bonnet
door steel gasket or debris trapped during bonnet door closure. Localized pitting is very common which
should be repaired by polishing with fine emery cloth. A long scar or pitting across the entire sealing area
or any washout due to leakage should be repaired as per the recommendations of BOP manufacturer.
The surface outside the gasket sealing area should be free of anything that may prevent the bonnet door
from closing completely. Raised surfaces can be removed using a fine long flat file or fine emery cloth.
5.6.6 Ram Cavities
As ram preventers are designed to hold pressure only from below i.e. well bore side, the effective sealing
area where top seal is sealing is top half of the ram cavity.
To ensure the top seal sealing area, inspection of the ram cavity is necessary. In some of the preventers
top seat is provided which can be replaced if worn out or damaged. In preventers which have in-built top
sealing seat area, light rust or pitting should be removed by fine buffing wheel.
Raised surfaces can damage the ram block top seal and should be removed using fine file or emery cloth.
For major scars or washouts, the ram body is to be sent for repair if it has in-built top sealing area.
5.6.7 Ram Blocks
Ram blocks mainly have two seals, one is front packer and other is top seal. Both the seals should be
inspected for cracking, blistering, cutting or missing rubber. The pipe ram block also should be inspected
for cracking and damage to centralizing ribs. Damaged seals should be replaced. Shear ram blocks,
blades, top seals and blade packers should be inspected for any damage. Damaged seals and blades
should be replaced. Any deformation in ram block should be taken seriously as sometimes it may prevent
the rams from fully opening or requiring excessive pressure for opening. Such blocks should be repaired
or replaced.
5.6.8 Bonnet Bolts
The condition of the bonnet bolts greatly affects the seal between the bonnet door and ram preventer's
body. Galled or pulled threads hinder proper make up torque. Threads on the bolts and the preventer
body should be checked with a thread profile gauge. The surface where the bolt headsets against the
bonnet door should be inspected for galling. Galling indicates that much of the bolt make-up torque is
lost at this surface, rather than being transferred to the threads. Insufficient make up torque may result
in leaks between the bonnet door and body. Minor galling can be repaired using a file or emery cloth.
Lubrication of the bonnet bolts will reduce galling and distribute the proper make up torque throughout
the bolt. The threads and the surface under the bolts head should be coated with recommended lubricant.
Never apply excessive lubricant as it can cause a hydraulic lock within the threaded bolt hole.

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5.6.9 Ram Operating Piston Rod

The operating piston rod should be inspected for scratches or pitting which could result in a hydraulic
fluid leak. Operating piston rod leaks are associated with “primary seal" from the well bore side (also
called as piston rod mud seal) and 'O' ring (bonnet to piston rod seal) from operating fluid side. A weep
hole is located on the bottom half of the bonnet door and in between both the seals mentioned above,
if operating fluid is dripping out of the weep hole, it indicates the failure of 'O' ring (bonnet to piston rod
seal) and if well bore fluid is dripping out of the weep hole, it indicates the failure of primary seal (piston
rod mud seal). The weep hole also prevents the well bore fluid to go to the operating side & vice versa.
The weep hole should never be plugged and should be checked for any blockage before installing the
ram preventer.
5.6.10 Emergency Plastic Packing Seal (Secondary Seal)
Emergency plastic packing provides an emergency seal on piston rod in the event of primary seal leakage
at the time when repair cannot be immediately done.
When well bore fluid is dripping out of the weep hole it indicates that the primary seal is leaking. If
this occurs during a well control operation a plastic packing is forced through a small check valve which
energizes the secondary seals & arrests the leakage from well bore side. Plastic packing should be soft
enough to allow easy insertion. Once the well control operation is over and well is safe the leaking seals
must be changed before resuming further operation. This is an emergency seal only and should not be
energized during pressure testing of BOP. If a leak occurs during testing, the operating piston rod primary
seal should be replaced.
5.6.11Control Hose Connection
Inspect the condition of the threads used for the hydraulic control hose connections. Ensure that there
are no galled threads that can result in a line disconnection or leak when under pressure. A minimized
length of connecting nipples to closing & opening ports aids in protecting these lines from falling objects.

Figure 5.18: Cameron Ram Preventer & ITS Fluid Path

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5.6.12Locking Devices
Locking devices are designed to hold the rams in the closed position when the string is hanged on the ram,
and if accumulator operating pressure is lost or removed. Manual locking system are commonly used for
surface BOP stacks. Depending upon the type, manual locks hold the rams closed by either screwing the
locking screw or unscrewing it. In either case, the threads on the locking shaft should be in a condition
that allows the locks to be easily closed. Since each manual locking system works independently both
sides must be locked.
BOP stack with auto-lock system in ram preventer is also used now days. The preventers equipped with
automatic locking system remain locked in closed position even if the closing pressure is lost or removed,
and hydraulic opening pressure is required to unlock the locking device.
There are different kinds of locking mechanisms for different makes of ram preventers & are described
below.
5.6.12.1 Cameron Wedge Lock

Figure 5.19: U Blowout Preventer

It is a hydraulically operated lock in which a wedge is energized hydraulically when the rams are closed.
Two hydraulic lines are required to open or close the wedge locks. A wedge lock is interchangeable with
manual locking screws. When opening pressure is applied first the wedge moves back & unlocks the
piston allowing the piston rod to open the rams.
5.6.12.2 Shaffer Poslock
It has locking segments which lock at the locking shoulder on the cylinder wall. To energize the locking
segments, a locking cone is provided in the main operating piston. When the closing pressure is applied
locking cone moves and the pushes the locking segments out to get locked at locking shoulder. The
locking
cone blocks the segments from retracting and keeps the ram in closed position. When the opening
pressure is applied first the locking cone moves back which in turn allows the locking segments to move
radially inwards, unlocking the ram and allowing the main piston to open the ram. This locking system
locks the ram in a unique position. No special operating pressure or lines are required in this locking
system.
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Figure 5.20: Poslock Piston in Closed Position

5.6.12.3 Shaffer Ultra-lock

It has locking dogs which locks on the locking rod provided inside the cylinder. To energise the locking
dogs there is locking dog retainer on the back of the main piston. When the closing pressure is applied
the locking dog retainer moves along-with main piston and pushes the locking dogs out to get locked
on locking rod which keeps the ram in closed position. When the opening pressure is applied first the
locking dog retainer moves back which in turn unlock the locking dogs from the locking rod and allows
the main piston to get opened. This feature locks the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear.
No special operating pressure or lines are required in this locking system. The preventers with poslock
can be upgraded to ultra lock system.

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5.6.12.4 Koomey Auto lock

It has got locking dogs which move in to the groove when the rams are closed. The groove is at the end of
the liner. When the rams come together the locking piston holds the dogs in-place. It has a self-adjusting
feature which locks the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear. The rams remain locked until
opening pressure pushes the piston back. When opening pressure is applied, first the locking piston
moves back allowing the dogs to unlock and then moves the piston rod to open the rams. No special
operating pressure or lines are required in this locking system.

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Figure 5.22: Koomey Auto Lock

5.6.12.5 Hydril Multiple Position Lock (MPL)
It has a unidirectional clutch mechanism and a lock nut. When the closing pressure is applied the
unidirectional clutch mechanism, which has a lock nut fitted on the threaded tail rod, permits the piston
to move freely in ram closing direction. Once the ram is closed the piston gets mechanically locked and
clutch mechanism & lock nut prevents ram to move in opening direction. When the opening force is
applied, it acts on the cylinder liner which moves the transfer ring to disengage the rear clutch plate from
the front clutch plate and holds them separated as long as opening pressure is maintained. Continued
application of opening pressure moves the ram to the open position as the lock nut and the front clutch
plate rotate freely. This feature locks the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear. No special
operating pressure or lines are required in this locking system.

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Figure 5.23: Hydril MPL

Figure 5.24: Cameron BOP Parts

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5.8 CHANGING OF RAMS BLOCK SEALS

Ram block seals are changed when they are not holding pressure or sometimes prior to specific operations
like casing lowering etc. Steps to change ram block seals are as below:
• Open bonnet bolts and check that all are loose.
• Open the bonnet by swinging it to one side on hinge or applying closing pressure to the ram,
depending on the type of BOP in use.
• Screw the ram lifting eye bolt on top of ram block, position the ram block and take out the block
either picking it straight up or sliding it.
• Place the block on floor/work bench. Remove lifting eye.
• Take out the top seal with the help of screw driver and a small hammer and then remove front
packer.
Note: i) Front packer will not come out first because it is locked by the pin of top seal.
ii) Some of the ram blocks are in two pieces. One is holder and other is seal block, both are kept
together with the help of two screws. To remove the seals, first screws are opened and holder
is removed and then seals are taken out with the help of screw driver and a light hammer.
• After cleaning it properly and checking the centralizer ribs for any damage first install front packer
and then the top seal. Now the ram block is ready for installation.
• Lift the ram block and install it.
• After checking the bonnet door seal and threads of bonnet bolts close bonnet and tighten the bonnet
bolts.
5.8.1 CASING PIPE RAM INSTALLATION
Before lowering casing in a well it is recommended to install suitable casing rams in the preventer so as
to meet any eventuality either during casing running in or during waiting on cement.
The installation process for casing ram on a BOP (Blowout Preventer) involves the following steps:
• Make sure that all equipment and tools are in good condition and the work area is clean and free
from debris.
• Identify the correct size and type of casing ram that is required for the job. This information should
be available in the drilling program or job plan.
• Carefully remove the existing ram from the BOP.
• Install the new casing ram onto the BOP by sliding it into the ram cavity and aligning it with the
locking mechanism. Use the appropriate tools to secure the ram in place.
• Verify that the ram is properly aligned with the bore of the BOP and that there is no interference
with any other components.
• Test the ram to ensure that it is functioning properly.
• Conduct a final inspection of the BOP and ensure that all bolts and connections are tightened to the
proper torque specifications.

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• Document the installation process and the results of the testing and inspections.
It is important to follow the manufacturer's instructions and industry standards for the installation of
casing rams on BOPs to ensure safe and efficient operations.

Figure 5.25: Parts of Cameron U Type Ram BOP

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PART LIST OF CAMERON RAM PREVENTER

Item No. Description Item No. Description

1. Body 23. Pin, Ram Guide

24. O – Ring, Operating Cylinder
2. Intermediate Flange
25. O – Ring, Operating Piston Rod
3. Bonnet to Intermediate Flange.
4. Ram Assembly 26. Lip Seal, Operating Piston

5. Piston, Operating 27. Seal Ring, Tail Rod

6. Cylinder, Operating 28. O – Ring, Wiping

29. O – Ring, Ram Change Piston to
7. Housing, Locking Screw Body
8. Locking Screw 30. O – Ring, Ram Change Piston to
Intermediate Flange
9. Ram Change Piston, `Open’
31. O–Ring, Ram Change Cylinder to
10. Ram Change Piston, `Close’ Intermediate Flange

11. Cylinder, Ram Change 32. O – Ring, Ram Change Cylinder

to Bonnet
12. Bolt, Bonnet
33. O- Ring, Ram change Piston
13. Stud, Locking Screw Housing 34. O – Ring, Bonnet Bolt Retainer
14. Nut, Locking Screw Housing 35. Cap Screw, Intermediate Flange
to Bonnet
15. Check Valve, Plastic Packing
36. Gland, Bleeder
16. Screw, Plastic Packing
37. Plug, Bleeder
17. Pipe Plug, Plastic Packing
38. Lifting Eye
18. Ring, Plastic Packing 39. Packing, Plastic
19. Ring, Plastic Energizing 40. Washer

20. Seal Ring, Connecting Rod 41. Ring, Retainer

21. Ring, Back – Up 42. Wear Ring, Operating Piston

22. Seal, Bonnet 43. Spacer, Shear

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5.9 Surface BOP Stack Arrangements

a. Annular preventers having one lower RWP than ram preventers shall be acceptable.
b. Rig-specific stack-identifying nomenclature (choke line, kill line, rams, annulars, etc.) shall be made
part of the drilling program.
c. A documented risk assessment shall be performed by the equipment user, with the participation of
the equipment owner, for all classes of BOP stack arrangements to identify ram configuration, outlet
placements, and choke and kill valve configurations. This assessment shall include tapered strings,
casings, completion equipment, test tools, etc. (See Figure for example configuration.)

Figure 5.26: BOP Stack

• A minimum of a Class 2 BOP stack arrangement with one blind ram or BSR shall be installed for wells
with a MASP of 3000 psi or less(Second may be ram or annular BOP).
• A minimum of a Class 3 BOP stack arrangement with one blind ram or BSR and one pipe ram shall
be installed for wells with a MASP of greater than 3000 psi to 5000 psi(Third may be ram or annular
BOP).
• minimum of a Class 4 BOP stack arrangement with one annular, one blind ram or BSR, and one pipe
ram shall be installed for wells with a MASP of greater than 5000 psi to 10,000 psi(Fourth may be
ram or annular BOP).
• A minimum of a Class 5 BOP stack arrangement with one annular, one BSR, and two pipe rams shall
be installed for wells with a MASP of greater than 10,000 psi (Fifth may be ram or annular BOP).
Note: In sour gas applications the BOP should be H2S trim.

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5.10 DESCRIPTION AND INSPECTION PROCEDURE OF BOP CONTROL UNIT IN FIELD

BOP control unit consists of accumulator bottles, a reservoir tank, charging system to pump hydraulic
fluid into accumulator bottles, pressure regulating valves, an operating manifold, pressure relief valve,
pneumatic pressure transmitters and air junction boxes. The purpose of BOP control unit is to provide
pressurized hydraulic fluid that will promptly operate the blowout preventers.
Inspection Prior to Pressurizing the BOP Control Unit
5.10.1 Accumulator Bottles
Accumulator bottles store pressurized hydraulic fluid to facilitate operation of a BOP in the event of
power failure and also to reduce the closing time of a BOP. The bottles are mounted in multiple banks
(rows) and vary in number, depending on the hydraulic fluid volume required to operate the preventers
and HCR valves of the BOP stack. Each bank should have an isolation valve and a bleeder valve.
To isolate one of the banks, the bank isolation valve can be closed and servicing of accumulator bottles
can be taken up by opening bleeder valve provided on each bank & discharging the fluid. Some of the
units are provided with the individual isolation valve which should be kept in open position.
Bank isolation valves and individual isolation valves should be in open position and bleeder valves should
be in closed position when unit is in operational mode.
Accumulator bottles are either float or bladder type. A float or bladder separates pre-charged nitrogen/
helium from the pressurized hydraulic fluid. Each accumulator bottle should be checked for pre-charge
pressure of nitrogen before putting the bottles in operation. If bottles are in use, to check the pre-charge
pressure make sure that the hydraulic fluid of accumulator bottle has been drained off.
On top of each accumulator bottle a Schrader valve is located to check the pre-charge and to charge or
discharge the nitrogen pre-charge pressure. Note that the subsequent tests will indicate if there is any
communications between the nitrogen and the hydraulic fluid. The pre-charge pressure for each surface
accumulator bottle shall be measured and adjusted in accordance with equipment owner's maintenance
system. The pre-charge pressure in the system accumulators serves to propel the hydraulic fluid stored
in the accumulators for operation of the system functions. There is one accumulator isolation valve in
discharge line of pump which isolates the accumulator bottles, relief valve & electrical pump. In case
more pressure is required for shearing operation the accumulator bottles should be isolated and air
pumps should be used directly for higher pressures.
5.10.2Reservoir Tank
The capacity of the reservoir tanks should be such that when the system is not pressurized the level
should be about one inch below the inspection port and when the accumulator bottles are fully charged
at 3000 psi, the level of the tank should be about an inch above the suction valves of the pumps used in
the unit. As per API recommendation the tank capacity should be at least two times the usable fluid. The
hydraulic fluid used in the tank should comply with the intended operating environment (e. g. extreme
cold, subsea BOP system).

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BOP CONTROL UNIT PARTS LIST

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ACCUMULATOR BOTTLE
Figure 5.28 (a)

CHARGING & GAUGING ASSEMBLY

Fig 5.28(b)

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5.10.3.1 General
The main pumping system provides power fluid for the main control system hydraulic functions. The
main pumping unit is used to provide fluid power for the BOP control system, and may be used to provide
fluid power to dedicated accumulator systems.
5.10.3.2 Power Supply Requirements
The main pumping unit shall be comprised of a minimum of two pump systems with at least two
independent power systems.
Note: A pump system consists of one or more pumps. An independent power system is a source of power
that is not impaired by any fault which disables the power to the other pump system(s).
5.10.3.3 Output Requirements
The main pumping unit shall be comprised of the following.
• The cumulative output capacity of the pump systems shall be sufficient to charge the main accumulator
system from pre-charge pressure to 98 % to 100 % of the system RWP within 15 minutes.
• With the loss of one pump system or one power system, the remaining pump system(s) shall have
the capacity to charge the main accumulator system from pre-charge pressure to 98 % to 100 % of
the system RWP within 30 minutes.
5.10.3.4 Pump Isolation Requirements
A supply fluid isolation valve and a discharge valve shall be provided on each pump, these valves shall not
affect the operation of other pump(s).
5.10.3.5 Air Pumps
Air pumps, if used, shall be capable of charging the accumulators to 98 % to 100 % of the system RWP
with 75 psi (0.52 MPa) air pressure supply.
5.10.3.5 Over-pressurization
Each pump system shall be protected from over-pressurization by a minimum of two devices designed to
limit the pump discharge pressure as follows:
• One device shall ensure that the pump discharge pressure does not exceed the system RWP
• The second device, normally a relief valve, shall be set to relieve at not more than 10 % above the
system RWP. The relief valve(s) and vent piping shall accommodate the maximum pumping capacity
at not more than 133% of system RWP. Verification shall be provided by either design calculation or
testing.
• Devices used to prevent pump over-pressurization shall be installed directly in the control system
supply line to the accumulators and shall not have isolation valves or any other means that could
defeat their intended purpose.
• Relief devices on main hydraulic surface supplies shall be automatically resetting. Rupture discs or
non- resetting relief valves, or both, can cause the complete loss of pressure control and shall not be
used.

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5.10.4 Electric Pumps/ Primary Pumps

The guard which covers the chain or belt & connects the motor to the pump, sometimes vibrates &
becomes loose and should be secured. Routine maintenance includes checking of oil level in pump
& crank case, chain guard and cleaning of filters. A hydro-electric pressure switch is connected to the
electric pump which starts the pump automatically when the system pressure has decreased to 90% of
system RWP and automatically stop between 98 % and 100 % of the system RWP. The cut-off limit of the
pump can be increased or decreased by adjusting the screw provided in the pressure switch. In normal
operation the starter switch should be in Auto mode.
5.10.5 Air Pumps/Secondary Pumps
Check the condition of the air filter and lubricant. Ensure that the lubricator contains sufficient amount
of oil. Inspect the condition of the air line running into the pumps, and ensure that the high pressure
discharge lines are secured to the control unit. Suction filter should be cleaned periodically. This provides
an opportunity to assess the condition of hydraulic fluid by exposing the type of contaminant present. A
hydro-pneumatic pressure switch is connected in the air line to automatically shut off the air pump when
desired accumulator pressure is reached. The cut-off limit of the air pump can be increased or decreased
by adjusting the spring compression by tightening or loosening the adjusting nut provided in the pressure
switch. The secondary pump system shall automatically start before system pressure has decreased to 85
% of the system RWP, and automatically stop between 95 % and 100 % of the system RWP.
5.10.6 Pressure Regulating Valve (Regulators)
The BOP control unit consists of two regulators; one is manifold regulator which regulates the accumulator
pressure from zero to 1500 psi and in some of the unit from zero to 3000 psi. The downstream of the
manifold regulator is connected to a bypass valve and from there to an operating manifold. Manifold
pressure operates all the functions except annular preventer in BOP stack. Another regulator is for
annular preventer which regulates accumulator pressure to operating pressure of the annular preventer
from zero to 3000 psi.
There are two types of annular regulators, manual regulator with air motor and air operated regulator.
The annular regulator should be operative from rig floor remote panel. In case of stripping operation or
when there is leakage in the annular preventer packing element the regulated pressure can be decreased
or increased from the remote panel at rig floor. The units equipped with air operated regulators have a
unit/remote switch. When unit is selected , annular operating pressure can only be regulated from the
unit & when remote is selected the annular operating pressure can be regulated from the remote panel
and also from unit. However annular preventer can be operated from either unit or remote irrespective
of the selection. The annular BOP Control manifold shall include a dedicated pressure regulator to
reduce upstream manifold pressure to the power fluid pressure level that meets the BOP manufacturer's
recommendations.
Maximum pressure limit for the manifold regulator is normally set at 1500 psi to operate any ram
preventer except shear ram. The manifold pressure should not be less than the calculated value on the
basis of expected surface pressure and closing ratio of the ram preventer and in any case it should not be
less than manufacturer's recommendation when BOP is in operational mode.

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Figure 5.29: BOP Control Unit with Manual Annular Regulator

5.10.7 Operating Manifold
The operating manifold consists of several 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valves, three
pressure gauges (for manifold, accumulator and annular pressure), and a bypass valve which has low/
high pressure selection. When low pressure is selected the manifold gets regulated supply and when high
pressure is selected the manifold gets full accumulator supply i.e. 3000 psi.
All the 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valves should be attached with labels, indicating their
respective functions. In addition, the blind ram or blind-shear ram valves should be guarded by a protective
device such as glass cover or fork hinge that has to be lifted or moved before the blind or blindshear ram
valve is to be operated. The intent of this is to discourage accidental use of the blind-shear rams. All the
manipulator or selector valves should be kept in neutral position when the unit is not charged & should
be kept in either open or closed position after charging the unit.

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5.10.8 Pressure Relief Valve

The purpose of the pressure relief valves is to prevent overcharging of the accumulator bottles. These
valves are spring loaded type & vent hydraulic fluid back to the reservoir tank in the event of pump
pressure switch failing to stop the pump. Continuous flow from bleed line to the reservoir tank indicates
that the valve needs servicing or replacement. A relief valve, shall be set to relieve at not more than 10
% above the system RWP
5.10.9 Pneumatic Pressure Transmitters/Transducers
The BOP control unit consists of three pneumatic pressure transmitters, one each for annular, accumulator
and manifold. The transmitter converts hydraulic pressure into air pressure and sends the regulated air
to the corresponding air receiver gauges which are calibrated and located on the air operated remote
control panel. The air output is 3-15 psi & it should be ensured that the air input to the transmitter
should not be more than 18 psi, if this pressure is more than 18 psi it will rupture the diaphragm of the
transmitter.

Figure 5.30: BOP Control Unit with Showing Unit/Remote Switch

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Item Description Item Description

No. No.

1. Air Connection 24. Manifold Protector Valve

2. Air Lubricator 25. Bleeder Valve

3. Air by Pass Valve 26. Unit / Remote Switch

4. Hydro Pneumatic Pressure Switch 27. Annular Regulator

5. Air Pump Isolation Valve 28. Accumulator Pressure Gauge

6. Air Pump 29. Manifold Pressure Gauge

7. Air Pump Suction Valve 30. Annular Pressure Gauge

8. Suction Strainer for Air Pump 31. Pneumatic Transmitter for Accumulator

9. Check Valve 32. Pneumatic Transmitter for Manifold

10. Electric Pump 33. Pneumatic Transmitter for Annular

11. Hydro-electric Pressure Switch 34. Air Filter

12. Starter for Electric Pump 35. Housing for Unit /Remote Switch

13. Suction Valve for Electrical Pump 36. Air Regulator

14. Strainer for Electrical Pump 37. Air Junction Box

15. Check Valve for Electrical Pump 38. Level Indicator of Reservoir

16. Accumulator Isolation Valve 39. Fill Up Cap

17. Accumulator Bottles 40. Four Way Valve for External Supply

18. Accumulator Relief Valve 41. Check Valve

19. Discharge Filter 42. Relief Valve for Outside Supply

20. Manifold Regulator 43. External Supply Line

21. Manifold 44. External Supply Line

22. Three Position Four Way Valve 45

23. Manifold By Pass Valve 46. Inspection Port

PART LIST OF BOP CONTROL UNIT WITH UNIT/ REMOTE SWITCH

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Figure 5.31: Bypass Valve in Low Position

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Figure 5.32: Bypass Valve in High Position

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Figure 5.33: Ram BOP Operation from the Remote Panel

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5.10.10 Air Junction Boxes

The unit consists of two air junction boxes which are used for connecting the air cable from the air
operated remote control panels at rig floor and near Tool pusher / DIC office i. e. auxiliary panel. The
junction boxes should be checked for any air leakage and also for the condition of the connected air
hoses. There should be distinguishing marks on each airline to ensure that the lines are connected to the
corresponding valve's function.
5.10.11 Control Lines
The control lines are the high pressure lines that carry hydraulic fluid from the accumulator to the BOP.
As accumulator is required to deliver considerable fluid volume over a short time frame, it is vital that the
control lines be free of any damage like reduction in the flow area that may slow down the fluid delivery.
The control lines can be steel pipes or high pressure flexible heat resistant rubber hoses. The control
lines should be inspected for any leakage and the leaking lines should be repaired or replaced. These
lines should be protected from falling objects and vehicles. While installation make sure that the lines are
installed to the proper BOP components.
5.11 INSPECTION OF BOP CONTROL UNIT
To check the integrity of the seals and seal seats in 3-position 4--way valves, pressure regulators, check
valves and to check the pressure control lines for any leakage, unit is to be pressurized to its working
pressure.
5.11.1 Monitor the accumulator pressure gauge, if there is no pressure drop the high pressure system
up to the manifold and annular regulator is in good condition. If the pressure drops, there are several
possibilities of leaks as described below.
• Leakage in the high pressure discharge line connections.
Any leakage found in the line should be rectified, caution should be taken while doing any repair /
maintenance job on the high pressure line. Make sure that line should not have any pressure at the
time of repair.
• Leaking in accumulator bank bleeder valve
Open the inspection ports and watch the return line from bleeder valve, if fluid is draining out from
the line it indicates that the valve is leaking & needs repair or replacement.
• Leakage in the pump's check valve.
• Leakage in the pressure regulators.
If fluid is dripping out of the drain line of the pressure regulators this indicates that the seat of the
regulator is worn out and it needs servicing.
• Leakage from the pressure relief valve.
This is also called safety valve, if the fluid is dripping out of the vent line of safety valve, this indicates
that either the spring of the valve is broken or seats are worn out; needs replacement.
• Leakage from by-pass valve.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line or the pressure building up in manifold indicates that the seat of
the rotor or shear seals are worn out, valve needs servicing.

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5.11.2 Put the bypass valve in the high pressure mode and monitor the manifold pressure gauge. If there
is no pressure drop it indicates that there is no leakage in the manifold connections and different valves
connected to it. If pressure drops there are several leak points as described below.
• Leakage in the manifold connections.
Any leakage found should be repaired when lines are not under pressure.
• Leaking in manifold bleeder valve.
The fluid dripping out of drain line of the valve indicates that valve is leaking and needs servicing or
replacement.
• Leakage through the 3-position 4--way manipulator or selector valve.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line of the valve indicates that there is leakage in the valve and
valve needs servicing.
• Leakage in the manifold protector relief valve (if applicable).
This valve is set at 5500 psi. If the fluid is dripping out in the tank from its vent line, this indicates that
either the spring of the valve is broken or seats are worn out & valve needs repair or replacement.
5.11.3 Operate each 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valve to open & close side one by one and
check the control lines for any leakage, if any leakage is found it should be repaired when line is not under
pressure. Care should be taken when closing blind or shear blind ram that there should not be any pipe
in the BOP. Never close pipe ram when there is no pipe in the BOP.
5.11.4 If leakage is not found in the control line and accumulator pressure is dropping there can be two
possibilities.
• BOP seals leaking.
This is already discussed in ram preventer hydraulic operator test.
• 3-position 4--way valve leaking.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line of the valve indicates leakage in the valve and it needs
servicing.
5.11.5 Put the bypass valve in low pressure position. Keep all the 4--way valves of ram prevents in open
position and HCR in close position.
5.11.6 Regulate the annular regulator to 1500 psi, operate the 4-way valve to open and close side and
check the control line for leakage.
Note : While closing annular, make sure that there is pipe in the BOP stack. Any leakage found in the
control line should be repaired when lines are not under pressure. After testing keep the 4--way valve in
open position.
5.12 MANIPULATOR AND SELECTOR VALVES
All these valves are 3-position 4-way valves. When a manipulator or selector valve is kept in open position,
the pressure port gets connected to open port and drain port gets connected to close port. When these
valves are kept in close position the pressure port gets connected to close port, and drain port gets
connected to open port. When a manipulator valve is kept in Block(neutral) position the open and close
ports get connected to drain. When a selector valve is kept in Block(neutral) position all the ports except
drain get isolated.

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Figure 5.34: Manipulator / Selector Valve in Open Position

Figure 5.35: Manipulator Valve Figure 5.36: Selector Valve

5.13 BYPASS VALVE
When a Bypass valve is kept in low pressure position the pressure port gets connected to regulated
supply port whereas drain port & accumulator supply port gets blocked. When this valve is kept in high
pressure position then the pressure port gets connected to accumulator supply port, and drain port &
regulated supply port gets blocked. When Bypass valve is kept in block (neutral) position all the four ports
get isolated.

Figure 5.37: Bypass Valve in Low Pressure Position

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Figure 5.38: Bypass Valve in High Pressure Position

5.14 ACCUMULATOR CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
5.14.1Usable Fluid
The usable fluid is defined as the recoverable fluid from accumulator bottles between accumulator RWP
and 1200 psi or 200 psi above pre-charge pressure or based on C/R of RAM whichever is maximum or
based upon manufacture's manual .
Example:
A bladder type accumulator bottle of 11 gallons capacity was pre-charged with nitrogen at a pressure of
1,000 psi. The hydraulic fluid is pumped to its rated working pressure of 3,000 psi. The hydraulic fluid of
bottle was used to operate the BOP function. The pressure of the bottle has dropped to 1,200 psi. The
volume of bladder and puppet assembly in the accumulator bottle is one gallon. Calculate how much
fluid has been used to operate the BOP functions.
Solution:
Actual capacity of accumulator = 11 - 1 = 10 gallons.
Pre charge Pressure of Nitrogen (P1) = 1,000 psi
Volume occupied by Nitrogen (V1) = 10 gallons.
Pressure of Nitrogen when fully charged (P2) = 3,000 psi
Volume of the Nitrogen at 3000 psi (V2) can be worked as follows :

Pressure of Nitrogen after BOP function is operated (P3) = 1,200 psi

Volume of Nitrogen at 1200 psi (V3) can be calculated as follows :

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Volume of fluid used to operate BOP function will be equal to the amount of fluid pushed out of the
accumulator bottle by expansion of nitrogen gas from 3000 psi to 1200 psi.
Usable fluid = (Volume of Nitrogen at 1,200 psi -Volume of Nitrogen at 3,000 psi)
= V3 - V 2
= 8. 33 - 3. 33 = 5 gallons
5.15 ACCUMULATOR CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS FOR SURFACE BOP STACKS
The BOP control system's main accumulator system shall meet the ACR as listed below. The ACRs hall be
met with pumps inoperative. Accumulator sizing calculations shall follow requirements outlined in API-
16D.
Surface Stacks without Shear Rams
For surface stacks that do not have shear rams, the ACR (with same pre-charge pressure) shall be the
greater of the following:
a) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to perform the accumulator drawdown test
as defined in API 53. The accumulator capacity required for this test correlates with the results
obtained using calculation Method B (as mentioned in API).
b) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to close the following in functions in sequence;
1) close the annular (largest by operator volume);
2) close the pipe ram.
This is a quick discharge event and the accumulator sizing calculations shall be performed using Annex B
(as mentioned in API), calculated with the beginning pressure at the pump start pressure.
Surface Stacks with Shear Rams without Shear Accumulators
For surface stacks that have shear rams, but do not have dedicated shear accumulators, the ACR (with
same pre-charge pressure) shall be the greater of the following:
a) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to perform the accumulator drawdown test
as defined in API 53. The accumulator capacity required for this test correlates with the results
obtained using calculation Method B (as mentioned in API).
b) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to operate the following functions, in
sequence:
1) Close the annular (largest by operator volume);
2) Shear and Seal
This is a quick discharge event and the accumulator sizing calculations shall be performed using Method
C (as mentioned in API), calculated with the beginning pressure at the pump start pressure.
Surface Stacks with Shear Rams with Shear Accumulators
For surface stacks that have shear rams with dedicated shear accumulators, the ACR (with same pre-
charge pressure) shall be the greater of the following:

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a) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to perform the accumulator drawdown
test as defined in API 53. The accumulator pressure after the API 53 drawdown test shall equal or
exceed the required MOP. The accumulator capacity required for this test correlates with the results
obtained using calculation Method B (as mentioned in API).
b) Provide the power fluid volume and pressure required to close the annular (largest by operator
volume).
This is a quick discharge event and the accumulator capacity calculations shall use Method C (as mentioned
in API), calculated with the beginning pressure at the pump start pressure.
Note : For more details of 5.15 refer to API Specification 16D
Accumulator Drawdown Test
The purpose of the drawdown test is to verify that the accumulator system is able to support the fluid
volume and pressure requirements of the BOPs in use, to be capable of securing the well in the event of
total loss of power. This test shall be performed after the initial nipple-up of the BOPs, after any repairs
that required isolation/partial isolation of the system, or every 6 months from previous test.
A drawdown test shall be conducted by actuating the specified BOP operators or any combination of
available operators that draw the same or larger volume as the specified BOP operators. Tests shall be
completed at zero wellbore pressure. Manifold and annular regulators shall be set at the manufacturer's
recommended operating pressure for the BOP stack.
Procedure:
a) Position a properly sized joint of drill pipe or a test mandrel in the BOPs.
b) Turn off the power supply to all accumulator charging pumps (air, electric, etc.).
c) Record the initial accumulator pressure.
d) Close the largest-volume annular BOP or any combination of operators with an equivalent or larger
volume. Time each actuation. Response times shall be recorded.
e) Close a maximum of four BOP rams with the smallest cumulative operating volume or any combination
of operators with an equivalent or larger volume. Time each actuation. Response times shall be
recorded.
f) Open the hydraulic-operated valve(s) and record the time.
g) Record the final accumulator pressure; Verification that the final accumulator pressure is greater
than the minimum operating pressure(MOP) as specified by the manufacturer.
The results of the test can be used to determine whether:
• Inadequate bottle pre-charge pressure exists.
• A failed bladder, piston, or float exists in the system.
• A temperature change has reduced effectiveness of the pre-charge gas.
• Other leakage from within the system has occurred.
• Improper alignment of valves has isolated some of the accumulator bottles and verifies piping lineup.

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NOTE: 1 Reducing accumulator working pressure to accumulator pre-charge pressure during this test
could expose the accumulator bladders to damage. If the system is properly sized and operating as
designed, this should not occur.
NOTE: 2 A single BOP operator (pipe, blind, shear, or annular) may be used multiple times to simulate
the multiple closure of same-sized operators or to draw the fluid equivalent of a larger operator such
as a shear ram or annular. Inversely, a larger operator can be used to simulate the draw of one or more
smaller operators.
NOTE: 3. When performing the accumulator drawdown test, it may be beneficial to wait one hour from
the time the accumulator system was initially charged from pre-charge pressure to operating pressure.
Waiting the additional hour allows the accumulator gas to cool to operating temperature. Because it
takes time for the gas in the accumulator to warm up after performing all of the drawdown test functions,
it is permissible to wait 15 minutes after recording the pressure if the pressure was less than the MOP.
If there is an increase in pressure, indications are that the gases are warming and there is still sufficient
volume in the accumulators. If the MOP has not been reached after 15 minutes, an additional 15-minute
wait may be necessary due to ambient temperatures negatively affecting the gas properties. After 30
minutes from the time the final pressure was recorded, if the MOP has not been reached, then it may be
necessary to bleed down the system and verify pre-charge pressures and volume requirements for the
system.
5.16 FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS IN BOP CONTROL SYSTEM DURING STACK OPERATIONS
When BOP stack is being operated from remote panel the instrumentation will confirm whether the
operation was successfully carried out or if a malfunction has occurred.

S.No. Symptoms Analysis

1. Manifold and accumulator pressure dropped & manifold Bulb has blown / Electric circuit
recovered to regulated value. Green light went out & red failure
light does not illuminate.
2. Manifold pressure and accumulator pressure did not drop. Blocked hydraulic line between
Green light went out and red light comes on. BOP control system and the BOP.
3. Manifold and accumulator pressure both dropped and do Leaking hydraulic line between
not rise back. Green light went out and pumps kept running. BOP control system and the BOP
4. Manifold pressure and accumulator pressure did not drop. 3-position /4-way valve in control
Green light stayed on and red light stayed off. unit is stuck.
5. While pressing "Master" & "Bypass': push buttons The bypass valve is stuck.
simultaneously, the manifold pressure should increase to
the full accumulator pressure. But no response was seen in
manifold pressure.
6. While closing ram B O P, manifold pressure suddenly Leaking hydraulic line between
comes to zero, accumulator pressure dropping & electric, accumulator unit & BOP.
pneumatic pump started.
Identify the problem from gauge readings observed on the remote panel. The manifold, annular and
accumulator settings are 1500, 1000 & 3000 respectively and you have not operated any function

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Indications Analysis
Accumulator Pr. Manifold Pr. Annular Pr.
1. 2900 and steady 1500 Steady 1000 Steady All OK
2. 3000 and decreasing 1800 Increasing 1000 Steady Malfunction in manifold regulator valve
3. 2400 and falling 1500 steady 1000 Steady Leakage in Hydraulic circuit
4. 3200 and increasing 1500 Steady 1000 steady Malfunction in Hydroelectric pressure switch.
5. 2900 and decreasing 1500 steady 900 and decreasing Leakage in Annular BOP line.

5.17 DRILL STRING BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

The prevention of blowouts through the drill pipe is an important aspect of well control. Several tools are
available to contain drill pipe pressure during kicks. The primary tool is the kelly cock. When kelly is not in
use, drill string valves are necessary to control the pressure. These valves may be automatic or manually
controlled valves, and they may be a part of the drill string or installed when kick occurs.
5.17.1Kelly Cock
The kelly through which rotary motion is applied to the drill string is the tubular connection between the
drill string and the surface drilling equipment, valves are placed above and below the kelly to provide
pressure protection for the kelly and all surface equipment. These valves are high pressure ball valves.
The upper kelly cock is used to isolate the rotary hose, swivel or stand pipe from drill string when the drill
pipe pressure exceeds the rotary hose pressure rating or if there is any leakage developed in swivel rotary
hose or stand pipe at the time of well activities / operations.
Lower kelly cock is used when upper kelly cock is damaged, not easily accessible or any damage in kelly.
In well control operations when kill pressure is nearing to rotary hose rated pressure or string is to be
hanged off on the rams in case of well kick - the lower kelly cock is closed and kelly to be disconnected
and set back and circulating head with a high pressure hose is connected and operations to be resumed
after opening lower kelly cock.

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Recommendation
a) The pressure rating of the kelly cock should be equal to or greater than the blowout preventer stack
in use.
b) The inside opening should be equal to the inside diameter of the kelly in use.
c) The key/ wrench required to operate the kelly cock should be kept on rig floor at an accessible place
and should be known to crew working on rig floor.
5.17.2Safety Valve
A full opening safety valve (FOSV) is also known as drill pipe safety valve(DPSV) and usually installed on
a drill pipe after a kick occurs when the kelly is not in use. The advantage of the safety valve is that it can
be in open position when stabbed on the drill pipe to minimise the effect of upward moving flow leaving
the valve, the flow will pass - through the valve during the stabbing and make up, then the valve can be
closed. This type of safety valve facilitates wire line operations in case of any problem in the string, like
drill pipe plug etc. or if circulation from the bottom of the string is not possible due to well complications.
A lubricator can be installed on the top of the valve and with wire line BOP on top ,logging tool can be
run down in the string and logs can be recorded. Accordingly if any perforation is required to be done,
perforation tool can be lowered and string can be perforated at desired depth interval to control the
well kick situations. This DPSV/FOSV is a ball valve like kelly cock and should be always kept on rig floor
in open position during tripping operations. If a combination string is in use, then crossover of different
connection compatible with FOSV and pipes in use should also be kept ready on drill floor, so in case of
any kick situation at the time of trip, valve can be installed as fast as possible. Key /Wrench for this valve
should be kept at an accessible place. On top drive system upper and lower safety valves are used, both
the valves are ball type and connected together. The upper safety valve is normally remote operated so
in case of kick while drilling valve can be operated remotely. During trips with top drive system, the swivel
and safety valves are not set back but rather are hoisted with the drill string. If a kick occurs during the
trip, the safety valves are immediately connected to drill string and upper valve is remotely closed. All the
safety valves should be pressure tested, when BOP is tested and the pressure should be applied in the
direction, in which it will be subjected to well pressure at the time of well kick situation.

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5.17.3Inside BOP
At the time of tripping if well kicks, a non-return valve known as check valve also is kept on rig floor ready
in open position to be installed on drill pipe and is normally called "INSIDE BOP". Once it is installed it
can be closed quickly by releasing a rod on top of it which keeps the valve in open position at the time
of stabbing it on the drill pipe for its easy installation at the time of well kick situation. Generally inside
BOPs” are more difficult to stab on drill pipe because of flow restriction in it whereas FOSV has full bore
opening and no flow restriction when installed in well kick situation. When it is installed, it will not show
any shut- in drill pipe pressure & to record this pressure an exercise is to be done which is explained in
earlier chapter. With check valve installed no logging operations can be carried out. Therefore in kick
situation while tripping, first FOSV should be installed & if drill pipe stripping is to be done in that case
the inside BOP should be installed on top of FOSV and before stripping down in the well FOSV should be
opened.

Figure 5.41: IBOP

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5.17.4 Drop in Check Valve

It is a type of inside BOP, it is also known as pump in check valve. This type of valve needs a special type of
sub which is to be run along with Bottom hole assembly. In any kick situation a drop in assembly or simply
a rod depending on the type of sub run in BHA is pumped down and now this sub will act as an inside
BOP (i. e.) check valve. This type of valves are used where stripping operations are expected, particularly
stripping out operations. Some of the valves are wire line retrieval type, when the well is controlled and
pressures are zero, the drop in assembly can be pulled out by lowering a special tool with wire line and
picking it up.
5.17.5 Bit Float
This is also an inside BOP. It is installed just on top of bit along with bit sub to prevent back flow during
connection. This type of preventer normally gets damaged by the solids present in the drilling mud which
can cause wash outs and wear in the seat of the check valve. These check valves are either flapper type or
puppet type. In flapper type valves, slotted flapper is commonly used, because this reduces the back flow
to a minimum and allows to read and record shut in drill pipe pressure when well is shut- in at the time of
kick. These valves can be used in top hole drilling where back flow during connections due to imbalance
annular mud density is more likely.
Note: Drop in check valve & Bit float are not treated as tested barrier.

Figure 5.42: Float

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5.18 CHOKE MANIFOLD

The choke manifold is an arrangement of assembly of valves, chokes, gauges, and lines used to control
the rate of flow and pressure from the well when the BOPs are closed. Minimum ID (inside diameter)
for lines downstream of the chokes shall be equal to or greater than the nominal connection size of the
choke inlet and outlet. The chokes and all choke manifold components upstream of the chokes shall
have an RWP equal to or greater than the BOPs in use. Choke manifold valves shall be full bore. A choke
manifold assembly shall include two adjustable chokes. The chokes are used to create pressure loss/
hold back pressure in kick control circuit while killing a well. Design of choke manifold depends on variety
of factors such as type of fluids (mud, oil, water or gas), pressure, up-stream flow rates, down-stream
velocities and solids in the fluid flowing out of the well (sand, shale and pipe protector rubbers etc.). In
sour gas applications the choke manifold should be H2S trim.

Figure 5.43 (a)

Figure 5.43 (b)

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Figure 5.43 (c)

5.18.1Manually Adjustable Choke
This type of choke creates a back pressure with a stem and bevelled mechanism. Fluid is allowed to flow
through the seat or orifice. As some alteration in the amount of back pressure is required, the stem is
positioned in the seat to create a greater or lesser resistance to flow. Back pressure control is attained by
the degree to which the stem is forced into the bevelled seat or extracted from it.

Fig 5.44: (a) Manually operated Choke

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5.18.2 Remote Control, Adjustable Chokes

Remote control choke consists of two tungsten carbide plates with half-moon orifice that control fluid
flow depending on the relative position of the orifices. The orifices are offset in closed position and as
one plate is rotated with respect to the other, the orifices become aligned which allow fluid flow through
choke.
Note: Choke must be function tested on daily basis. Choke is never pressure tested as it is not designed
to seal pressure.

Fig 5.44: (b) Hydraulic operated Choke

5.18.3 Remote choke control panel
The control panel is normally used to operate the Hydraulic Choke from a remote location. The panel is
portable and may be located at any safe location to satisfy specific needs or requirements. The control
panel is a completely self-contained unit with the exception of an air supply. There are no electrical
requirements for the panel or choke.
Air operates the hydraulic pump which pressurizes the oil and moves the choke. If the air operated
hydraulic pump fail, the choke may still be operated by using the manual hydraulic pump located on the
control panel base. This method of operation will work only if the remaining hydraulic systems are intact.
If air pressure is lost the position indicator gauge will not work.
Note: KRP/SCR is always recorded from remote choke panel.

Fig 5.44: (c) Remote Choke Panel

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5.18.4 Recommendations For Choke Manifold Equipment

• Wells with an MASP of 5000 psi or less shall have 2 in. (5.08 cm) ID or greater for choke lines.
• Wells with an MASP of greater than 5000 psi shall have 3 in. (7.62 cm) ID or greater for choke lines.
• For land wells MASP of 3000 to 10,000 psi, at a minimum, one choke shall be remotely operable.
If MASP is greater than 10000 psi, minimum two remotely operated chokes should be there in the
choke manifold (See Figure 5.43).
• For offshore wells with MASP is between 3000psi to 5000psi, minimum one choke shall be remotely
operable. If MASP is greater than 5000 psi, minimum two chokes shall be remotely operable (See
Figure 5.43).
• Pressure ratings of all lines and sealing elements upstream of the chokes shall equal or exceed the
MASP for the well program.
• Pressure ratings for lines downstream of the adjustable choke outlet are not required to meet or
exceed the MASP for the well program.
• The ID of the bleed line (if installed) shall be at least equal to the ID of the choke line.
• The isolation valve downstream of the choke(s) and any spools between the choke and the isolation
valve shall have an RWP equal to or greater than the BOPs in use.
5.19 KILL MANIFOLD
The kill manifold is an arrangement of gate valves, lines and check valve. The kill line provides a means of
pumping into the well bore when the normal method of circulating down through the Kelly or drill pipe
cannot be employed.

Fig 5.45: Kill line configurations

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In gate valve a blank plate is positioned across the flow path to halt fluid flow. When the valve is opened,
the plate containing an orifice is positioned across the flow path to allow fluid movement through the
orifice

Figure 5.46: Gate Valve & Fail safe valve

5.19.2 Check Valves
The valve is spring loaded and allows fluid movement in one direction only. Mud can be pumped into the
annulus through the valve but it cannot flow in reverse direction.
5.19.3 Recommendations For Kill Manifold
• Wells with an MASP greater than 3000 psi shall, at a minimum, consist of a kill line configuration
with two full-bore manual valves plus a check valve, or two full-bore valves, one of which is remotely
operated.
• Wells with an MASP of 3000 psi or less shall, at a minimum, consist of a kill line configuration with
two full-bore manual operated valves.
NOTE: Consider using a check valve in the kill line configuration for wells where H2S is expected.
• The kill line shall be 2 in. (5.08 cm) ID or larger.
• If a remote kill line is used, it should be connected to the kill line near the BOP stack and extended
to an auxiliary high-pressure pump at a safe location.
• The kill line shall not be used as a fill-up line.

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5.20 INSTALLATION REQUIREMENT FOR WELLHEAD AND BOP EQUIPMENT

• The BOP equipment installation shall confirm the following:
• Wellhead equipment should withstand anticipated surface pressure and allow for future remedial
operations.
• When ram type preventers are installed the side outlets should be below the rams.
• All connections, valves, fittings, piping etc. exposed to well pressure, should be flanged , studded ,
clamped or welded and must have a minimum working pressure equal to the rated working pressure
of the preventers.
• Always install new and clean API ring gaskets. Check for any damage in the ring as well as grooves
before use.
• All correct size bolts / nuts and fittings should be tightened to the recommended torque.
• All connection should be pressure tested before drilling is resumed.
• All manually operated valves should be equipped with hand wheels, and always be kept ready for
use.
• Ram type preventers on surface BOP stack should be installed with extension rods and hand wheels
connected and be ready for use.
• BOP equipment should be function tested and pressure tested as per API recommendations
• The tool pusher / DIC / Drill site in-charge shall inspect and approve BOP installation and testing.
• Well head side-outlets shall not be used for killing purpose, except in case of emergencies.
• Kill lines shall not be used for routine fill up operations.
• Choke lines shall be as straight as practicable and firmly anchored to prevent excessive whip or
vibration.
• Ensure that the instructions of the BOP operating manual of the manufacturers are followed and no
alterations are made to the BOP equipment without consulting the manufacturer.
5.21 TESTING OF BLOWOUT PREVENTERS STACK
There are two types of test to be conducted on blowout preventer stack.
a) Function test
b) Pressure test
Function test is conducted to :
• Check if function working properly.
• Check leakage in the system.
• Check the closing time of each Blowout preventer which should be within the limit prescribed by API
standard 53.
• Check the health of BOP control unit.

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Pressure test is conducted to check the integrity of all the joint in BOP stack, Blowout preventer's seals
and valves. To conduct pressure test a cup tester or a test plug should be used.
5.22 TESTING OF SURFACE (LAND & JACK UP) BOP STACK
5.22.1Function Test
• Blowout preventer should be function tested at least once a week.
• The test should be conducted when the drill string is inside casing.
• Test should be conducted after installing FOSV / inside BOP on drill string.
• Both pneumatic and electric pump of accumulator unit should be turned off after recording initial
accumulator pressure.
• All the ram preventers (except blind / shear) & HCRs' in choke / kill line should be function tested.
• Closing time of all the BOP's should be recorded. .
• Weekly, function test is not required for shear ram. As a minimum these rams should be tested after
casing strings has been set.
• Blind ram should be operated for function test while string is out of hole.
• Closing time should not exceed 30 sec for all ram preventers and annular preventers smaller than
18¾”. It is 45 sec for annular preventer 18¾" & larger size.
• Function test should be carried out alternately from main control unit / rig floor driller's panel /
auxiliary panel.
• Recorded final accumulator pressure after all the functions should not be less than as specified by
the manufacturer.
• All the results should be recorded in the prescribed format.
5.22.2 Pressure Testing
5.22.2.1 Recommendations
• Test BOP using cup tester or test plug.
• Clear water should be used as test fluid for water base mud.
• For high pressure gas wells, use of inert gas such as nitrogen as test fluid is desirable.
• Diesel or an acceptable alternative should be used as test fluid for OBM.
5.22.2.2 Cup Tester
It has a mandrel with box connection on top, a cup and a sub with pin on bottom. The cup of the tester
gives effective sealing in the casing. It should be placed in the casing opposite to the slips in casing spool
or casing head.
5.22.2.3 Limitations of the cup tester
a) Cup tester is not rested in the well head, so all the load during pressure testing will be transmitted
on test drill pipe as well as on other equipment. Higher grade of drill pipe to be used as test pipe
otherwise yield strength of drill pipe may limit the test pressures.

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Example:
A BOP is to be tested at 8,000 psi using a cup tester. The area of cup tester which will be subjected to test
pressure is 33.6 square inches. Calculate the amount of load at which the test pipe will be subjected?
Force on cup tester due to test pressure = Test Pressure Area
= 8,000 x 33.6 = 2,68,800 pounds
The amount of load at which the test pipe will be subjected = 2,68,800 pounds
So the test pipe should have minimum tensile strength more than 2,68,800 pounds.
b) Test pressure will be limited to 60 – 80% of the burst of upper part of casing so testing of BOP at
rated working pressure will be difficult.
c) This cannot be used to test blind / shear blind rams.
5.22.2.4 Test Plug
Test plugs mainly have a box on top to connect test pipe and pin on bottom to add some weight to it
and also seal rings on the body. Test plugs are designed to sit in the well head and the seal on the body
isolates the upper part of the well head from the well bore. The plug is to be lowered and landed in to
the well head with a test drill pipe joint with one stand of drill collar at the bottom. As this tool is weight
set type, this added weight of drill collars helps it in sitting properly and giving proper sealing. To test
the blind or shear blind ram, test pipe should be removed, leaving the test plug resting on the well head.
Care must be taken while using test plug for its designed compatibility with the existing well head used
since different type of well heads require different test plugs. Therefore, before lowering a test plug it
should be confirmed that whether the plug is compatible with the well head being used or not, otherwise
it may get stuck and can lead to complication.
5.22.2.5 Frequency of Pressure Test
As per API standard 53, pressure tests on the BOP equipment should be conducted at least :
a) Prior to spud or upon installation.
b) After repairs that require breaking a pressure connection.
c) Not to exceed 21 days.
5.22.2.6 Low Pressure Test
a) All the blowout preventers and hydraulically operated valves should be pressure tested at 250-350
psi. (For detailed information refer Table 3 & Table 4)
b) The low pressure test should be stable for at least five minutes.
The pipe used for testing should be of sufficient weight and grade to safely withstand tensile, yield,
collapse, or internal pressures.

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Figure 5.47 (c): Testing BOP with CUP Tester / Test Plug

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5.22.2.7 High Pressure Test

Once the equipment passes the low pressure test, it should be tested to high pressure, following are the
recommendations:
a) On installation, blowout preventer stack should be pressure tested at the rated working pressure
of the ram preventer or well-head whichever is lower. An exception is the annular preventer which
should be tested to the test pressure applied to ram preventer or 70% of annular rated pressure
whichever is lesser. (For detailed information refer Table 3 &4 )
b) On subsequent tests the BOP stack should always be tested to greater than the maximum anticipated
surface pressure but not to exceed the rated working pressure of ram preventer or well head
whichever is less (i.e. to be tested to least valued component of the stack). An exception is the
annular preventer which should be tested to 70% of its rated pressure or the test pressure of the ram
whichever is less to minimize packer element wear or damage. (For detailed information refer Table
3 & Table 4)
c) The stable high pressure should be maintained at least for five minutes as per API standard 53.
d) Precaution should be taken not to expose the casing to pressures in excess of its rated strength.
A means should be provided to prevent pressure build up on the casing in the event the test tool
leaks. Well head valve should be kept open while pressure testing with test plug. This will also help
in observing any flow through the well while pressure testing.
e) Conduct high pressure test for entire blowout preventer stack, all choke manifold components,
upstream of chokes, Kelly & Kelly valves, drill pipe and tubing safety valves and drilling spools (if in
use).
f) Test pressure should be applied from the direction in which Blowout preventers / valves would
experience pressure during actual well kick situations.
5.23 PRESSURE TESTING OF KELLEY, KELLEY VALVES, DPSV/FOSV, INSIDE BOP.
All the above equipment should be pressure tested to at least maximum anticipated surface pressure but
limited to rated working pressure of component. While carrying out pressure testing, it is recommended
that test pressure should be applied from the direction in which they would experience pressure during
actual well kick situation.
5.23.1 Test Pressure
All the above equipment should undergo daily function testing and pressure testing whenever the BOP
is tested or within a maximum interval of 21 days. The low-pressure test should be conducted at 250-
350 psi. A high-pressure test must be performed upon installation, with subsequent tests conducted at a
pressure at least equal to the maximum anticipated surface pressure. Both pressure tests should remain
stable for at least five minutes.
5.23.2Procedure for pressure testing
a) Pick up Kelly.
b) Make up full opening safety valve (FOSV) on bottom of lower Kelly cock.
c) Make up inside BOP on bottom of FOSV.

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d) Make up adapter sub on bottom of inside BOP and complete the connection of test line from
cementing unit or test pump to adapter sub.
e) Apply test pressure and test.
f) Release pressure and disconnect adopter sub from inside BOP. Disconnect inside BOP and connect
adapter sub to FOSV with test lines.
g) Close FOSV and apply test pressure and test.
h) In the same way test lower Kelly cock, Kelly, upper Kelly cock & other upstream component can be
tested.

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Table 1: Initial Function Testing, Surface BOP Stacks

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Table 2: Subsequent Operational Function Testing, Surface BOP Stacks

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Table 3: Pressure Test, Surface BOP Systems, Initial Test

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Table 4: Subsequent Operational Pressure Testing, Surface BOP Stacks

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5.24 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR SURFACE BOP STACKS

Control systems for surface BOP stacks shall consist of the following:
a) One independent automatic accumulator unit rated for 3,000 psi working pressure with a control
manifold, clearly showing open and closed positions for preventer(s) and the hydraulic operated kill
/ choke line valves. It is essential that BOP operating unit be equipped with two regulator valves,
one for manifold and another for annular. The accumulator capacity shall be adequate for closing all
preventers and opening HCR valves without recharging accumulators. The unit shall have minimum
two power sources i.e. duel power source as per API which include minimum one electrically driven
pump and two or three air driven pumps for charging the accumulators.
b) The unit shall be located at a safe area minimum 100 feet away from well center.
c) All BOP stack installations should have two remote control panels, each one clearly showing open
and closed positions for each preventer and the remote operated choke line valves. Each of these
panels should include a master shut off valve. One panel should be located near to the driller's
console, the other panel to be located near the rig supervisor's office.
d) Minimum 1 inch high pressure steel lines / fire resistant control hoses having a working pressure of
3,000 psi should be used.

Figure 5.48: Surface BOP Remote Panel

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5.24.1 Electro Pneumatic BOP Control System

Electro pneumatic BOP control system is similar to pneumatic control system except that the signal from
remote panels in this type of system is electrical instead of an air signal. The main advantages of electro
pneumatic system are :-
a) Only electrical cable connects remote panels to the main accumulator unit without the need of
separate pneumatic hose bundle.
b) More rugged
c) Faster response time as compared to full pneumatic system
d) Problems associated with choking of air lines are eliminated
e) Pressures readings on the remote panels are more accurate due to use of electrical transducers.
However due to additional solenoid junction box consisting of pneumatic solenoids associated piping etc.
the price of the system is marginally higher.
Operation :-
In the electro pneumatic panels only electrical switches are provided. Similar to the air master valve on a
pneumatic panel, a master push button switch is provided to safe guard against accidental activation of
any function. When this master push button switch is pressed, electrical supply is made available to all
the function switches. For operating any function, the corresponding function push button switch ( e.g.
open
/close) is pressed along with master push button switch enabling the electrical signal to be sent to
solenoid valve on the junction box installed at accumulator unit.
When this signal energies the solenoid valve, air is sent to the air cylinder attached to the 4 way selector
valve moving it to the desired position directing the hydraulic fluid to the BOP to perform the function.
The indicator lights on the remote panels are activated similar to the pneumatic remote panels.

ACTION RESULT
1. Press master push button switch Electrical supply made available to all the function switches
2. Press the desired function switch Electrical signal sent to corresponding air solenoid on the
main accumulator unit
Air solenoid operates and directs the air to air cylinder
attached to the 4 way valve
4 way valve position is changed and hydraulic fluid is sent
to the BOP function and simultaneously to corresponding
pressure switch
The pressure switch is activated and sends electrical signal
back to the remote panel indicator light
The light is switched on confirming shifting of 4 way valve.

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Figure 5.49 (a): Electro-Pneumatic Remote Panel - Operating Sequence Close

5.24.3 PLC Based, Touchscreen Driven, Remote Panel System for BOP Accumulator Unit
BOP control systems have undergone the most significant changes and advances. The systems have
evolved from purely pneumatic to electro pneumatic to latest generation PLC based systems. The main
advancements in these systems are in the area of mode of actuation of a BOP function. In PLC based
system, a programmable logic controller ( i.e. a small computer) takes over the function of sending signals
to the main accumulator unit to activate the desired function. The signal can be sent in many ways e.g.
wireless, through fiber optic cable or through an electric cable.
The function of the PLC control panel is to collect, process, monitor and display the following :-
a) Functions operation and functions display
b) Function test
c) Operating times
d) Pressure data display of accumulator unit
e) various alarms e.g. low fluid, low accumulator etc.

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The main advantage of PLC based control systems is that it can be programmed to any configuration
as per the operators requirement. Further , the system is more compact as compared to conventional
systems.

Figure 5.49 (b): PLC electro-pneumatic panel

5.25 DIVERTERS
When drilling at shallow depth with only conductor pipe set, often well cannot be shut-in after a kick,
because of low fracture gradient of formations near surface. Diverter system is not designed to shut in
the well. Shut –in can cause flow around the surface casing resulting in surface blowout. If a kick occurs,
the well is permitted to flow, with the flow being diverted according to the prevailing wind conditions.
On surface and offshore jack up installations a low pressure annular preventer with large diameter vent
lines is mostly used as diverter. Normally after lowering surface casing, a diverter spool with one or
two outlets is installed on conductor casing having diverter assembly on top of it. The outlet of spool is
connected to diverter lines containing ball valves. These valves can be pneumatic, manual or hydraulically
operated. But the system should be such that when the diverter closes the ball valve fitted in the diverter
line should get opened up simultaneously.
There are diverters which are insert type, mostly used on the floating drilling rigs. This type of diverter
has insert assembly, with a diverter packer. This type of diverter can also be used on onshore and fixed
drilling installations of offshore by installing it below rotary beams and securing it. In floating drilling rigs
this type of diverter is connected to the telescoping joint and lowered in the rotary opening. Once the
diverter is landed it is latched by hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic fluid will push the locking dogs out and
will lock with diverter assembly below rotary table, the outlet in the diverter is connected to flow line

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in normal drilling conditions. When any shallow gas is encountered the diverter is closed, this closes the
flow line valve and opens the diverter line valve simultaneously. (for diverting the flow depending on the
prevailing wind direction the diverting line to the port or starboard side has to be selected)
5.25.1Diverter Equipment Specifications.
Flow restrictions in diverter system should be avoided wherever possible, because it may lead to formation
break down and cratering of well in case of shallow gas blowout.
• The minimum internal cross sectional area of the diverter side outlets shall be designed to
accommodate the flow rate specified by the purchaser of the equipment and shall not be less than
an equivalent 8” diameter on a surface diverter and 12” diameter on a subsea diverter.
• The equipment should be selected to withstand the maximum anticipated surface pressure.
• The diverter lines should be straight as far as possible & properly anchored at the end of the lines
and sloping down to avoid blockage of the lines with cuttings etc.
• The diverter and mud return lines should be separate.
• Diverter valves shall be full opening valves with an actuator (pneumatic or hydraulic).
• Valves in the diverter system shall have remote position indication based on actual valve position. All
diverter valves shall be fitted with local visual position indicators.
• The diverter control system should preferably be self-contained or may be an integral part of the
BOP accumulator unit and control system. It shall be located in a safe area.
• When a surface diverter system and a subsea BOP stack are employed, two separate control /
accumulator systems are required. This will allow to operate the BOPs and to disconnect the riser in
case the diverter control system gets damaged and loose pressure.
• The diverter control system should be capable of operating the diverter system from two or more
locations, one to be located near the driller's console.
• At least 1 inch hydraulic line should be used for operating diverter systems.
• All spare operating lines of the control system and connections which are not used should be properly
plugged off.
• For the packing element ID is 20” or less, the primary diverter closing system shall be capable of
operating the overboard line, flow line valves, auxiliary valves, and closing the annular packing
element on the pipe within 30 seconds of actuation, If packing element ID is more than 20” closing
time shall be less than 45 seconds of actuations.
• In case of floating rigs telescopic/slip joints should be incorporated with double seals to improve the
sealing capabilities when gas has to be circulated out of the marine riser.

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Figure 5.50: Diverter with Low Pressure Annular Preventer

Figure 5.51: Diverter with Insert Type Packer

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5.25.2Diverter Control System

The diverter control system shall be operated such that the well will not be shut-in with the diverter
system. For installations with the annular sealing device below the flow line, equipment should be
designed and installed such that the desired vent valve(s) is opened before the annulus is closed. On
installations with more than one vent valve, both valves should remain open during this operation with
the upwind valve being subsequently closed, if so desired. For non-integral valve installations where the
flow line is below the annular sealing device, the desired vent valve(s) should be opened (if not already
open) while simultaneously closing the shale shaker (flow line) valve and the diverter. Regardless of the
vent valve sequencing, to maintain the fail-safe objective, at least one vent valve shall remain open at all
times to prevent a complete shut-in of the well if there is a partial failure of the control system and/or
vent controls system pressure.
The sequencing action is executed by the vent line valve opening & then closing the flow line valve and
then subsequently closing annular sealing device.
When in primary diverter service (no BOP installed), function tests should be performed weekly using
the driller's panel to verify that functions are operable; i.e., valve(s) fully open or closed. Fluid should be
pumped through each diverter line at appropriate times during operations to ensure that line(s) are not
plugged.

Figure 5.52 : Hydraulic schematic of diverter system

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5.25.3Field Testing
5.25.3.1 Packer Integrity Test
• The diverter packer shall have at least 250 psi applied for a minimum of 10 minutes. Acceptance
criteria shall be no visible leakage at packer and flow line seals. Test shall be performed annually or
at packer replacement, whichever is sooner.
5.25.3.2 Function Test
• The diverter system sequences and interlocks shall be function tested upon installation and at least
once every seven days, to verify the component's intended operations, as drilling operations allow.
• During a function test, the system shall be inspected for indications of hydraulic operator leakage.
Function tests shall be alternated weekly from the control stations where all diverter functions are
included. Diverter response time shall be the time from initiation to completion of closing sequence.
• A function test of the diverter control system shall be performed following the disconnection or
repair, limited to the affected component.
5.25.3.3 Flow Test
The following shall be performed: At the beginning of each well, pump water or drilling fluid through
the diverter system. While flow testing, check the overboard line(s) for returns and examine the entire
system for leaks, excessive vibrations, and proper tie-down.
Table 5: Subsea/Surface Diverter Testing Schedule

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5.26 TRIP TANK

5.26.1 Importance of Hole Filling During Trips
Failure to keep the hole full during pull out with mud can cause a kick and can lead to blowout if
undetected. Blowouts have occurred just as often while tripping as while drilling. The principal cause of
well kicks/blowouts during a tripping is improper filling of the hole with mud of desired weight / sp.gr.
The kicks/blowouts on trips can be avoided if due attentions is paid to monitoring of hole filling during
tripping by a trip tank.
When the drill string is pulled out from the hole, a piston-like effect can occur, creating a vacuum below
the bit/BHA. This vacuum then allows formation fluid to enter the wellbore. The longer the open hole
greater is the amount of swabbing. Therefore greatest swabbing tendency occurs when the bit is just
pulled off the bottom. It is therefore important to keep a close watch in the beginning of each trip to
ensure that no formation fluid is being swabbed into the hole which can lead to a kick condition due to
reduction in hydrostatic head.
The other important factors which effect the swabbing and make it more pronounced are :
• High viscosity of mud
• Balling of bit
• High tripping speed
To prevent a kick during a trip, the hole must be filled with correct amount of mud that matches the
displacement of the drill pipe. If it is observed that the hole is taking in less mud than required, it indicates
swabbing is occurring, and immediate actions should be taken to address it. The trip tank is a crucial
piece of equipment used during tripping operations for early detection of kicks or swabbing.
5.26.2 Construction of Trip Tank
• Trip tank is a small rectangular mud tank with a capacity of 40 bbl. To 50 bbl. The trip tank provides
an accurate measurement of the volume of drilling mud pumped into or out of the wellbore during
tripping.
• Trip tank should be tall and relatively less cross sectionals base area so that the volume changes of
½ bbl. Can be read easily.
• Use of graduated indicator on rig floor which should have graduation on one side number of stand
and other side in bbl. Easily visible from the Driller's console
• Install a trip tank with a rapid refilling system to minimize the time required for refilling the trip tank.
• One / two centrifugal pumps with fill up line and a return line from the bell nipple to the tank should
be used.
• The trip tank also serves as a record-keeping device. The volume of mud pumped into or out of the
wellbore is recorded, providing crucial data for wellbore stability analysis, formation evaluation.

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Fig 5.53: Trip tank

5.26.3Important Points to Remember while Tripping

• One of the most dangerous type of well kick is the one that occurs when the pipe is out of the hole
or almost out of the hole. This is usually the case when the hole is not filled up equivalent to drill
collar displacement. Since one stand of drill collars may displace as much mud as five or more stands
of drill pipes, it is therefore more important to ensure that the proper amount of mud is filled in hole
for each stand of drill collar.
• Maintain accurate trip/fill up records.
• Run the trip tank pumps continuously during pulling out operations.
• On some of the new rigs the measuring devices are electronic. However there should be a mechanical
device rigged up as a backup.
• During pulling out if hole is not taking proper amount of mud, stop pulling out immediately and
check the well for flow/swab and act accordingly.
• Before spudding the well, trip tank should be installed and same should be recorded in spud meeting.
• After use of trip tank, clean it with water.
• It is important to use a flow sensor, backed-up by a pit volume totalizer along with trip tank.

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5.26.4 Use of Trip Tank during Tripping

5.26.4.1 Before Tripping Out
• Fill trip tank with mud used in for final circulation before pulling out.
• Line up trip tank so as the return flow from the bell nipple is coming back to the trip tank having a
closed loop.
• Run the centrifugal pumps of the trip tank and check for its functioning and leakage etc.
• Record the initial reading on the calibrated indicator at rig floor.
• Start pulling out and fill up trip sheet after pulling three or five stands.
• Run the pump continuously throughout the pulling out.
The continuous filling of the hole keeps the hole full and allows mud volume that the hole is taking to be
read at any time during pulling out.
5.26.4.2 During Tripping
• Record the volume taken by hole after every three to five stands.
• Any discrepancy in trip sheet should be thoroughly checked before continuing further tripping out.
Note: During the process of pulling out, if the actual volume of mud taken by the well is less than the
calculated volume, perform a flow check to assess the situation.
• Well is not flowing-run back to bottom & circulate out influx from well bore.
• Well is flowing- shut the well, record the pressure, strip back to bottom & circulate through choke to
remove the influx from well bore.
(A sample trip sheet is given in Annexures.)
5.27 MUD GAS SEPARATOR ( POOR – BOY DEGASSER )
A mud gas separator(MGS) is an essential equipment used on the rig for removing high percentage of gas
from the mud, which is coming out from downstream of the choke during gas kicks during well killing.
• Mud gas separator(MGS) provides a means of safely venting the gas away from the rig.
• A liquid seal/goose neck arrangement at bottom permits mud to flow to shale shaker / vacuum
degasser tank while maintaining a fluid head to hold the gas in the upper part of the separator.
• Many of the mud gas separators(MGS) are constructed from a length of large diameter pipe with
interior baffles, to slow down the mud – gas stream, which assist in separation of gas.
5.27.1 RECOMMENDATION
• The pressure loss in the gas vent line at the top of separator must be less than the hydrostatic pressure
of the mud column in the bottom of the separator in order to vent the gas at safe distance from the
rig. The working pressure of a mud gas separator (MGS) can vary depending on the specific design
and application. However, typical working pressures for MGS units range from 5 to 20 psi (pounds
per square inch) or higher. The working pressure is set based on the anticipated gas pressure in the
wellbore and the requirements for effective gas separation and venting. It is important to consult
the manufacturer's specifications and guidelines for the specific MGS being used to determine the
recommended working pressure range.

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• Lines from choke manifold to separator should be straight or with targeted turns. Note: Rubber
hoses should not be used.
• Flanged openings should be provided near the bottom to permit clean out. This opening can be used
for drain line if necessary.
• Vent line should be firmly anchored to ground anchors to prevent movement when blowing off large
volumes.
• During well killing, the gas pressure inside MGS are continuously monitored on pressure gauges.
This helps to assess the effectiveness of the well control measures and ensure that gas is being
successfully separated and vented by the MGS &also help us in maintaining effective seal.

Figure 5.54 : MUD Gas Seperator

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5.27.2LIMITATIONS
• Vertical height of the liquid seal (mud seal)/ goose neck limits the maximum allowable internal
pressure of the separator before the blow through takes place.
• Mud seal
• The length/height and the internal diameter of the vent line determine the pressure build up in
the separator. Flow rate is also limits the MGS capacity to handle gas. This should be less than the
maximum allowable internal pressure to avoid the gas blow through the shale shaker.
5.28 VACUUM DEGASSER
The vacuum degasser is used to extract entrained gas from the drilling fluid and should never be directly
connected with returns from the well. Degasser has a vacuum pump on top and a horizontal tank with
an inclined flat surface in it. The vacuum pump creates 2 to 6 psi depending on the weight of the mud
being handled. Mud enters the degassing vessel through the pipe on one side of the tank, the fluid being
raised from pit by the low pressure in the vessel and enters the horizontal tank. Mud flows across inclined
flat surfaces and creates thin layers so that the gas bubbles can be separated from mud, The degassed
fluid falls to the bottom of the vessel and this mud flows to the active pit. In some of the degasser units
an auxiliary pump on the rig is used to operate a hydraulic jet which is used to pull mud from the vessel
despite the vacuum. The vacuum degasser of this type handles sizeable volume of mud, and with one
pass through this unit a density of as high as 2 ppg can be achieved.

Figure 5.55: Vacuum Degasser

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Figure 5.56: Vertical Vacuum Degasser

5.29 PIT VOLUME RECORDER
One of the devices used to continuously monitor the level of the drilling mud in the mud pits is a pit level
indicator. The indicator usually consists of a float device that senses the mud level and transmits data
to a recording and alarm device called a pit volume recorder or (pit volume totalizers). PVT is a gauge
mounted on the driller's console on the rig floor.
Pit volume indicator and totalizer devices use electric signal to record or indicate the mud level in different
tank. PVT instruments are calibrated in total barrels of fluid which is directly indicated on the gauges
installed on driller panel. These indicators have low and high-level alarms that sound a warning or turn
on light in case of lost circulation or well kick. Normally this indicator is set for loss / gain depending on
the size of hole drilled which varies from 5-10 bbl . For slim hole drilling this limit is set as little as 1 bbl
gain / loss, so that in case of any eventuality in the well timely action can be taken.
5.30 MUD FLOW INDICATOR
5.30.1 Purpose
The mud volume control is designed for the purpose of providing the driller with a continuous flow of
information to keep him informed of mud flow rate and pump stroke rate or fill count and total strokes
and to warn him of an oncoming kick or loss of mud into an unconsolidated formation.
5.30.2 Display
This displays return mud flow status on the flow meter. Pump strokes per minute, fill strokes and total
pump strokes are displayed on the electromechanical digital display on the front panel which can be
viewed up to twenty feet away, even in direct sunlight.

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5.30.3 Signal Sources

The console receives its input signals from two sources : (a) the flow sensor and (b) pump switches.
5.30.4 The Flow Sensor are of two types, one the potentiometer type or other non-contacting sensor
type. The sensor senses the percent of mud returns from the well bore and this is displayed on the return
flow meter.
5.30.5 Pump Switches which are attached to the mud pumps, provide input pulses to the console to be
registered on the digital display as strokes per minutes fill strokes and total strokes. These pump switches
are either in contact closure models or non-contacting sensor models.
5.30.6 Smoothing
The smoothing pot on the front panel can be adjusted to provide dampening for the flow meter to enable
it to give more stable readings.
5.30.7 Alarms
Alarms to indicate increase or decrease of flow are provided. An alarm lamp on the front panel and
optional external alarms, consisting of a horn and lamp, inform the driller that preset high or low
return flow limits have been reached which may indicate an impending kick (high) or loss of mud to an
unconsolidated formation (low).
5.31 MUD FLOW SENSOR
The purpose of the mud flow sensor is to monitor the mud flow level in the return flow line. The signals
from the flow sensor are registered on the mud flow indicator providing the operator with indications of
mud flow changes and initial mud flow returns during trips. The location of the flow sensor in the return
flow line gives the driller his first indication of a gas kick or the beginning of lost circulation.
The Flow Sensor monitors mud flow through the return line to the shaker using a paddle type sensor. The
assembly is mounted on the return line with the paddle extending through a 9.25 x 2.50 inch cut-out in
the pipe into the mud flow. Deflected by the force of the mud flow, the paddle drives a potentiometer
which provides a DC analogue signal (O to 10 Volt DSc) that is in proportion in amplitude to the position
of the paddle in the mud flow. The resultant signal registers on the percent of Flow Dial in the console.

Figure 5.57: MUD Flow Sensor

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5.32 BOP DRILLS

1. BOP drills shall be performed to ensure that crew is adequately trained and remain alert to implement
early kick detection and closing procedures of BOP to shut in the well correctly.
2. BOP drills shall be conducted once a week with each crew, in order to maintain their alertness and
competence.
3. The drill should be initiated at unscheduled times when operations and hole condition permits.
4. To conduct drill a kick should be simulated by manipulating primary kick indicator such as the pit
level indicator or the flow line indicator by raising its float gradually and checking for the alarm.
5. The reaction time from float raising to the designated crew member is ready to start the closing
procedure shall be recorded and response time should not be more than 60 seconds.
6. Total time taken to complete the drill shall be recorded and it should not be more than 2 minutes.
7. Following drills should be performed:
• On bottom drill
• Trip drill
• Drill collar in blowout preventer drill
• String out of the hole drill
5.32.1 Shut in procedure for BOP drills
Common points to all type of drill
1. Raise the float gradually
2. Check and see change in pit volume totalizer reading and detection of pit gain.
3. Check for alarm.
5.32.2 Condition-1 : On Bottom Drill (While Drilling)
1. Give signal by raising alarm.
2. Stop rotary
3. Pick up kelly to clear tool joint above rotary.
4. Stop mud pump.
5. Lock the brake securely.
6. Check for well flow.
7. On bottom drill should be carried out only to the point of driller's recognition, signaled by raising the
kelly and pump shutdown. This is to avoid danger of stuck-up.
5.32.3Condition – 2 : Trip Drill (While Tripping)
1. Give signal by raising alarm.
2. Position tool joint above rotary and set the pipe on slips.

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3. Install full opening safety valve in open position. Close FOSV after installation.
4. Close Annular Preventer.
5. Close adjustable choke.
6. Open HCR valve or
In case there is no HCR valve on choke line then open mechanical valve adjacent to drilling spool.
7. Make up Kelly or circulating head and open FOSV.
8. Record SIDPP & SICP.
5.32.4 Condition – 3 : Collar in Blowout Preventer Drill
1. Give signal by raising alarm.
2. Position upper drill collar box at table and set it on slips.
3. Connect a drill pipe joint or stand of drill pipe on drill collar tool joint with change over sub and run
in the hole.
4. Connect FOSV and close it.
5. Close blowout preventer on Drill pipe.
6. Close adjustable choke and open HCR valve / manual valve of choke line.
7. Make up kelly or circulating head and open FOSV.
8. Record SIDPP & SICP.
Note:
Under actual kick conditions (other than drills) if only one stand of drill collar remained in the hole it
would be probably fast to simply pull the last stand and close the blind ram.
5.32.5Condition – 4 : String is out of hole Drill
1. Give signal by raising alarm.
2. Close blind / shear ram.
3. Close adjustable choke and open HCR valve.
4. Record shut in pressure.
5.32.6Stripping Drill
1. The stripping drill should be performed by at least one crew on each well.
2. This drill can be conveniently performed after casing is set and before drilling out cement.
3. Keep the drill string in the hole, install NRV on drill pipe & close a blowout preventer
4. Pressurised the BOP at desired pressure.
5. Reduce the operating pressure of BOP to an acceptable value.
6. Assign position of each crew member.

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7. Follow an acceptable procedure and the crew should strip sufficient pipe into the hole to establish the
work ability of the equipment and to allow each crew member to learn to perform their assignments.
Note:
1. Over a period of time, all crews should become proficient in stripping operations.
2. Stripping drills are not recommended for operations involving subsea blowout preventer stacks.
5.32.7 Choke Drill
1. The Choke drill should be performed by at least one crew on each well.
2. This drill can be conveniently performed after casing is set and before drilling out cement from
surface casing and each subsequent casing string.
3. Keep the drill string in the hole ,install NRV on drill pipe & close a blowout preventer
4. Pressurised the BOP at desired pressure.
5. Reduce the operating pressure of BOP to an acceptable value.
6. Assign position of each crew member.
7. With pressure trapped below a closed preventer, the choke should be used to control casing
pressure while pumping down the drill pipe at a prescribed rate. This drill will establish equipment
performance and allow the crew to gain proficiency in choke operation.
8. It is desirable to discharge into a trip tank to accurately monitor flow rates for correlation with choke
opening, pump rates, and pressure drops in the circulating system and across the choke.
Note:
1. Over a period of time, all crews should become proficient in stripping operations.
2. This is particularly important for subsea blowout preventer stacks in deep water, which may have
significant circulating pressure losses in the choke lines.
5.32.8Diverter Drill
When the posted instruction is to divert, a diverter drill must be held by crew at the beginning of every
tour. Diverter drills must be carried out to improve the crew's reaction time and prove the operation of
all diverter system equipment. A drill must be carried out before drilling out the surface casing. A specific
detailed diverter drill must be prepared for each rig/well that should include the following:
• Simulationofdivertingthewellaccordingtodiverterprocedures(includeslininguppumpstoheavymud).
• The sending of essential personnel to their pre-assigned positions.
• The sending of all non-essential personnel to the muster point or assigned position as per the
Emergency Response Plan.
• Simulate “get ready for disconnect and move off location” on floating rigs
5.33 RING GASKETS & CONNECTIONS
The most common connections for BOPs, Spools, and side outlets are Studded connection, Flange
connection & Hub connection. There are two basic type of flanges type 6B & type 6BX. 6B type of flanges

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are for all sizes in maximum working pressure rating of 2,000 psi and 3,000 psi. In case of 5,000 psi the
type of flanges for sizes smaller than 13 5/8” will be 6B whereas type of flanges for sizes 13 5/8” & above
will be 6BX . All sizes of 10,000 psi , 15,000 psi and 20,000 psi rating flanges will be of 6BX type .
Type 6B flanges are for R or Rx type rings having flat bottomed grooves. Since the type of flange for R and
Rx is same that's why these rings are interchangeable. Type BX – flanges use BX type of rings only. Rx and
BX type of ring gaskets are not interchangeable but both provide a pressure – energized seal.
There is considerable merit to the energized seal. With the non- energized type, the weight of the stack
above rests on the seal ring. Weight and vibration deform the rings, loosening the flanges bolts, and
tightening is required from time to time. Energized rings still seal despite some loosening. RX rings also
carry load, but BX rings are even better since the design allows the flanges faces to come together and
carry weight. BX ring gaskets have some interference and are not recommended for re-use.
Clamp – type connections of the bolted half – ring
are also used and are much quicker to assemble and
disassemble than API flanges. These are designed to
withstand external loading, both bending and
tension. The Grayloc ring combines tapered, flexible
lips on each side of a rigid rib. The angle of the lips is
slightly less than the mating hub thereby forming a
surface seal as the connection is brought together.
The rigidity of the seal provides a definite stop on
make – up and prevents crushing by over tightening
the seal. The seal is pressure energised. These two
clamps type connections are similar in appearance.

Figure 5.58: Different Type of Connections

Figure 5.59 : Ring Gaskets

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RINGS FOR 6B & 6BX TYPE FLANGES

Size Pressure Rating

2M 3M 5M 10M 15M/ 20M
2 1/16” R/RX 23 R/RX 24 R/RX 24 BX 152 BX 152
2 9/16” R/RX 26 R/RX 27 R/RX 27 BX 153 BX 153
3 1/8” R/RX 31 R/RX 31 R/RX 35 --- ---
3 1/16 --- --- --- BX 154 BX 154
4 1/16” R/RX 37 R/RX 37 R/RX 39 BX 155 BX 155
7 1/16” R/RX 45 R/RX 45 R/RX 46 BX 156 BX 156
9” R/RX 49 R/RX 49 R/RX 50 BX 157 BX 157
11” R/RX 53 R/RX 53 R/RX 54 BX 158 BX 158
13 5/8” R/RX 57 R/RX 57 BX 160 BX 159 BX 159
16 3/4” R/RX 65 R/RX 66 BX 162 BX 162 ---
18 3/4” --- --- BX 163 BX 164 BX 164
20 3/4” --- R/RX 74 --- --- ---
21 1/4” R/RX 73 --- BX 165 BX 166 ---
M = 1000 psi Source API 16A
NOTE:
• Ring gaskets should be used clean & dry. no grease should be applied to ring gaskets.
• Ring gaskets should not be re-used.
ANNULAR BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Model Bore Size Maximum Working Gallons Gallons To Close Gallons To Open
(inches) Pressure (PSI) Secondary

MH KOOMEY
N 7-1/16 3,000 2.85 2.24
7-1/16 5,000 3.86 3.30
7-1/16 10,000 9.42 7.08
7-1/16 15,000 11.20 7.50
11 3,000 7.43 5.54
11 5,000 9.81 7.9
11 10,000 25.10 18.98
13-5/8 3,000 11.36 8.94
13-5/8 5,000 17.98 14.16
13-5/8 10,000 37.18 26.50
21-1/4 2,000 31.05 18.93

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HYDRIL
GK 7-1/16 3,000 2.85 2.24
7-1/16 5,000 3.86 3.30
7-1/16 10,000 9.42 7.08
7-1/16 15,000 11.20 7.50
7-1/16 20,000 10.90 7.20
9 3,000 4.33 3.41
9 5,000 6.84 5.80
9 10,000 15.90 11.95
11 3,000 7.43 5.54
11 5,000 9.81 7.98
11 10,000 25.10 18.97
11 15,000 26.67 20.45
13-5/8 3,000 11.36 8.94
13-5/8 5,000 17.98 14.16
HL 13-5/8 5,000 17.98 26.50
13-5/8 10,000(SH) 37.18 26.50
13-5/8 10,000(LH) 37.18 12.59
16¾ 2,000 17.46 15.80
16¾ 3,000/5,000 28.70 19.93
GX 11 10,000 17.88 17.88
11 15,000 24.14 24.14
13-5/8 10,000 24.14 24.14
13-5/8 15,000 34.00 34.00
18¾ 10,000 58.00 58.00
GL 13-5/8 5,000 8.24 19.76 19.76
16-3/4 5,000 16.60 35.30 35.30
18-3/4 5,000 20.00 44.00 44.00
21-1/4 5,000 29.50 58.00 58.00
ANNULAR BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Model Bore Size Maximum Gallons Gallons To Gallons To

(inches) Working Secondary Close Open
Pressure(PSI)
MSP 7-1/16 2,000 2.85 1.98
9 2,000 4.57 2.95
11 2,000 7.43 5.23
20-3/4 2,000 31.05 18.93
21-1/4 2,000 31.05 18.93

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HL21-1/4 2,000 31.75 19.25

29-1/2 500 60.00 Vent
30 1,000 87.60 27.60
FSP 28 2,000 90.00 75.00
CAMERON
D 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 1.69 1.39
7-1/16 10,000 2.94 2.55
7-1/16 15,000 6.94 6.12
7-1/16 20,000 8.38 7.56
11 3,000/5,000 5.65 4.69
11 10,000 10.15 9.06
11 15,000 23.50 21.30
13-5/8 3,000/5,000 12.12 10.34
13-5/8 10,000 18.10 16.15
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 22.30 19.00
18-3/4 5,000 35.60 29.00
18-3/4 10,000 51.00 45.10
20-3/4 3,000 40.50 28.40
21-1/4 2,000 40.50 28.40
SHAFFER
S 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 4.57 3.21
7-1/16 10,000 17.11 13.95
9 3,000 7.23 5.03
9 5,000 11.05 8.72
11 3,000 11.00 6.78
11 5,000 18.67 14.59
11 10,000 30.58 24.67
13-5/8 3,000 23.50 14.67
13-5/8 5,000 23.58 17.41
13-5/8 10,000 40.16 32.64
16-3/4 5,000 33.26 25.61
18-3/4 5,000 48.16 37.61
18-3/4 10,000 85.00 66.00
21-1/4 2,000 32.59 16.92
21-1/4 5,000 61.37 47.76
30 1,000 122.00 55.00

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5.34 CLOSING RATIO

Closing ratio is defined as the cross sectional area of the ram piston (cylinder) divided by the cross sectional
area of the ram shaft. It is used to determine ram closing pressure which will overcome wellbore pressure
acting on ram body.
Therefore, closing ratio is also the ratio of well bore pressure or well head pressure to the pressure
required to close the Ram Preventer.
Well bore pressure or well head pressure
Closing Ratio =
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer
Example
13 5/8”, 10,000 psi, Cameron U type ram preventer
Closing ratio = 7:1, Manifold pressure = 1,500 psi
Calculate pressure required to close the ram if well head pressure is 10,000 psi.
Solution
Well bore pressure or well head pressure
Closing Ratio =
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer = Well bore pressure Closing Ratio
= 10,000 ÷ 7 = 1428 psi
It means 1,500 psi manifold pressure is sufficient to close the ram preventer if the well is flowing at
10,000 psi.
5.35 OPENING RATIO
Opening ratio is the ratio of well bore pressure or well head pressure to the pressure required to open
the Ram Preventer.
Well bore pressure or well head pressure
Opening Ratio =
Pressure required to open the Ram Preventer
Pressure required to open the Ram Preventer
Exercise
13 5/8”, 10,000 psi, Cameron U type ram preventer Opening ratio = 2.3:1, Well bore pressure = 10,000 psi
Calculate pressure required to open the ram under pressure. Can the ram preventer be opened when the
well is under pressure?
Solution
Well bore pressure or well head pressure
Opening Ratio =
Pressure required to open the Ram Preventer
10000
Pressure required to open the Ram = = 4,348 psi
2.3
Note: BOP should never be opened under differential pressure

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RAM BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Model Bore Size Maximum Closing Opening Gallons Gallons
(inches) Working Ratio(C.R.) Ratio(O.R.) To Close To Open
Pressure (psi)
MH KOOMEY
PL-HD 7-1/16 Except15M 7.75:1 2.50:1 1.02 .96
PL-PRC 7-1/16 Except15M 7.75:1 2.50:1 1.10 .97
PB-PRC 7-1/16 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 .75 .75
PL-PRC 11 10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 3.60 3.30
PB-PRC 11 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 2.66 2.66
PL-HD 13-5/8 5,000/10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 6.25 5.78
PL-PRC 13-5/8 5,000/10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 6.25 5.78
PB-PRC 13- 5,000/10,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 2.80 2.80
PB-PRC 5/813- 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 3.54 Pip 3.54 Pip
5/8 5.30 Shr 5.30 Shr
PB-PRC 10,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 11.50 Pip 11.50 Pip
18-3/4 19.30Shr 19.30Shr
PB-PRC 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 11.50 Pip 11.50 Pip
18-3/4 19.30Shr 19.30Shr
PL-PRC 2,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 12.65 12.18
PL-PRC 21-1/4 5,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 9.70 9.00
*Model PB (Pressure Balanced) Preventers do not oppose wellbore pressure to open or close.
CAMERON
U-Pipe 7 1/16 ALL 6.90:1 2.20:1 1.30 1.30
11 Except 15M 7.30:1 2.50:1 3.50 3.40
11 15,000 9.80:1 2.20:1 6.20 6.10
13- 5/8” Except 15M 7.00:1 2.30 :1 5.80 5.40
13-5/8 15,000 10.60:1 3.60:1 10.60 10.40
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 6.80:1 2.30:1 10.60 9.80
16-3/4 10,000 6.80:1 2.30:1 12.40 11.60
18-3/4 10,000 7.40:1 3.70:1 23.10 21.20
20-3/4 3,000 7.00:1 130:1 8.40 7.90
21-1/4 2,000 7.00:1 1.30:1 8.40 7.90
21-1/4 5,000 6.20:1 4.00:1 29.90 27.20
21-1/4 10,000 7.20:1 4.00:1 26.90 24.50
26-3/4 3,000 7.200:1 1.00:1 10.80 10.10
U-Shear 11 Except 15M 12.00:1 4.80:1 7.60 7.40
11 15,000 15.20:1 3.70:1 9.00 8.90
13-5/8 Except 15M 10.80:1 4.50:1 10.90 10.50
13-5/8 15,000 16.20:1 6.00:1 16.20 16.00
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 10.40:1 4.40:1 19.00 18.10
16-3/4 10,000 10.40:1 4.40:0 19.10 18.20
20-3/4 3,000 10.80:1 1.70:1 14.90 14.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.80:1 1.70:1 14.90 14.30
U-II Pipe 18-3/4 10,000 6.70:1 2.50:1 24.70 22.30
18-3/4 15,000 9.30:1 3.50:1 34.70 32.30
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RAM BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Model Bore Size Maximum Closing Opening Gallons To Gallons To
(inches) Working Ratio (C.R.) Ratio (O.R.) Close Open
Pressure (psi)
HYDRIL
Manual 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 4.80:1 1.50:1 1.00 .93
Lock Pipe 7-1/16 10,000 7.70:1 1.70:1 1.90 1.80
Rams 7-1/16 15,000 7.10:1 6.60:1 3.70 3.40
9 3,000/5,000 4.50:1 2.60:1 1.90 1.90
11 3,000/5,000 6.00:1 2.00:1 3.30 3..20
11 10,000 6.90:1 2.40:1 5.20 5.00
11 15,000 7.20:1 3.24:1 8.80 8.10
13-5/8 3,000/5,000 4.80:1 2.10:1 5.40 4.80
13-5/8 10,000 10.20:1 3.80:1 11.80 11.80
20-3/4 3,000 4.75:1 .98:1 8.10 7.20
21-1/4 2,000 4.75:1 .98:1 8.10 7.20
21-1/4 5,000 10.20:1 1.90:1 17.50 16.60
Manual 11 3,000/5,000 5.60:1 4.20:1 5.50 5.00
Lock 11 10,000 11.70:1 4.00:1 8.80 8.20
Shear 11 15,000 7.20:1 3.24:1 8.80 8.10
Rams 13-5/8 3,000/5,000 10.10:1 4.70:1 11.50 11.20
13-5/8 10,000 10.20:1 3.80:1 11.80 11.80
20-3/4 3,000 10.14:1 2.20:1 17.20 16.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.14:1 2.20:1 17.20 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.20:1 1.90:1 17.50 16.60
Multi 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 5.40:1 1.60;1 1.20 .93
Position 7-1/16 10,000 8.20:1 1.70:1 2.00 1.80
Lock Pipe 7-1/16 15,000 7.60:1 6.60:1 3.90 3.40
Rams 11 10,000 7.60:1 2.40:1 5.70 5.00
13-5/8 3,000 5.20:1 2.10:1 5.90 4.90
13-5/8 5,000 5.20:1 2.10:1 5.90 5.20
13-5/8 10,000 10.60:1 3.80:1 12.90 11.80
13-5/8 15,000 7.74:1 3.56:1 12.60 11.00
16-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 2.41:1 15.60 14.10
18-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 17.10 15.60
18-3/4 15,000 7.27:1 2.15:0 19.40 16.70
20-3/4 3,000 10.60:1 .98:1 18.00 1630
21-1/4 2,000 10.60:1 .98:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 19.30 16.60
CAMERON
T-Pipe 13-5/8 10,000 8.60:1 4.30:1 13.90 12.90
18-3/4 15,000 6.70:1 3.10:1 24.30 22.40

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RAM BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Model Bore Size Maximum Closing Opening Gallons To Gallons To
(inches) Working Ratio (C.R.) Ratio (O.R.) Close Open
Pressure (psi)
HYDRIL
Multi 11 3,000/5,000 6.00:1 4.20:1 6.00 5.00
Position 11 10,000 12.40:1 4.00:1 9.30 8.20
Lock 11 15,000 7.60:1 3.24:1 9.30 8.10
Shear 13-5/8 3,000/5,000 10.60:1 4.70:1 12.00 11.20
Rams 13-5/8 10,000 10.60:1 3.80:1 12.90 11.80
13-5/8 15,000 7.74:1 3.56:1 12.60 11.00
16-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 2.40:1 15.60 14.10
18-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 17.10 15.60
18-3/4 15,000 7.27:1 2.15:1 19.40 16.70
20-3/4 3,000 10.60:1 2.20:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.60:1 2.20:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 19.30 16.60
SL w/14” 7-1/16 10000/15000 13.90:1 7.14:1 6.00 5.57
11 10,000 7.11:1 7.62:1 9.45 7.00
11 15,000 7.11:1 2.80:1 9.40 8.10
13-5/8 5,000 10.85:1 10.02:1 11.00 10.52
13-5/8 10,000 7.11:1 4.29:1 10.58 10.52
13-5/8 15,000 7.11:1 2.14:1 11.56 10.52
16-3/4 5,000 10.85:1 5.77:1 11.76 10.67
16-3/4 10,000 7.11:1 2.06:1 14.47 12.50
18-3/4 10,000 7.11:1 1.83:1 14.55 13.21
18-3/4 15,000 10.85:1 1.68:1 14.62 13.33
21-1/4 10,000 7.11:1 1.63:1 16.05 13.86
LWS 7-1/16(6.5) 5,000 5.45:1 1.93:1 1.45 1.18
(8.5”, 10” 9 (8.5) 5,000 5.57:1 3.00:1 2.58 2.27
& 14” 11 (6.5) 3,000 5.45:1 1.16:1 1.74 1.45
Piston) 11 (8.5) 3,000 5.57:1 2.09:1 2.98 2.62
11 (14) 5,000 16.00:1 3.41:1 9.50 8.90
20-3/4 3,000 5.57:1 .78:1 5.07 4.46
(8.5)
20-3/4(10) 3,000 8.16:1 1.15:1 7.80 6.86
20-3/4(14) 3,000 16.00:1 2.21:1 14.50 13.59
21-3/4(8.5) 2,000 5.57:1 .78:1 5.07 4.46
21-1/4(10) 2,000 8.16:1 1.15:1 7.80 6.86
21-1/4(14) 2,000 16.00:1 2.21:1 14.50 13.59

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5.36 ROTATING HEAD

Features:
• Rotating heads are used to pack off the annulus, diverting the air and gas flow down the blooey line.
Without the rotating head, the air and gas would come up through the rotary table and onto the rig
floor.
• Newer-generation heads have sealed bearings rather than external oilers.
• Most are driven by a Kelly driver. This attaches to the Kelly and is mated to a machined piece on the
top of the bearing assembly.
• The Kelly driver transfers rotation of the drill string to the sealing element in the rotating head.
• The bearing assembly provides a seal and allows rotation of the stripper rubber while the bowl
remains stationary.
• The stripper rubber is designed to rotate with the Kelly since rotating the Kelly within the
stripper rubber would cause the stripper rubber to wear out much faster.
• Hexagonal Kelly allows for a better seal than do square Kellys. These should be used whenever
possible for air drilling applications.
• The life of the sealing element will be increased by proper lubrication and minimal tripping through
it.
• The drill pipe can be tripped through the stripper rubber when necessary but it will reduce the life
of the rubber.
• Pressures on the sealing element are to be kept to minimum so that life of the rubber can be
increased.
Limitations:
• It is a weak link in well control in areas where induced gasification or high GOR is experienced.
• The manufacturers do not rate the equipment with regard to pressure containment.
• Wear on the rubber element cannot be monitored or predicted. Once the element begins to wear,
its ability to seal reduces continuously until complete failure.
• They do not comply with API specification and as per API RP 53 these are defined as diverters instead
of pressure containment devices.
5.37 ROTATING BLOWOUT PREVENTER
Features:
• It is used with conventional BOP to maintain the surface backpressure during Under-balance /
Horizontal Drilling operations.
• Commonly available nominal flange size available are 7 1/16" x 5000 psi, 11"x 3000 psi, 11"x 5000
psi, 13 5/8" x 5000 psi
• The packing element is hydraulic actuated and is supported on large rollers bearings isolated by
mechanical seals inside a large pressure vessel.

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• It has a flange to mount on the BOP stack and a flange on the side for return discharge.
• The bearing of the rotating BOP get lubricated and cooled by the hydraulic Oil used for actuating
rubber element.
• Kelly packer's rubber loss is compensated by increase in hydraulic oil supply. Sealing element does
not fail catastrophically and provides same rated seal throughout the life of the packer element.
Benefits:
• Provides greater safety to rig personal and environment.
• Reduces drilling fluid cost by using less mud / brine or water.
• Increases drill bit life by drilling with less Hydrostatic pressure.
• Assist in reduction of formation damage.
• Increase penetration rate resulting from drilling with lighter fluid.
• Reduces time in circulating out gas kick.
Construction:
• RBOP consists of main bowl, top cover, bearing assembly, and packing element.
• Surge bottles hydraulic assembly installed close to the inlet hydraulic line for quick response and
smooth operation.
• Hydraulic Power Unit
• Control panel

Figure 5.62 : Rotating BOP (Source: NL Shaffer)

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6 DEEP WATER WELL CONTROL

6.1 WELL CONTROL ON FLOATING RIGS

Introduction
Even though the basic well control principles remain same for wells drilled from a jack-up rig or a land rig
as well as for a floating rig, however, a situation on a floating rig can become much more complicated,
especially in deep waters due to following reasons:
• The long distance between the BOP stack and the drill floor.
• Significant additional pressure drops when circulating through the riser choke line.
• Significant changes in the annulus pressure when an influx enters the choke line.
• The possibility of formation of hydrates in the BOP stack or riser choke line & thereby further
complicating the well killing process.
• Delayed response time of stack functions due to long control lines running from rig floor to sub-sea
stack.
• The complex control system consisting of pilot valves for remote function of BOP stack has more
chances of system failure which is much more difficult to diagnose & repair.
• Adverse weather conditions could delay implementation of well killing operations.
• Excessive wear inside the wellhead & BOP stack due to rig movement.
Effect of water depth on formation fracture pressure
Offshore fracture gradients are calculated in fundamentally the same manner. However, since the
uppermost interval is water, which is considerably less dense than rock, the overburden stress is less as
compared to onshore location. As a result, fracture gradients are also lower.
Increasing water depth will reduce the margin between mud weight and fracture pressure. At the same
water depth, the fracture pressure at the shallower section will be decreased more than the deeper
depth.
At a shallow depth where the average overburden is greatly reduced by water column, more casing
strings are required to reach the plan casing depth.
6.2 TOP HOLE DRILLING ON FLOATING RIGS
Gas or water flows from shallow sands are difficult to handle while drilling with seawater with returns
to mud line before the BOP and riser are installed. Pore pressure in shallow sands can be as high as 70
to 80% of overburden. Since shallow holes have high permeability, flow rates are often several barrels
per minute. Therefore, the existence of gas in shallow zones can be a dangerous situation when drilling.
A number of blowouts have been caused by influxes of over-pressured shallow gas in to the well bore.
Because the hole is shallow, gas can reach the surface within a very short time. Since the time for action

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is short, a prompt action is necessary to prevent the blow-out. Often, the well cannot be shut-in because
there is possibility of formation fracture & broaching in shallow zones. When shallow gas broaches to
the mud line the water beneath the drilling vessel can be aerated enough to reduce the buoyancy &
cause the rig to become unstable & sink. In general, submersible rigs are less affected by aerated water
whereas moored drilling vessels, with decks closer to the sea's surface, are at more risk. The degree
of risk depends upon vessel design, load & weather conditions. To overcome the problem of possible
broaching, diverter systems have been used extensively. The system should be such that the response
time for diverter closing should not exceed 45 seconds on large diameter holes & should be less on
smaller holes. The internal diameter of vent lines should be minimum 10 inches.
In view of above, the main well planning decision involving handling of shallow gas flows is whether to
drill with or without the riser. Merits or demerits of both the options are discussed below:
6.2.1 Top hole Drilling with Riser
In Subsea operation a riser is used to provide a conduit (or annulus) for carrying mud from seabed to
floating drilling vessel. If the riser is not used the returns are discarded at the mud line, in such case at
any given time the full hydrostatic pressure of seawater (depending upon water depth) is acting on the
formation.
Advantages
a. A riser provides a flow path for mud returns to the surface, thereby providing a relatively early
warning of shallow gas influx.
b. It reduces mud cost.
c. Allows easy diverting of shallow gas kicks in shallow to medium water depth, since flow rate is not
high & diverter / riser can easily handle it.
d. In shallow waters, while drilling with riser, no risk to floating rig because of loss of buoyancy due to
shallow gas influx.
Disadvantages
a. Very high pump rates may be required to kill the well with a riser.
b. It has been seen that even low flow rates of shallow gas will rapidly unload a riser of mud. With riser
becoming void, a very high flow rate may develop. Whereas without riser, the seawater itself shall
maintain a constant hydrostatic head on the formation and as a result gas influx will be reduced.
c. In dynamic kill, use of higher mud weight is not possible as it may cause formation breakdown at
shoe.
d. In deep waters, the riser with gas inside may collapse due to hydrostatic head of sea water acting
outside.
e. In emergency situations process of unlatching of hydraulic connector from well head will hamper the
immediate release of floating rig from the location.
However, to prevent the riser collapse & to retain the sea water hydrostatic head against a flowing well &
to be able to use large volumes of heavy mud without risk of formation breakdown, the bottom joint of
riser should be provided with a dump valve that can be operated from the rig floor immediately after it is
known that the mud is being displaced from the riser. The possibility of breaking down of formation due
to buildup of cuttings in riser annulus too could be avoided up-to a large extent by use of booster pumps.

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Also Because of hazards of handling shallow gas, particularly when the flow rates are high, it is advisable
to drill a pilot hole thereby restricting the rate of flow & relatively easy handling of the shallow flows with
the diverter. With floating rigs, normally no marine riser & BOP stack is used when drilling a pilot hole. If
the pilot hole encounters shallow gas, the gas is allowed to flow from the hole & in to the water.
6.2.2 Effect of gas expansion in the riser
In shallow/ medium water depths (150 – 1,000 ft), there is no significant change in gas flow rate with or
without a riser. As flow rate normally is not high so diverter - riser combination can handle it. In deep
waters the magnitude of the pressure in gas zone is quite high & therefore the flow rate of gas will be
high.
There is a big difference in gas flow rate with or without a
riser. The reason is that if the riser is not used and returns
are discarded at mud line, the hydrostatic pressure of sea
water is constantly acting on the formation and hence
flow rates are considerable reduced.
In deep waters while drilling shallow gas sands the use of
riser can be hazardous due to very high flow rates which
may have to be sustained for an indefinite period. It can
cause :
a) Large volume of gas venting on the rig creating a fire
hazard
b) A seabed blow out if efforts are made to reduce the
flow.
c) Riser collapse in deep waters if mud is evacuated
from the riser as shown in figure 6.1 & it is filled with
low density gas. The collapse resistance of riser is
further reduced due to riser tension & bending, it
may fall below the sea water hydrostatic
pressure acting on the outside of the riser. Figure 6.1
6.2.3 Top Hole Drilling Without Riser
If riser is not used & returns are discarded at mud line, the hydrostatic pressure of sea water is constantly
acting on the formation & hence the flow rates are considerably reduced. Therefore, this can be considered
to be the safest way for a floating rig to cope with shallow gas risks. Moreover, since the gas is routed to
the rig floor the rig can move off the location if necessary.
One area of concern is that when shallow gas broaches to the mud line the water beneath the drilling
vessel can be aerated enough to reduce the buoyancy & cause the rig to become unstable & sink.
However, recent studies have indicated that the loss of buoyancy is acceptable since as the water depth
increases the loss of buoyancy becomes lesser & lesser as shown in fig 6.2, but that vessel heeling will
occur. Current speed and direction should be considered while analyzing the loss in buoyancy.

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Figure 6.2: Loss of Buoyancy

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6.3 EFFECT OF RISER MARGIN ON MAINTAINING BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE

In the event of riser getting accidentally disconnected due to vessel drive-off or riser failure etc. the
bottom hole pressure shall be reduced due to loss of hydrostatic pressure as the riser mud column is
replaced by sea water. To compensate this reduction in bottom hole pressure, some margin has to be
added to the drilling mud density which is known as riser margin.
Example:
Water depth - 700 ft
RKB to Sea level - 50 ft
Mud Density - 11 ppg
Seawater density - 8.5 ppg
Well TVD - 10000 ft
Solution :
RISER MARGIN (ppg) =
[ Air Gap + Water depth] x Mud density – [ Water Depth x Sea Water Density]

TVD – Air Gap – Water Depth

[ 50 + 700] x 11 – [ 700 x 8.5]

= 0.25 ppg
10000 – 50 – 700
Mud Density including Riser margin = 11+0.25 = 11.25 ppg
6.4 CHOKE LINE FRICTION LOSSES
In Subsea operations when circulating through choke, flow resistance in the extending choke line running
up from the subsea BOP to surface is considerable. If pressure losses in choke line are not taken into
account during well killing, an excess pressure unnecessarily may be applied in the hole. Since fracture
gradient generally decreases with increased water depth, so beyond 500ft water depth choke line friction
losses should always be considered while planning well control operations.
6.4.1 Measurement of choke Line friction losses
There are four ways to find out choke line friction losses. These are:
a) Pump down the choke line at slow circulation rate taking the returns into the riser through open blow
out preventer. The pressure thus shown on the choke manifold gauge is the choke line friction losses.
The value so obtained does include circulating pressure losses in the riser but that is negligible.
b) Record circulating pressure at slow rate through riser with BOP open. Close BOP, open choke line fail-
safe valve and record pressure with full choke open. The difference of the two values is the choke
line friction loss.
c) Pump down the choke line at slow circulation rate taking the returns through kill line with BOP
closed. The pressure thus shown on the choke manifold gauge is twice the choke line friction losses.

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d) Circulate the well through a full open choke with the bop closed and recording the pressure on the
(static) kill line. The kill line pressure will reflect the choke line pressure loss.
Corrected choke line friction losses for new mud density can be calculated as follows: -
New mud density
Choke line friction losses with old mud ×
Old mud density
Drill pipe pressure should be recorded at two or more slow circulation rates. Choke line pressure should
also be measured over the same range of rates. Both drill pipe pressure & choke line pressure losses can
be plotted separately on Log-Log paper and extrapolated to provide respective estimated pressure losses
at various pump rates because due to high friction losses in the choke line it may be necessary to circulate
out a kick at a very slow rate if formation breakdown is to be avoided.
6.5 KICK PREVENTION AND DETECTION
W
In deep-water the standard well kick warning signs are the same discussed in chapter 2.
6.5.2 Riser Margin
In deep waters, no riser margin is kept.
6.5.3 Shut-in pressures
Shut-in casing pressure can be masked due to viscosity increase in choke and kill lines due to length and
low temperature, therefore kick detection may be difficult.
In order to reduce viscosity, clear or gelled fluid should be kept in choke & kill lines.
6.5.4 Breaking circulation
In deep-water, the gel strength can be high, especially with synthetic mud. Slow rotation of the drill pipe
can be used to reduce the mud gel strength when breaking circulation.
6.5.5 Drilled Cuttings
6.5.5.1 Riser cuttings
The impact of increased annular fluid density (riser cuttings) in creating higher than assumed hydrostatic
pressure can lead to fracturing of low strength casing shoes, which can lead to a kick. This becomes
especially important if the booster line is not available or is not used.
6.5.5.2 Pressure While Drilling Equipment
Pressure while drilling (PWD) equipment can be useful to provide down hole pressure monitoring and to
assess equivalent circulating density (ECD). This includes effect of high viscosity as well as any problem
related to hole cleaning.
6.5.6 Abnormal Pressure Detection
Detection of abnormal pressure is delayed due to increase in lag time for gas units and cuttings in deep
water.

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Due to the cooling effect of a long riser, flow-line mud temperature is not an effective tool in assessing
formation temperature or abnormal pressure. An on-line sample heater on the mud prior to measuring
gas units should be used, otherwise, cold mud may give lower gas units.
Therefore, measurement while drilling (MWD) kick detection methods should be used.
6.5.7 Effect of Pitch, Roll and Heave motions
Pitch, roll and heave motions due to weather & crane activity etc. affect the reliability of pit level and
return mud flow detection methods. Therefore, two or more sensors should be installed in each pit
connected to pit volume totalizer so as to minimize this effect. Moreover, the location of the sensor is
also important i.e., single sensor should be installed in center & two sensors should be placed at the
edges.
Downhole swabbing and surging from the vessel motion
During operations in Deepwater wells (such as, for instance, running smart completions), there exist
periods when the axial movement of the string in the well remains uncompensated. During these periods,
vessel heave is imposed on the string at the surface, resulting in swab and surge effects downhole. The
problem is further complicated by the presence of multiple flow ports in the string, and of choke and
kill lines at surface, as well as float valves in the string itself. As the margin between pore and fracture
pressure is narrow, these fluctuations can create conditions for an influx (Swabbing) or lost circulation
(Surging), with potentially significant consequences.
6.6 WELL SHUT–IN PROCEDURES
6.6.1 Pre – Kick Preparation
Preparation before a kick includes following:
a. MAASP & maximum allowable mud density values should be displayed preferably at the driller's
console subsequent to a Leak Off Test. These values should be periodically updated when the mud
properties change.
b. Slow pump rate should be recorded at two or more different SPM, directly through riser & through
choke/kill line with both the pumps. Pressure should be recorded from at least two gauges so as to
rule out the possibility of an error due to gauge failure. Ensure that cuttings in hole and riser do not
affect slow pump data.
c. A subsea BOP kill sheet duly filled in with current well data should be maintained.
d. A float valve (NRV) should always be used in the drill string to prevent back-flow through drill pipe
during an emergency disconnect and / or failure of the shear rams to seal.
e. Choke & Kill line valves' position (open/close) & fluid contents in the lines should be displayed on a
chart or board near the driller's console.
f. Tool joint space –out for various ram preventers should be displayed.
Note: With increase in water depth, the variation in drill pipe joint length can create uncertainty in tool
joint position, this can be reduced by arranging joints such that the average length of 8-10 stands do not
vary by much.
g. Gas handling capacity of mud – gas separator should be displayed

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h. Immediately after lowering BHA the insert packer should be installed & locked.
i. Hang-off ram should be identified & its hang-off capabilities for the various DP sizes should be
displayed
j. The BOP Drills (including tool joint space out) should be conducted regularly to ensure crew
competency.
6.6.2 Shut-in Criteria, hard Vs. soft shut-in
Soft shut-in leads to more kick volume & therefore higher casing pressure as compared to hard shut-in.
At the same time fluid hammer effect during shut-in happens to be more in case of hard shut-in. As a
matter of fact, whatever hammer pressure does occur it is mainly at the BOP & down below at the shoe
the effect is minimal. Moreover, there is only a small difference in fluid hammer effect between two shut-
in practices.
As regards annular Vs. ram shut-in there are advantage of using either approach as described below:
Advantages of Annular shut-in
a) It allows for the movement of the drill string & reduces chances of string sticking.
b) Before shutting-in there is no need to ensure that tool joint is not near the BOP.
Advantages of Ram shut-in
a) It provides higher pressure rating as compared to annular.
b) It reduces the amount of gas that may be trapped in the BOP.
c) It prevents wear of BOP due to vessel heave in case motion compensator is not working properly or
if compensator is set at less than the string weight.
In view of above it is advised to shut – in with an annular & then hang – off on a ram BOP.
6.6.3 Shut-in while Drilling (Hard Shut-in)
a. Stop rotary table.
b. Raise kelly to hang off point ensuring that lower kelly cock is above rotary table and Kelly is at the
pre- designated level so that tool joint is clear of ram preventers.
c. Stop mud pump, check self-flow. If yes, proceed further to shut in the well.
d. Close annular BOP (Preferably upper annular)
e. Open fail-safe valve on choke line when remote choke is in close position.
f. Close the upper pipe rams.
g. Reduce hydraulic pressure on annular, hang the string and ensure rams are locked.
h. Open annular after bleeding trapped pressure between annular and pipe ram.
i. Record SIDPP, SICP and Pit Gain.
If motion compensator is not working or not reliable, following steps should be followed after step e) :
a) Set slips and close lower kelly cock. Bleed off stand pipe pressure and break away kelly above kelly
cock.

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b) Pick up circulating head make up the same above lower kelly cock, pick up the string to hang off
point and remove slips.
c) Close the upper pipe rams.
d) Reduce hydraulic pressure on annular hang the string and ensure rams are locked.
e) Open annular BOP after bleeding trapped pressure between annular and pipe ram.
f) Open Lower kelly cock.
g) Record SIDPP, SICP and Pit Gain.
6.6.4 Shut–in while Tripping (Soft Shut-in)
a. Set slips below tool joint.
b. Install full open safety valve (FOSV) in open position, close it & remove slips.
c. Open Fail-safe valve on choke line when remote choke is in close position.
d. Close annular BOP.
e. Calculate the length of the pup joint and /or length of stick up above rotary table to ensure that the
tool joint is clear off the pipe ram to be closed.
f. Make up kelly & open FOSV.
g. Close upper pipe rams. Reduce operating pressure on annular BOP.
h. Lower drill string & hang it off on the rams. Open Annular BOP after bleeding pressure.
i. Record SIDPP, SICP and pit gain.
6.6.5 Shut–in with bit out of the hole or inside riser.
In case kick indication is observed while out of the hole or inside riser the well should be immediately
shut- in with the blind shear rams to avoid entry of influx in riser. Step by step procedure is as below:
a) At the first indication of flow from the well, close the blind shear rams &. open selected subsea
Choke & Kill line valves.
b) Monitor flow from the riser & close the diverter as a precautionary measure (ensure riser booster
valve is closed)
c) Record shut-in casing pressure on both Choke & Kill lines, and pit gain. Prepare for stripping,
volumetric or bull heading operations.
6.6.6 Shut –in while Running Casing / Liner
In case of kick indication while running casing/liner, the shut-in sequence will depend on the following
conditions.
• Casing / Liner inside the riser
• Casing / Liner inside the BOPs
• Hanger is below the BOPs & drill pipe is in a position that allows the well to be shut-in.
Depending upon either of above situation the appropriate shut-in procedures as already discussed in
6.6.3 & 6.6.4 should be followed.

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6.6.7 Hang–off consideration

For hanging off the string precise instructions and drills for spacing and landing the string are helpful. All
concerned must know exactly where the tool joint is. Closing the rams on a tool joint would have dire
consequences in a real emergency situation. If a circulating head is to be used in well kick operations, the
hang-off procedure will include the installation of a circulating head.
Following conditions require hang-off:
a) Weather and sea conditions creating excessive heave.
b) Where there are chances of drift-off.
c) When motion compensator cannot prevent the drill string from moving through the annular due to
vessel heave.
d) When riser angle at the Lower Marine Riser Package is greater than the operating limit.
e) When surface flow from the riser indicates that annular preventer is leaking.
f) When Casing pressure increases above operating limits.
g) When unable to establish full returns, or there is evidence of an underground flow.
Hang-off procedure
The general procedure for running a hang-off tool is as follows, assuming drilling has been in progress:
a) Pull the bit into the casing shoe plus the distance from the rotary table to the wellhead.
b) Install the inside BOP and make up the hang-off assembly to the string.
c) Run the tool to the wellhead and land on the bore protector, compensating for the weight of the
running string.
d) Turn to the right to release the running sub from the top sub.
e) Pull the running sub above the shear rams. Close both pipe and shear rams and circulate the riser to
seawater (if time and conditions allow).
6.7 WELL KILLING TECHNIQUES
Prior to initiating a kill method, consider breaking circulation in Choke & Kill line if Choke & Kill line gel
strength is high and mud weight / formation integrity margin is low.
6.7.1 Consideration of Choke Line Friction
The effect of long choke lines can be very significant. The pressure loss is related to water depth, circulating
rate, and internal diameter of choke and kill lines. The pressure loss effect of the choke line applies to all
points in the well bore and is especially critical at shallow or weak casing seats.
The problem can be handled by measuring the choke line friction pressure before drilling out of casing.
The casing pressure could then be reduced by the amount of choke line friction pressure while bringing
the pump to kill speed. The initial circulating pressure (SIDPP + Slow rate pressure through riser) will
be approximately the same if the casing pressure is reduced by the amount of the choke line friction
pressure. Choke line friction can be reduced by lowering slow circulation rate. Another way of lowering
choke line pressure would be to utilize both choke and kill lines. Normally both lines are utilized specially
towards the end of the kill operation.

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6.7.2 Effect of Different Density Fluids in Choke & Kill Lines

In deep water well killing, the displacement of one density fluid by another can cause sharp changes in
the surface pressures. There can be rapid change in casing pressure when gas displaces mud in the choke
line & when the trailing mud displaces gas in the choke line. If the choke does not respond equally fast
then a second influx or formation breakdown may occur. This makes choke line displacement one of
the most difficult stages of the well killing operation. Moreover, since there is rarely a sharp boundary
between gas and mud, several severe and sharp changes in Casing pressure and Drill pipe pressure are
encountered. As the capacity of choke line is very less, displacement even at kill rate gives very short time
to make the adjustments on choke to keep the BHP constant. Some of the actions suggested to maintain
BHP constant are:
a) To displace the line at an extremely slow rate when gas top reaches the BOP stack.
b) Use a large diameter choke line.
c) Use both choke and kill line in parallel without changing the pump rate.
d) Driller's Method
In driller's method since the influx remains in the well bore for a shorter time, the probability of formation
of hydrates gets reduced because immediate circulation brings well bore heat up thereby helps keeping
temperatures at BOP & choke & kill lines above than required for formation of hydrates. Step by step
killing procedure has been discussed in chapter 3.
6.7.4 Wait & Weight Method
In wait & weight method lesser circulation is required for killing the well. Another advantage of this
method is that it gives lesser surface pressure & also less casing shoe pressure if open hole annular
volume is more than string volume. Step by step killing procedure has been discussed in chapter 3.
6.7.5 Choke Pressure Fluctuations
As the gas influx is circulated up the annulus its height will increase considerably when it is displaced
from the annulus into the small diameter choke line. Unless the surface choke is quickly closed down a
sharp reduction in Bottom Hole Pressure could occur leading to a secondary kick. Similarly as the gas is
circulated out of the choke line the mud replacing it will cause a sudden increase in Bottom Hole Pressure
and in order to avoid the risk of fracturing exposed formations the choke will need to be rapidly opened.
The above effect on the choke pressure profile in deep waters as compared to a fixed rig is shown in
figure no.6.2
These choke pressure fluctuations will become more pronounced as the water depth increases.
6.7.6 Choke & Kill Lines Consideration
Floating rigs for deep waters should have provision for two choke & kill lines which serves following
purposes:
a) Pumping through both the lines helps to reduce the choke line friction loss by 50-60 % for same
circulation rates
b) A back up for the line in use

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c) While bringing the pump to kill rate static line's pressure can be kept constant in order to compensate
for choke line friction loss
d) Help circulating out trapped gas below BOP
e) Help circulating a well in which string is hung-off with the drill pipe disconnected below closed blind
rams
f) If the gas is not dissolved, the use of both choke & kill lines causes BOP stack to act as a mud/gas
separator
Use of both choke & kill lines as a mud gas separator
a) Most of the gas will rise to the top of the BOP cavity & shall exit through upper choke line, as a result
upper choke line shall have more gas as compared to lower choke line.
b) Consequently, hydrostatic head in upper line shall be less which causes reverse flow from lower line
due to U-tube effect. As shown in figure, upper line takes higher flow rates as the mud flow from
lower line is added to it. Due to this the fluid entering lower line has more mud in it.
c) This affects the pressure behaviour at the surface as it reduces surface pressure fluctuations &
degree of choke adjustment.

Figure 6.3: Choke Pressure Fluctuations

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Figure 6.4: Use Of Two Choke Lines As Bop Separator Effect

• Choke line friction loss consideration when SICP<CLFL
When the SICP<CLFL, as the well is brought to desired kill rate, an extra pressure equal to the difference
of CLFL & SICP (i.e., CLFL-SICP) shall be applied in the well-bore which is undesirable.
If the magnitude of this pressure is considered excessive then a slower value of pump rate should be
selected. Alternatively, the returns could be taken up both the kill & choke lines.
If this extra pressure is not considered excessive, the resulting ICP shall be higher by the difference of CLFL
& SICP. Therefore, the drill pipe pressure step down schedule values shall also be higher as compared to
pre-determined values.
6.7.7 Trapped Gas
After the kill operation, some gas will remain trapped in the space between the close preventer and the
choke line outlet used for circulation. Volume of this gas can be significant if the closed preventer is an
annular preventer. In surface operations this gas does not pose any problem because pressure of the gas,
being at surface, is minimal. Whereas, in subsea stacks the pressure of the gas trapped below preventer
is equal to hydrostatic head of kill mud in the choke line. Volume of trapped gas depends on following
factors:
a) The arrangement of BOP stack and size of preventer.
b) Type of drilling fluid in use.

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Removal of Trapped gas

In order to prevent a rapid unloading of riser mud due to trapped gas when the preventer is opened,
following actions are recommended.
a. Isolate the well bore from the riser closing lower pipe ram (preferably).
b. Pump through kill line and circulate hydrate inhibited sea water across the stack maintaining back
pressure at choke.
c. Once the circulation is complete close the kill line fail-safe valve.
d. Bleed off choke line pressure through choke at surface.
e. Open the annular / upper ram preventer to sweep remaining gas down, into the choke line due to
U- tube effect.
. Close annular / upper ram preventer, circulate kill mud through kill line and displace kill line, BOP &
choke line with kill mud.
g. Close diverter, open annular/upper ram preventer and displace the riser mud with kill mud pump
through kill line.
h. Check for any pressure below the lower ram preventer.
i. Open the ram preventer and diverter. & resume normal operation.
6.8 SUB SEA BOP STACK
Each component in the blowout preventer assembly usually has several functions to perform. Ram type
preventers, for example, when equipped with pipe rams are used to seal against a pre-designated size and
to support or to suspend the drill string weight when the need arises. When equipped with shear blind
rams, ram preventers can be used to part the drill string and / or seal over an open well bore. Annular
preventers can seal on different shapes (except bit, stabilizer & underreamer) in the well bore and are
also used to strip the drill string in the well bore under pressure. The kill and choke valves are used to
provide flexibility in circulating fluids out of the well bore and to isolate the BOP stack in the event of a kill
and /or choke line rupturing. The hydraulically operated BOP connectors are used to remotely connect
and release the riser, and the BOP stack. The connections, other than those made hydraulically, are made
with clamps or flanges. However, clamps are preferred because they reduce overall stack height, can be
connected faster and are stronger.
There are certain objectives to be considered in designing the proper arrangement of equipment within
he BOP stack. Specifically, the arrangement should provide a reliable means of:
a) Closing in on open hole or around drill pipe or collars, stripping the drill string to bottom, and
circulating a well kick.
b) Allowing these conditions to be sustained over a prolonged period of time.
c) Suspending the drill string at the BOP stack, the shearing the drill pipe if necessary, and closing in the
well, so that the drilling vessels can be moved off location.
d) Monitoring the well before re-entry and circulating out any hydrocarbon before opening the blind
rams.
e) Providing redundancy in the event of any function failure.

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Subsea BOP stack is mainly in two parts one is Main BOP stack other is Lower Marine Riser Package
(LMRP). The lower marine riser package is upper most part of BOP which consist of normally a high-
pressure connector, an annular which is optional, a flex joint to compensate the movement of risers and
a top riser
connector to connect riser on top of it. The high-pressure connector on LMRP is hydraulically operated
which can latch or unlatch to LMRP with main BOP stack.

Figure 6.5: Main BOP Stack (Lower BOP stack)

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In sub-sea BOP stack, there are normally two annular preventers, one in LMRP and one in Main stack
known as upper annular and lower annular respectively. There are two basic reasons for having two
annular preventers. First, the upper annular preventer would be used as the "working" preventer. When
its sealing element fails, it can be replaced by tripping the preventer with the riser, without the added
expense of plugging the well and pulling the entire BOP stack. Secondly, if the drill string has to be
stripped to the bottom or if the drill pipe is reciprocated through the closed upper annular preventer
during hanging off operations, an additional annular preventer would be available to complete the well
operations.
Subsea BOP stack is mostly equipped with four ram type preventers. Which are hydraulically operated
and having an automatic locking system, which lock them in the closed position. More number of ram
preventers are used in subsea stack than land rig because, the BOP once lowered to sea bed will have
sufficient back-up for ram preventer in case any ram fails to hold pressure. The provision of shear blind
ram is always made in BOP stack so that in case of any emergency the drill string can be sheared off and
by unlatching the LMRP drilling vessel can be moved to the shore, leaving the BOP stack on the well head.
6.9 SUB SEA BOP HOOK-UP & CONTROL
6.9.1 Hydraulic Fluid Mixing System
For subsea stack operation, the closing unit
hydraulic fluid reservoir is a combination of
two storage sections, one containing mixed
fluid to be used in operation and other,
section containing the concentrated water-
soluble hydraulic fluid to be mixed with
water to form the mixed hydraulic fluid.
The mixing system has an air pump fitted
on concentrated soluble oil tank, fresh
water line with flow meter, a regulator and
fluid level indicator. The mixing system is
automatically controlled system, when the
mixed fluid reservoir level drops to a certain
point, the mixing system will turn on and
water and hydraulic fluid concentrate will
be mixed into the mixed fluid reservoir.
6.9.2 Hose and Hose Reels
The hose bundle used on offshore floating
rigs to operate BOP stack consists of 3/16"
or 1/8" diameter pilot lines and 1" or 1 1/2"
diameter main supply lines. For Electro
hydraulic system electric cables with
integrated hydraulic power supply line are
used.

Figure 6.6: Subsea BOP Hookups and Controls

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Figure 6.7: Sub Sea BOP System and It's Components

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6.9.3 Subsea Control Pods

It is a hydraulic junction consisting of pilot operated valves which are used to operate the function of
subsea BOP stack and hydraulic regulators. The control pods are retrievable and non-retrievable type.
The hose bundle is connected to the subsea pod to give hydraulic supply from the closing unit.
6.9.4 Marine Risers
Marine risers are the pipes along with two high pressure pipes outside of body called choke and kill line
with support flanges which have guided ribs and provide support for choke and kill lines. These chokes
and kill lines are having clamp-on support to the riser pipe body. At one end of the riser pipe a pin type
connector and on the other end a box type connector is welded to connect the risers. A marine riser
fulfils the following functions:
a) It provides an annular flow path around the drill pipe for transporting drilling fluid and cuttings from
the well bore to the surface of vessels.
b) It serves as a critical flow link between the vessel and BOP stack to aid in well control procedures.
c) It is used to run subsea BOP stack and LMRP to the ocean floor.
d) It helps in guiding the drill pipe, bit and other tool to the well.
6.9.5 Riser Dump Valves / Auto Fill Valve
Riser dump valves are used on the riser joint to
prevent the riser from collapsing under external
pressure in the event of sudden mud loss or while
diverting shallow gas. Riser with auto fill up valve have
an outer sliding sleeve which opens automatically
when the internal riser pressure differential is 100
to 150 psi less than the external pressure, and fills
the riser with sea water. The riser auto-fill up valve
is usually located at least 250 to 300 ft. below the
surface of the water.
Riser dump valve/auto-fill valve has an override
mechanism. This override cylinder is centered over
the piston by an actuator having a floating piston
which floats freely through the flanges on the sliding
sleeve. This sleeve can be moved up by applying
pressure to the bottom of the cylinders which results
in opening of fill-up ports. When hydraulic pressure is
released the sleeve moves down thereby closing the
fill-up ports

Figure 6.8: Marine Riser System & Its Components

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6.9.6 Hydraulic Latch / Low Pressure Connector

After lowering conductor casing well can be drilled down either with returns or without returns. When
drilling without returns appropriate BHA is made up and run down to drill with sea water. In this case, all
the cuttings will spill over the subsea guide structures on the mud line.

Figure 6.9: Lowering of Hydraulic Latch

Drilling with returns requires a hydraulic latch, flex joint, marine risers and diverter to provide the
necessary closed circuit for circulation and means to control shallow gas if encountered.
Hydraulic latch/low pressure connector is the sealed interface connection between conductor casing's
well head housing and marine risers. In most of the hydraulic latches, four hydraulic cylinders are attached
to the main body, and are used to drive the dog ring downward which forces dogs to come out & latch
with well head housing. Internal latch and external latch type low pressure connectors are available with
some of the manufacturers. Internal latch type connectors are lowered and latched on the well head
housing from inside. External latch type connectors are lowered on the top of the well head housing
and latched on the outside. A flex joint is provided on the top of the hydraulic latch, which allows for any
deflection from vertical to which the drilling vessel might be subjected.
Riser with slip/telescopic joint on top is used to get the mud returns to the surface and compensate for
up and down movement of the drilling vessel. Diverter on the top of slip joint is used to diverter the flow
in case of shallow gas and in normal condition allows the return to go to shale shakers through flow line.

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Recommendations
a) Prior to running the hydraulic latch, it should be function tested and latch dogs should be free and
greased.
b) Seals of the hydraulic latch should be checked prior to lowering.
c) Preferably hydraulic latch with flex joint and riser connector should be stored in the moon pool areas
as a package.
d) Hydraulic locking pressure should be maintained during operation.
e) While releasing the latch from housing, motion compensator or riser tensioners should be used to
avoid damage to the dogs of the latch and profile of well head housing.
6.9.7 SPM Valve & Pilot Operating System
Sub Plate Mounted (SPM) valves are pilot operated valves mounted on a sub plate. These valves are
spring return type, normally closed and pilot operated. The spring force and hydrostatic pressure of sea
water keep the valve in closed position. The pilot pressure opens the valve and it allows the regulated
operating fluid to go to the function. When a Manipulator valve of pilot supply is operated to close/
open, the pilot supply goes to both the active and redundant pods and operates the SPM valves of both
the pods. The operating fluid through the SPM valve of selected /active pod starts going to the function.
The pilot system is a close system and uses the same fluid which is used for operating the BOP functions.
There are separate accumulator bottles for operating pilot system.
6.9.8 Shuttle Valve
Shuttle Valve is basically 3- way valve. It has two inlets and one outlet with a shuttle inside. Main function
of these valves is to isolate regulated operating control fluid from selected /active pod to isolated/
redundant pod. When any BOP function is operated, pressurized fluid from SPM valve of the active
pod shifts the shuttle of the shuttle valve to isolate the redundant pod from the function and directs
pressurized fluid to go to the function. The Shuttle valves allow to retrieve the inactive/ malfunctioning/
leaking pod without losing hydraulic control of BOP.

Figure 6.10: Shuttle Valve

6.9.9 Subsea BOP Control System
For subsea drilling operations, the BOPs are remotely located and are more complex in nature. Hence
in the event of controlling all the functions through direct hydraulics control, as is the case in surface
BOP operations, the resulting control lines connecting all the functions of BOPs to the surface would be

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prohibitively large to handle, cumbersome and prone to damage. Moreover, as the lines become long,
the reaction time of BOP operations would be sluggish due to the larger distance to the BOP functions
and the consequent pressure drop.
In order to overcome the above problems indirect operating systems have been developed. They are
mainly of two types-
• Indirect Hydraulic control system
• Multiplex Electro-hydraulic control system
Out of the above two systems, the indirect hydraulic system is by far most commonly used system.
6.9.9.1 Indirect Hydraulic Control system
This system consists of an Umbilical hose comprising of one main large diameter hydraulic line and several
smaller diameter pilot lines. The power fluid is carried by the large diameter line to a manifold installed
on the BOP (called Pod) on which several valves (called SPMs) are mounted. The pilot line corresponding
to the BOP function actuates the corresponding SPM valve which in turn supplies the fluid to the BOP
function.
Hence the main features of indirect Hydraulic system are: -
• Transmitting hydraulic power to the BOP down a large diameter line.
• Transmitting hydraulic signals down smaller lines to pilot valves which in turn direct the operating
power fluid to the appropriate BOP function.
As the BOP is placed at sea bed level, it is uneconomical to pull it out every time for any kind of repair,
hence 100% redundancy backup is provided by having two identical hoses and pods to the BOP. These
are usually referred to as the blue and the yellow pods.
As with increasing water depths it is not possible to have return line of the main hydraulic fluid because
of frictional losses and extra line considerations, no attempt is made to recover the hydraulic power fluid
once it has been used to operate a function. As cost of use of hydraulic oil will be prohibitive, hence a
special water-based fluid having lubrication and corrosion inhibition properties is used. Normally the oil
to water mix ratio is 1: 50 or 1:100.
The main manufactures of control systems are NL Shaffer, Koomey, Steward and Stevenson and the
Valvcon Division of Hydril. The general system will be discussed in details to illustrate the general concept.
All systems work on same principle with very little variation in equipment.
1. From Main panel (at drillers station), Mini Panel (tool pusher/DIC station) whereby an electric
signal is sent to main surface control unit where the pilot valve is operated by solenoid actuated air
operators.
2. Manually at control unit by actuating the lever at surface control unit.
The operation of pilot valve at surface sends a pilot signal down to the pod mounted on BOP stack. The
pilot signal operates the corresponding SPM and the fluid from the main line after regulation is sent to
the appropriate function.
The pilot fluid is sent to the subsea control pods through individual, small diameter hoses bundled
around the larger diameter main fluid hose which delivers the power fluid. In order to provide complete
redundancy for the subsea portion of the control system there are two independent hydraulic hose
bundles and two independent control pods.

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The hydraulic hose bundles (or umbilical) are stored on two hose reels, each of which is equipped with a
special manual control manifold so that certain stack functions can be operated whilst the stack is being
run. The Hydraulic hose bundles connecting the surface hydraulic control unit to the two hose reels are
called jumper hoses.
For repair purpose each pod along with its umbilical can be retrieved and run independently of the BOP
stack. In order to do this, the pod and umbilical is run on a wireline which is usually motion compensated.
In some designs especially in deeper water depths, the umbilical is run attached to the riser in order to
give it more support and reduce fatigue at hose connections. The pod is still attached to a wireline for
retrieval purposes. This design has the advantage of not having to handle the umbilicals whenever the
pod is pulled but has the disadvantage of requiring more subsea remote hydraulic connections. Guidance
of the pod is provided by the guidewires and guide frames.
The power fluid is routed to the subsea control pod selected by the pod selector valve which is located in
the central hydraulic control manifold. The line to the non-selected pod is vented to surface. The power
fluid at the pod is at 3000 psi pressure.

Figure 6.11: General Arrangement Sub Sea Hydraulic Control System

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Subsea Hydraulic Control for Electric Operated Driller's Panel

1. Hydraulic Power Unit with Pumps

2. Hydraulic Jumper Hose Bundles
3. Subsea Hose Reels with Manual Control Manifold
4. Subsea Hydraulic Hose Bundles
5. Subsea Control Pods
6. Subsea Accumulators
7. Retrieving Frame for Subsea Pods
8. Electric Control Power Supply Cable
9. Electric Power Pack
10. Electric Power Cable to Control System
11. Central Hydraulic Control Manifold
12. Air Winches for Running Subsea Pods
13. Master Electric Panel Control Cable
14. Master Electric Panel
15. Electric Mini Panel Control Cable
16. Electric Mini Panel
17. Sheaves for Subsea Hose Bundles
18. Wire Lines to Subsea pods
19. Sheaves for Wire Lines to Subsea Pods
This pressure is then regulated down to the pressure required to operate the stack function, by a subsea
regulator situated in the control pod. i.e. 1500 psi for ram, connector and fail-safe valve operation and
600- 1500 psi for annular operation. Adjustment of this regulator is performed from the surface via
dedicated pilot and read-back lines in the hose bundle.
Pilot fluid is always directed to both pods at the same time. When the pilot fluid for a particular function
reaches each pod, it lifts the spindle of its associated SPM (sub plate mounted) valve in both pods. This
allows the fluid to pass through the SPM valve and be routed to the stack function via a shuttle valve in
the pod where the power fluid is available.
• Operating Sequence
Each BOP stack function has a corresponding pilot control valve on the surface control unit which is
actuated either manually or by an air operator.
Close function
In fig 6.14, one of the BOP rams is being closed using the drillers master control panel. By Pushing the
`close' button on this panel an electric signal actuates the close solenoid valve on the surface control unit

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Figure 6.12: Operation of SPM Valve

thus, allowing air pressure to move the pilot control valve to the `close position'. The open side solenoid
valve on the right in the diagram vents the other side of the air cylinder. With the pilot control valve in
the ‘close' position, pilot fluid at 3000 psi is sent down the umbilical to the RAMS CLOSE SPM valve in
the subsea control pods. The pressure lifts the spindle in this valve so that it seals against the upper seat,
thus blocking the vent.
As the valve lifts up and seals against the top seal the regulated fluid is allowed to flow through the
shuttle valve to the `close' side of the BOP ram cylinder. Simultaneous reciprocal action in the RAMS
OPEN SPM valve vents the hydraulic fluid from the `open' side of the BOP ram.

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Block Function
The block function as the name indicates is for blocking a particular function i.e Pilot signal of both the
SPMs of a particular BOP function are vented which in turn vents the open and close chamber of the BOP.
This is particularly helpful in locating leaks in SPMs, Shuttle Valves, Seals or Hoses so that remedial action
can be taken.
Blocking is achieved by centering the pilot valves on the surface control unit which vents the pilot lines to
the tank. It is always a good practice to block all functions when the unit is being pressurized for the first
time so as to prevent unintentional and inadvertent operation of any BOP function.
Referring to fig. 6.15, when the `block' button is pressed, electrical signal actuates the solenoid valves in
such a way so as to apply pressure to both sides of the air operator. This causes the pilot control valve to
be centered which then allows both the pilot `open' and `close' lines to be vented. The springs in both the
SPM valves then push the spindles down so that they seal against the bottom seats and block the flow of
any regulated fluid through the SPM valves. At the same time this also vents both sides of the BOP ram
operating cylinders.
Open Function
This sequence is the parallel opposite of the CLOSE function. As shown in fig. 6.16, when the `open'
button is pressed, the open solenoid valve on the surface control unit is actuated and allow air pressure
to move the operator on the pilot control valve to the `open' position. The solenoid valve on the left in
the diagram vents the `close' side of the operating piston.
The pilot fluid then flows down to the subsea control pod where it lifts the spindle in the RAMS OPEN
SPM valve thus blocking the vent and allowing regulated fluid to flow through the shuttle valve to the
`open' side of the BOP ram cylinder. Simultaneous reciprocal action in the RAM CLOSE SPM valve allows
the fluid from the `close' side of the operating cylinders to be vented.
FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS DURING OPERATIONS OF A INDIRECT HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM
Symptoms Analysis Action Recommended
1 Accumulator pressure dropping very fast Leaking Power Put 3 position 4-way valve in block
with flow meter running continuously. Hose position. And operate another BOP.
Manifold or annular pressure will also
drop depending onwhether ram or
annular BOP was operated.
2 Pilot pressure dropping with no visible Leaking signal line Put manipulator valve in neutral.
change in flowmeter reading and other Try operating another BOP or use
gauges. different POD for same BOP (if time
permits).
3 Pilot pressure dropped but other Malfunctioning Put manipulator valve in neutral.
pressures constant. No change in SPM valve Try operating another BOP or use
flowmeter. Flow meter running different POD for same BOP (if time
continuously with drop in pressure. permits).
4. While operating function from one pod Shuttle Valve stuck Try operating another BOP or use
pressure drop will be absent, while it different POD for same BOP (if time
will be getting operated from other pod. permits).
5. Communication in between yellow Shuttle valve Try operating another BOP. Change
and blue pod. Flow meter will run leaking the valve in next BOP pullout.
continuously.
6. No change in read back pressure and Malfunction Put manipulator valve in neutral.
flow meter. manipulator valve Try operating another BOP.

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Figure 6.14 : Operating Sequence Block Function

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Figure 6.15: Operating Sequence Open Function

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6.9.9.2 Multiplex Electro-Hydraulic Control Systems

6.9.9.2.1 Development of Electro-Hydraulic Control Systems
Rapid response is of particular importance when drilling in deep water. Rapid response is important
because of the possibility of a DP system drive-off necessitating an emergency disconnect from the BOP
stack. The response time constitutes the two main elements; signal time and hydraulic execution (flow)
time.
The response time for closing of blowout preventers, when located at seabed, will be up to 45 seconds.
API RP 16E, section 16E.3.1, states the control system for a subsea BOP stack should be capable of closing
of each ram BOP in 45 seconds or less. Closing response time should not exceed 60 seconds for annular
BOPs. Operating time response time for choke and kill valves (either open or close) should not exceed the
minimum observed ram close response time. Time to unlatch the LMRP should not exceed 45 seconds.
Electro-hydraulic control systems were developed to provide rapid signal time. In 3000 ft water depth,
an E/H control system will function substantially faster than a conventional hydraulic system. Pilot signal
transmission time with an E/H system (3000 ft depth) is a fraction of a second whereas hydraulic pilot
signal time through 3000 ft of pilot hose can be as much as 30 seconds and more depending on the type
of system and the type of pilot hose. The basic difference between E/H and hydraulic control systems is
pilot signal transmission. The E/H system achieves its rapid response by transmitting an electrical pilot
command signal to a solenoid operated pilot valve in the subsea pod which in return directs the pilot
pressure to the designated hydraulic control valve. Early electro-hydraulic BOP control systems utilised DC
circuits to actuate each solenoid pilot valve in the control pod. This required a large number of conductors
resulting in a large, stiff control cable. Considerable difficulty with system reliability was experienced with
the early DC circuit E/H control systems due, in part, to problems with the large, multi-conductor control
cable and its terminal fittings. Additionally, the early E/H circuitry did not have sufficient safeguards
against spurious commands. The need to develop an advanced system was felt as in one instance, a
BOP stack was dropped to the sea floor when sea water created a short circuit across the face of a cable
connector causing the upper hydraulic connector to open. These problems with the early E/H control
systems prompted the development of the multiplex E/H control systems which are now in use on most
specially designed deep water DP drilling vessels.
6.9.9.2.2 Multiplex BOP Control Systems
The primary difference between multiplex E/H systems and the earlier individual DC circuit E/H systems
is in the mode of signal transmission between the surface control units and the subsea pods. Utilizing
electronic transceivers in the surface control unit and the subsea control pods, the multiplex system
transmits coded command and data signals similar to FM radio transmission over a small multi-conductor
cable. Command signals are received at the control pod, decoded, verified by reciprocal transmission to
the surface and then executed within a fraction of a second as shown in fig 6.17. In addition to command/
data signal transmission, the multiplex control cable transmits television signals and power for solenoid
valve actuation.
The principal advantages of multiplex over earlier E/H systems are a much smaller, lighter weight control
cable and less susceptibility to spurious command signals that could be generated by short circuits or
other component failures since coded signals are used. A typical deep water multiplex BOP stack with
TV cameras can be controlled through a 16 conductor, 1.4-inch OD. armored cable. Earlier standard E/H
control systems required a 2.5 in OD. cable with in excess of 100 conductors to control a similar BOP
stack.

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The MUX system provides electrical power, hydraulic power, control signals and communication to the
numerous BOP functions. It uses modems (modulator/demodulator) to send and receive signals to and
from control computers, via copper wires. The cable goes from the rig and down along the riser to the
BOP. The multi conductor cables carry the multiplexed signals in both directions. The power is provided
by the Power and Communication Cabinets (A & B). Each cabinet has a dedicated uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) delivering 230 VAC electrical power. It has the ability to power the BOP system for a minimum
of two hours, should the main be lost.
The MUX control pod is an electro-hydraulic valve control mounted on the LMRP. Normally there are
two pods, but systems including three do exist. They are identical, interchangeable and can be installed
in the blue or yellow position. Each pod consists of hydraulic pressure regulators, solenoid pilot valves,
subsea electronic modules (SEMs), subsea transducer modules (STMs), hydraulic valves and hydraulic
accumulators. Both pods receive commands from the MUX and initiate solenoid valve actions; however,
only one does it with hydraulic fluid, causing the effect of the other pod to be none.
The hydraulic fluid is transported from the reservoir bank, through rigid and flexible conduit lines in the
umbilical and ending in the conduit valve package. In the conduit valve package, a pod selector directs
the fluid to one of the pods. Before entering the pod, the fluid pressure is controlled/adjusted by a
hydraulic regulator.
Each pod contains a low-pressure accumulator and a solenoid valve for each preventer. The generated
low-pressure fluid is directed via a shuttle valve and into a pilot valve, opening for the high-pressure fluid
to go to the preventer(s) through hard lines.
An example of the process could be: For Situations requiring a BOP ram to close, a MUX signal would be
sent from the central control unit to the pod for decoding. The decoded signal would notify the specific
solenoid valve to open, causing the low-pressure hydraulic fluid to open the pilot valve. As a result, the
pilot valve would shift and send stored high-pressurized hydraulic fluid from the accumulator to the BOP
ram for closure.
6.9.9.3 Secondary (Backup) Control Systems
In addition to the dual main control system, backup systems are also often installed. These are normally
an acoustic control system as described later, and a ROV operated hot line system. The hot line system
allows a hydraulic line to be connected to the desired function on the BOP stack (such as the LMRP)
connector, the wellhead connector, etc. by means of a ROV.
a. Acoustic Backup Control system
Most deep-water drilling vessels are now equipped with an acoustic control system to serve as an
emergency backup in case the primary control system becomes inoperative because of cable failure or
hydraulic supply line failure, etc. These systems function independently of the primary control system
and are usually configured to operate three or four critical BOP stack functions such as shear rams close,
pipe rams close, ram locks close, and lower riser connector open (including possible kill and choke line
connectors and disconnect assist (lift-off) system).
The acoustic control system as shown in fig 6.18 operates basically like a multiplex E/H system except
that coded command signals are transmitted acoustically through the water rather than through an
electrical cable. The surface control unit transmits coded acoustic signals from a transponder beneath
the vessel hull or from a portable unit that can be operated from a work-boat. The signals are received
by a hydrophone
and processed by electronics in an acoustic "mini-pod" on the BOP stack. The acoustic control pad contains

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solenoid pilot valves and pilot operated control valves for directing power fluid to the designated BOP
stack functions. Electric power for the acoustic pod is supplied by a battery pack. Hydraulic power fluid
if supplied by a dedicated bank of accumulators that is charged through a check valve by the primary
control system supply line. Acoustic control systems have a longer response time than the main hydraulic
or E/H systems and are therefore not suited for emergency disconnect situations.
Subsea accumulators are less efficient with increasing water depth. The reason is because of the higher
nitrogen pre-charge pressure that is required (surface accumulator pre-charge pressure plus hydrostatic
pressure of the sea). This causes less expansion of the gas (smaller relative difference between maximum
and minimum gas pressure). For that reason, operations in 2000m water depth will require about 30%-
50% more accumulator volume than in the more normal water depths. The accumulator bank required
for the acoustic system on a deep-water BOP stack will therefore occupy most of the available space
inside a normal BOP stack envelope. Increasing this envelope size may have significant impact on the
handling and storage systems on board the drilling unit.
It should be noted that the maximum absolute pressure in subsea accumulators is the sum of the surface
accumulator pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure between the surface and the subsea accumulators.
This pressure (about 5900 psi in 2000m water depth) would be trapped in the accumulators when pulling
the BOP stack to surface. Therefore, either a system (or procedure) for bleeding down the pressure must
be provided or the pressure rating of the system must be sufficient.
Acoustic back-up systems are manufactured by Shaffer (formerly Koomey), Cooper Oil Tools (formerly
Cameron Iron Works), Tri-Tech Systems and Simrad.
b. ROV Intervention
The BOP stack shall be equipped with ROV intervention equipment that at a minimum allows the operation
of the critical functions (each shear ram, one pipe ram, ram locks, and unlatching of the LMRP connector).
Hydraulic fluid can be supplied by the ROV, stack mounted accumulators (which may be a shared system),
or an external hydraulic power source that shall be maintained at the well site. The source of hydraulic
fluid shall have necessary pressure and flow rate to operate these functions. All critical functions shall
be fitted with single-port docking receptacles designed in accordance with API 17H.If multiple receptacle
types are used, a means of positive identification of the receptacle type and function shall be required.
Frequency of testing and acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with Table 1 and Table 2.
6.9.10 Power Fluid Supply
As mentioned earlier, hydraulic power fluid to actuate BOP stack components is supplied either through
a control hose umbilical (hydraulic system), a separate power fluid hose or through a rigid conduit that is
integral with the riser joints similar to choke/kill lines. The rigid conduit can supply high pressure power
fluid with less lag time than hoses because it does not exhibit the "ballooning" effect that occurs with
pressure surges in hoses.
To minimize actuation time for BOP stack components, most deep-water BOP stacks have been equipped
with accumulators mounted directly on the BOP stacks. Subsea accumulators would provide an immediate
source of high-pressure power fluid which could actuate BOP stack components faster than surface
accumulators alone supplying power fluid through several thousand feet of hose or conduit. However, by
introducing an acoustic control system, a substantial accumulator bank will be required just for this. If
one wants to stay within a normal BOP stack envelope size, it will be difficult or impossible to fit enough

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accumulators to cater for both needs, especially for a large size BOP (18 3/ 4 - 10 or 15000 psi WP). In
addition, subsea accumulators become less efficient with increasing water depth. It should therefore be
considered to use large size conduit lines (2-21/2” lD) in combination with a few surge accumulators only.

Figure 6.16: Multiplex Bop Control System

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Figure 6.17: Acoustic Bop Control System

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6.10 SUB SEA BLOWOUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT

The underwater BOP equipment may comprise of either a single stack or two stack system. The single
stack system should be preferred.
The single stack system consists of one large bore BOP stack (generally 18. 3/4") with a working pressure
classification of 10,000 psi or 15,000 psi. The configuration of this stack is shown in figure.
The two-stack system consists of a 2,000 psi working pressure large bore BOP stack (generally 21") and
a smaller bore stack (generally 13 5/8") with working pressure rating sufficient to meet the maximum
anticipated surface pressure.
6.10.1 Single Stack System
A single stack system built into a guide frame with lifting attachment shall, regardless of the rated working
pressure, contain the following.
a) Riser adapter.
b) Flexible joint.
c) Two annular preventers with a hydraulic connector located above the lower annular preventer. It is
acceptable to have a 5,000 psi working pressure annular preventer on a 10,000 psi working pressure
BOP stack, and a 10,000 psi working pressure annular preventer on a 15,000 psi working pressure
BOP stack.
d) Four ram type preventers all equipped with ram locks. One of the preventers to be equipped with
blind shear rams and the other three with the correct size pipe ram, out of which one may be variable
bore ram. At least one pipe ram preventer should be available below the blind shear ram preventer.
Each preventer shall have two minimum 3 inch bore side outlets rated to the same working pressure
as the ram preventer. At least one side outlet of each preventer should be fitted with two fail safe
valves each for connection with the kill and choke lines the remainder of the side outlets shall be
blanked off.
e) The female part of the lower hydraulic connector.
f) Two hydraulic or electro-hydraulic control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided with
remote control pressure regulators.
g) The BOP stack shall be built with a guide frame, provided with a lifting attachment.
6.10.2 Two Stack System
A two-stack system contains a large bore and a small-bore stack.
6.10.2.1 Large Bore Stack
The 2,000 psi working pressure stack shall contain:
i) The male part of the upper hydraulic connector.
ii) One annular preventer.
iii) Two ram type preventers both equipped with ram locks, one preventer to be equipped with proper
size pipe ram. Each ram type preventers shall have two minimum 3" bore side outlets fitted with two
fail safe valves each for connection with the kill and choke lines. The remainder of the side outlets
shall be blanked off.

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iv) Two hydraulic or electro-hydra control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided with remote
control pressure regulators.
The BOP stack shall be built into a guide frame provided with a lifting attachment.
6.10.2.2 Small Bore Stack
The small-bore stack shall, regardless of the working pressure, contain the following:
I) A riser adapter.
ii) Flexible joint.
iii) One annular preventer with
the same pressure rating as
the ram type preventers, a
5,000 psi working pressure
annular preventer on 10,000
working pressure BOP stack
or a 10,000 psi working
pressure on a 15,000 psi
working pressure BOP stack
is acceptable.
iv) Female part of hydraulic
connector.
v) The male part of hydraulic
connector.
vi) Four ram preventers with ram
locks. One to be equipped
with blind shear rams and
three with proper size pipe
rams out of which one should
be variable bore rams. At
least one pipe ram preventer
should be available below
the blind shear ram. Each
ram preventer below the
blind shear rams shall have
two 3 inch bore side outlets
rated to the same working Figure 6.18 : Example of subsea bop stack illustrating optional
pressure as the ram preventer. locations for kill and choke line
One side outlet of each preventer shall be fitted with two fail safe valves each for connection with
the kill and choke lines. The remainder of the side outlets shall be blanked off.
vii) Female part of hydrostatic connector compatible to well head used.
v) Two hydraulic or electro-hydra control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided with remote
control pressure regulators.
ix) The BOP stack shall be built into a guide frame, provided with a lifting attachment.

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Figure 6.19: Example of Bop Arrangements For 2m & 3m Rated Working Pressure
Service- Sub Sea Installation

Figure 6.20: Example of bop arrangements for 5m, 10m & 15m rated working pressure
service- sub sea installation

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6.11 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR SUB SEA BOP STACK

In under water operations, BOP operating and control equipment shall include:
I) An independent automatic accumulator unit rated for 3000 psi WP for use with the subsea BOP control
system complete with a soluble oil/water reservoir and automatic mixing system for soluble oil/
water.
ii) The accumulator capacity should be adequate depending on the make of BOP used for closing and
opening all ram type preventers and annular preventers without recharging accumulator bottles.
The unit shall include minimum one electrically driven charging pump and two air driven pumps for
charging the accumulators. The unit shall be located in a safe area away from the drill floor and the
spider deck / moon pool.
Part of the accumulators may be installed on the BOP stack for quicker response of the functions, and for
operation via an acoustic control.
iii) Two remote control panels, each one clearly showing open and close positions for all under water
functions. When a two-stack system is used, the panels should each contain an overlay, clearly
showing all functions and provided with controls for the 2000 psi WP BOP stack. One panel must be
located near the driller's console. The other panel to be located at the tool pusher's office. A flow
meter for indicating control fluid flow should be located on each remote panel. The panels should
be connected to the control manifold in such a way that all functions can be operated independently
from each panel.
iv) Two hydraulic or Electro-hydraulic cable and / or hose system providing 100% redundancy of control
for all functions of the BOP stack. The nature of the interconnection between the surface control
equipment and the underwater BOP stack depends upon the type of control system. For the direct
hydraulic and pilot operated hydraulic systems, integrated multiple hose bundles are used. For
Electro-hydraulic systems the electrical interconnections may be combined into integrated umbilical
cable bundles. Alternately, the original total length of the flexible control cables and hoses should be
300 feet longer than the maximum water depth for which the system is designed.
v) An emergency control system, known as acoustic system, can be used in the event that the BOP
functions are inoperative due to a failure of the control system to close at-least one ram type
preventer, blind shear ram and to open Lower Marine riser Package (LMRP) hydraulic connector.
vi) The accumulator bottles on the BOP stack should be fitted with non-return valves to prevent
accidental dumping.
6.12 TESTING OF SUB SEA BOP STACK
6.12.1Surface Testing of Subsea BOP Stack
For testing BOP stack at surface, a test stump is used which has the male profile of wellhead. Hydraulic
connector of the stack is latched to the test stump.
While testing the BOP Stack at surface, following practices should be followed.
I) The control system should be pressure tested before the BOP stack.
ii) Test fluid should be water and not mud.
iii) All components should be tested at the rated working pressure.

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iv) All pipe rams and annular preventers should be tested by closing around drill pipe to avoid damaging
the seals.
v) All ram locks should be tested by locking the rams and bleeding off the hydraulic closing pressure
while holding rated BOP pressure below the rams.
vi) All hydraulic connections and stack connectors should be carefully inspected for leaks.
vii) It is advisable to keep a log of reaction times for all the functions. Changes in reaction times denote
changes in the hydraulic efficiency of the control system. These changes may indicate impending
failure.
6.12.2Surface Function Testing of Subsea BOP Stack
Before pressure testing of BOP stack, it is recommended to test all functions at rated operating pressure
using both the pods independently without filling water in BOP stack, so that actuation of each ram and
annular preventer could be seen from top.
General function testing procedure for BOP stack is as under: -
i) Check pressure of accumulator bottles on unit and BOP stack.
ii) Check control system for any leak.
iii) Close blind cum shear ram at the rated operating pressure and check for any leak. Open the ram at
rated working pressure and again check for any leak.
iv) Install a test drill pipe in the test stump.
v) Close all the rams and annular BOP one by one at rated operating pressure of control unit and check
for any leaks. Open function should also be checked at rated operating pressure of control unit for
leaks.
vi) Check all the choke and kill valves operation at rated operating pressure of control unit.
vii) Function test high pressure connector for BOP and LMRP, check for any leak in latch, unlatch and
secondary unlatch.
viii) Function test both the high-pressure connectors from both the pod's hose reel manifold.
ix) Closing time should not exceed 45 sec. for all ram preventers & annular preventers smaller than 18
¾”. It is 60 sec for annular preventers of 18 ¾” and large sizes.
6.12.3 Surface Pressure Testing of Subsea BOP Stack
Pressure testing of the stack should be done with the help of high-pressure test pump. General pressure
testing procedure for the BOP stack shown in the figure is as given under: -
• Install a test drill pipe on the test stump.
• Hook up the high-pressure test unit to the test stump.
• Fill up BOP with water keeping all the choke and kill valves open.
• Latch the BOP connector with test stump.

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6.12.3.1 Testing of Lower Pipe Ram (LPR) and Lower Outer Kill Valve (LOK)
Close LPR and LOK valve and make a low-pressure test at 200-300 psi and the test pressure should be
stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding, increase it up to its rated
working pressure and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. After testing, bleed off
the operating pressure maintaining the test pressure to check the ram locking function. After testing the
ram locking function, bleed off the test pressure and open LOK to make sure there is no pressure trapped
inside BOP stack and open LPR.

Figure 6.21 : Subsea Bop Testing

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6.12.3.2 Testing Middle Pipe Ram (MPR), Lower Inner Kill Valve (LIK) and Inner Choke Valve
Close MPR, LIK and IC valves and conduct low pressure test at 250-350 psi and the test pressure should
be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding, increase it up to its rated
working pressure and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Test the ram locks in the
similar manner as explained in 6.12.3.1
Bleed off the test pressure, open LIK and IC to make sure that there is no pressure trapped inside BOP
stack and open MPR.
6.12.3.3 Testing of Upper Ram (UPR) and Outer Choke Valve (OC)
Close UPR, OC and one of the lower kill valves. Conduct the test as in 6.12.3.2 After testing, open kill and
choke line fail safe valves first and then open ram.
6.12.3. Testing of Lower Annular Preventer (LA). Upper Annular Preventer (UA) and Riser
Connector
a) Lower Annular Preventer: Close LA and IC, UIK and LTK valves. Conduct low pressure at 250-350 psi
and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is
holding, increase it up to 70% of its rated working pressure and the test pressure should be stable
at least for 5 minutes. Bleed off the test pressure and open UIK to make sure that no pressure is
trapped inside stack, and open LA.
b) Upper Annular Preventer and Riser Connector: Close UA and repeat the test as in 6.12.3.4.a. After
testing, bleed off the test pressure and first open fail-safe valve and then open Annular.
6.12.3.5 Testing Blind Shear Ram
It is not advisable to test the shearing function of the ram at surface because after shearing, condition of
the blade may be questionable. Every time the shear ram has been used; condition of the blades should
be checked for any damage.
Remove the test drill pipe and close BSR, UIK, IC, and LIK valves. Make a low-pressure test at 200-300 psi
and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding,
increase it up to its rated working pressure and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes.
After testing of the ram, bleed of the operating pressure holding the test pressure to check the ram
locking function. Bleed off the test pressure, first open UIK and UOK and then open shear ram.
6.12.4 Test Frequency of Subsea BOP Stack
6.12.4.1 Pressure Test
As per API pressure test on BOP equipment should be conducted at least:
• Prior to running the BOP & upon Installation.
• After disconnection or repair of any pressure containment seal in BOP stack.
• Not to exceed 21 days.
• Before production testing.

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6.12.4.2 Function Test

• As per API, all the components on the BOP stack should be function tested at least once in a week.
• As per API, release or latching type component of subsea well control systems (riser, well head
connectors etc.) & emergency back-up systems are typically only functioned at the start or completion
of the well.
• Function test should be conducted alternatively from the driller's & from mini panel (tool pusher
panel).
Periodic actuation test of shear blind ram is not desirable. This ram should be tested when installed and
after setting each casing string.
6.12.4.3 Recommended Test Pressure for Subsea BOP Stack
Both low pressure and high-pressure testing procedure should be employed.
6.12.4.4 Low Pressure Test
A low-pressure test in the range of 250-350 psi should be applied. The low-pressure test should be stable
at least for 5 minutes.
6.12.4.5 High Pressure Test
Once the equipment passes the low-pressure test, it should be tested to high pressure, following are the
recommendations:
• On installation, blowout preventer stack should be pressure tested at the rated working pressure
of the ram preventer or well-head, whichever is lower. An exception is the annular preventer which
should be tested to the test pressure applied to ram preventer or 70% of annular rated pressure
whichever is less.
• On subsequent tests the BOP stack should always be tested to greater than the maximum anticipated
surface pressure but not to exceed the rated working pressure of ram preventer. An exception is the
annular preventer which should be tested to 70% of its rated pressure or the test paper of the ram
whichever is less, to minimize pack off element wear or damage.
• The stable high pressure should be maintained at least for 5 minutes as per API.
• A communication from atmosphere to below the tool should be provided to prevent pressure build
up on the casing in the event the test tool leaks.
• Conduct high pressure test for entire blowout preventer stack, all choke manifold components,
upstream of chokes, kelly valves, drill pipe and tubing safety valves.
• Test pressure should be applied from the direction in which Blowout preventers / valves would
experience pressure during actual well kick situations.
Note:
• Preferably the annular preventer should be pressure tested using the smallest OD pipe to be used
and the variable bore rams should be initially pressure tested on the largest and the smallest OD
pipe sizes that may be used during the well operation.
• After any major repair, BOP should be tested to full rated working pressure.

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Note:
While testing the BOP, the differential pressure of mud vs. seawater should be considered because BOP
body is subjected to this differential pressure. For example, for 5000 ft water depth, 14 ppg mud & 8.4
ppg sea water will create a differential pressure of 1456 psi [(14 – 8.4) × 5000 × 0.052]. Therefore, the
maximum test pressure under this condition for 10, 000 psi working pressure BOP should be 8544 psi
(i.e., 10, 000 – 1456).
6.12.5 Test Procedure
6.12.5.1 Function Test
If the string is in hole, hang it on one of the rams and perform function test. If string is not in the hole,
lower test plug, land it in the well head and perform function test.
• All the functions should be opened and closed at normal operating pressure from both the pods.
• It is advisable to test the functions from remote and main control panel alternatively.
• A record of time & the volume of fluid taken on closing/opening of the functions should be maintained.
6.12.5.2 Pressure Test
• Test kill and choke lines & the valves as per 6.12.3.
• Lower test plug on 'G' or 'S' grade drill pipe & rest it on the well head.
• Test the pipe rams and annular preventers in a similar fashion as explained in test pressure of BOP in
6.12.3.
• Shear blind ram can be tested only while testing casing prior to cement drilling.
6.12.6 Hang – off Drill (Subsea Blowout Preventers only)
The crew should place the drill string in position for hang-off. One hang-off should be made before drilling
out of surface pipe to ensure that all necessary equipment is on hand and in working condition. Actual
hang –off will not normally be performed on subsequent drills. This drill can be conveniently performed
in conjunction with the pit drill.
6.13 NUMBER OF ACCUMULATOR BOTTLES REQUIRED FOR SUBSEA
The BOP control system’s main accumulator system shall meet the ACR as listed below. The ACR shall be
met with pumps inoperative.
6.13.1 Without Shear Accumulators
For main control systems that do not use a dedicated shear accumulator bank for high-pressure shear
ram closure, the ACR (with the same pre-charge pressure) shall be the greater of the following:
a) The power fluid volume and pressure required to perform the accumulator drawdown test as
defined in API 53. The accumulator pressure after the API 53 drawdown test shall equal or exceed
the required MOP.
b) The power fluid volume and pressure required to operate the following functions, in sequence:

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1) close the annular (largest by operator volume)

2) close and seal with a pipe ram
3) shear and seal
The accumulator sizing calculations shall be performed using Method C, calculated with the beginning
pressure at the pump start pressure.
c) Provide the power fluid volume required to perform an EDS (if installed). If the control system has
more than one EDS mode, the EDS that requires the greatest accumulator capacity shall be used.
6.13.2 With Shear Accumulators
For main control systems that use a dedicated shear accumulator bank for high-pressure shear ram
closure, the ACR (with the same pre-charge pressure) shall be the greater of the following:
a) The power fluid volume and pressure required to perform the accumulator drawdown test as
defined in API 53. The accumulator pressure after the API 53 drawdown test shall equal or exceed the
required MOP. The accumulator capacity required for this test correlates with the results obtained
using calculation Method B.
b) Thepowerfluidvolumeandpressurerequiredtooperatethefollowingfunctions,insequence:
1) close the annular (largest by operator volume);
2) close and seal with a pipe ram.
The accumulator sizing calculations shall be performed using Method C, calculated with the beginning
pressure at the pump start pressure.
c) Provide the power fluid volume required to perform an EDS (if installed). If the control system has
more than one EDS mode, the EDS that requires the greatest accumulator capacity shall be used.
6.13.3 Dedicated Shear Accumulators
The dedicated shear accumulators shall meet the pressure and volume requirements to ensure that a
shear and seal is obtained. The beginning pressure used for the calculations shall be:
• The pump stop pressure for dedicated accumulators that are supplied by the main accumula-
tor system; or
• The pump start pressure for dedicated accumulators that are not supplied by the main accu-
mulator system.
(Note: For further clarification on this topic, please refer to Section 7.3.3 of API 16D.)
6.14 HYDRATE FORMATION
Hydrates are a mixture of hydrocarbon gas & water that form a solid substance (clathrates). Hydrate
formation is a function of pressure, temperature, gas composition & free water available in the drilling
fluid. In deep water drilling with water base mud, the likelihood of hydrates formation while removing a
gas influx is much more because of low sea bed temperature & higher hydrostatic head. They can form
in temperature above 32ºF under sufficient pressure. For example, at water depth of 2000 ft, hydrostatic
pressure of 10 ppg mud is about 1040 psi in such condition, Hydrate can form at about 48ºF which is just
above the sea floor temperature of about 46ºF. Whereas at water depth of 4000 ft hydrate equilibrium

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temperature is 61ºF. Formation of hydrates can plug the choke and kill lines & prevent normal BOP
functioning. Plugging or partial plugging of choke lines as a kick is being circulated can cause bottom hole
pressure to become so high that the formation breaks down.
6.14.1Prevention of Hydrates
The best way to deal with hydrates is to prevent or minimize their occurrence. Salt muds are known
to suppress their formation. Therefore, in areas where there is likelihood of hydrate formation, well
planning should include preventive measures.
Given below are some such measures which may be considered.
a) At no time the circulation should be stopped when the gas is at or near sea bed.
b) The time factor favors Driller's method of well control.
c) Salt mud inhibit the formation of hydrates as it lowers the temperature required for the hydrate
formation.
d) Glycol are effective inhibitors. Continuous injection of glycol/methanol @ 4-5 liter per seconds
through kill line before the gas is expected to reach subsea stack should be tried.
e) During unavoidable prolonged shut-in, choke & kill lines & BOP cavity should be displaced by glycol.
6.14.2 Hydrates Removal
Once hydrates have been formed in subsea equipment, their removal may be difficult. Inhibitor, such
as glycol, may decompose them but if a plug has formed, it may be difficult or impossible to get the
inhibitor in contact with the hydrate. Spotting of methanol in small quantities with the help of ROV can
also dissipate a hydrate plug. Another option that can be tried is pumping down of hot fluid at a high rate
around BOP & well head.
6.15 DEEP WATER EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
6.15.1 Gas Handler
Gas handler is equipped with riser below slip joint. Due to pressure limitation of slip joint seals sometimes
it is difficult to divert the flow through diverter. This equipment allows handling of gas in riser with a back
pressure to control the rate of flow.
6.15.2 Riser fill up valve
In deep waters, risk of riser collapse is very high. Riser should be equipped with a riser fill up valve, which
fills up the riser with sea water once the fluid level in the riser drops. Its differential pressure setting
should be such that before the riser reaches its collapse rating the valve should open up.
6.15.3 Riser booster pump
In deep waters with long riser and high penetration rate, equivalent circulating density can increase
significantly due to loading of drilled cuttings in the riser. A booster pump and riser booster line should
be used to increase the fluid velocity in the riser so as to reduce the intensity of cuttings loading.

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6.15.4 Longer telescopic / slip joints

As the rig moves into the deep waters, slip joint stroke can become the limiting factor. Since offset
increases for a lower flex/ ball joint angle with water depth, slip joint longer than 50 feet may be required
to compensate for rig heave.
6.15.5 Shear ram
Use of dual shear ram provides 100% redundancy. Now-a-days, new shear rams are capable of shearing
a drill pipe as well as a casing pipe which can be considered for deep water sub-sea BOP.
6.15.6 High pressure connector
In deep waters, high angle release connectors should be used as they facilitate disconnection of LMRP in
the event of station keeping failure. Some of these connectors are locked with 150-300 psi & thereafter
operating pressure is reduced to 500-80 psi. In such case a separate third regulator should be considered.
6.15.7 Control unit
In water depth greater than 5000 ft, due to inefficiency of accumulator and high nitrogen pre-charged
pressure requirements, generally 5000 psi working pressure control unit should be used. Stack mounted
accumulators should always be vented before retrieving of BOP stack to the surface.
6.15.8 Back Up system
There are mainly two backup systems:
a) Electro Hydraulic
b) Acoustic
• Electro hydraulic back up system uses dedicated wire going along-with hose bundle to the pod
solenoid values and operates emergency functions such as LMRP disconnect and shear ram close.
• Acoustic back up system includes stack mounted accumulator, battery packs, Electro- hydraulic
control module, acoustic communication transponders, fixed and portable surface control and
communication system. This system is capable of operating pipe rams, shear ram, close choke and
kill line valves, open LMRP and unlock BOP connector.
6.15.9 Riser Tensioners
In deep waters 12 numbers of riser tensioners should be considered. As per API, the riser design criteria
for deep waters should include setting tension high enough to allow for two tensioners to fail and still
retain adequate tension to keep riser in tension. Where each tensioner has an independent power
system, this allowance is often reduced to failure of a single tensioner.
6.15.10 Control Pod
Normally two pods are used in sub-sea system but for water depth more than 5000 ft, a third retrievable
pod can be considered as a safety against failure of pods.

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6.15.11 Inverted test ram in subsea BOP stack

A device known as a Subsea Test Valve (SSTV) or inverted test ram, installed in a modified BOP cavity, can
eliminate the need to trip drill pipe and install a test plug when conducting required testing. The SSTV
uses a relatively simple design philosophy and proven technology to allow BOP testing without retrieving
drill pipe to the surface or running additional tools.
The SSTV can be thought of as a set of standard ram blocks turned upside down, with the sealing surfaces
contacting the bottom of the cavity instead of the top. The BOP test pressure applied above the rams
energizes the downward-facing “top seal,” while the packer is bi-directional. This arrangement allows
pressure to be applied above the SSTV to test all the cavities above it, while isolating the well from the
test pressure.
In the SSTV cavity design, what normally is referred to as the “top seal” is actually a bottom seal, effecting
a seal on what is usually a wearing surface. This surface can be designed with a replaceable wear plate to
allow the cavity to be returned to manufacturing tolerances during overhaul and repair activities. Using
the SSTV replaces the traditional practice of running and setting a BOP test plug, potentially saving a
great deal of tripping time.
Normal procedures for conventional subsea BOP testing require the drill string to be pulled from the
well and a test plug that seals in the wellhead be run into the bore. Once testing is complete, the test
plug is removed from the well, and the drill string is tripped back in and drilling can be resumed. These
operations can be summarized as:
• POOH (drill string)
• RIH (wear bushing/test plug)
• Test the plug
• Test BOPs
• POOH (wear bushing/test plug)
• RIH (drill string)
• Resume drilling
Using the SSTV can mitigate much of the risk associated with BOP testing, as any tripping time is significantly
reduced, and the drill string never needs to be completely tripped. To test the BOPs using the SSTV, the
drill string is only pulled up either off bottom, to a casing shoe or to a point where a suitable-size pipe is
in the SSTV cavity. If there is only one size of pipe in the hole, the drill string can be pulled up to a hang
off point, or where the rams being tested and SSTV can be closed on pipe and not on a tool joint.
These operations, which reduce the number of drill string round trips to the surface from the conventional
4 to 0, can be summarized as:
• Pick up off bottom to appropriate test point (depending on drill string and space out)
• Close SSTV
• Test BOPs
• Open SSTV
• Repeat for tapered string
• Resume drilling

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6.15.12 Emergency system

Emergency Disconnect System/Sequence
An emergency disconnect sequence (EDS) shall be available on all subsea BOP stacks that are run from a
dynamically positioned vessel. An EDS is optional for moored vessels. The EDS is a programmed sequence
of events that operates the functions to leave the stack and controls in a desired state and disconnect
the LMRP from the lower stack. The number of sequences, timing, and functions of the EDS are specific
to the rig, equipment, and location.
There shall be a minimum of two separate locations from which the EDS can be activated. Frequency of
testing and acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with as per table given below.
Autoshear System
Autoshear is a safety system that is designed to automatically shut-in the wellbore in the event of a
disconnect of the LMRP. Autoshear shall be installed on all subsea BOP stacks. The autoshear system shall
be armed while the BOP stack is latched onto a wellhead. A documented MOC shall be required to disarm
the system unless covered in equipment owner's standard operating procedures (SOP). The dedicated
accumulator system may be used for both the autoshear and Deadman systems, as
well as for secondary control systems (e.g., ROV and acoustic systems). This accumulator system can be
replenished from the main control supply, but shall be maintained, if the main supply is lost.
Frequency of testing and acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with as per table given below.
Deadman System
The Deadman system is designed to automatically shut in the wellbore in the event of a simultaneous
absence of hydraulic supply and control of both subsea control pods. A Deadman system shall be installed
on all subsea BOP stacks. The Deadman system shall be armed while the BOP stack is latched onto a
wellhead. A documented MOC shall be required to disarm the system unless covered in equipment
owner's SOP. The dedicated emergency accumulator system may be used for both the autoshear and
Deadman systems, as well as for secondary control systems (e.g., ROV and acoustic systems). This dedicated
emergency accumulator system is supplied from the main control system and shall be maintained (e.g.,
check valves) if the main supply is lost.
Frequency of testing and acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with as per table given below.

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7 MANAGED PRESSURE DRILLING

7.1 MANAGED PRESSURE DRILLING

The principle of Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) revolves around the control and maintenance of
wellbore pressure within a narrow and manageable range during drilling operations. The objective is to
optimize drilling performance, enhance safety, and mitigate well control issues.
The fundamental principle of MPD involves manipulating the density and flow rate of the drilling fluid
(mud) to carefully balance the pressure in the wellbore with the formation pressure. By maintaining a
constant or controlled bottom hole pressure (BHP), MPD techniques aim to prevent influxes of formation
fluids (kicks) and the uncontrolled flow of fluids from the wellbore (blowouts).
The key aspects of MPD principle include:
1. Precise Pressure Management: MPD techniques involve accurately controlling and adjusting the
pressure at the bottom of the wellbore. This is achieved by carefully monitoring the downhole
pressure and making real-time adjustments to the drilling fluid density, flow rate, or choke settings.
2. Continuous Monitoring: MPD systems employ advanced sensors, gauges, and monitoring equipment
to continuously measure and analyze the downhole pressure, surface pressure, and other relevant
drilling parameters. This real-time data is used to assess the wellbore conditions and make necessary
adjustments to maintain optimal pressure control.
3. Dynamic Fluid Control: The drilling fluid properties, such as density, viscosity, and rheological
characteristics, are dynamically managed during MPD operations. The fluid density is adjusted to
maintain a pressure gradient that prevents wellbore instability, formation damage, and the influx of
formation fluids.
4. Adaptive Choke Management: The choke valve plays a crucial role in MPD by regulating the flow rate
of drilling fluid and controlling the surface pressure. The choke is adjusted based on the downhole
pressure measurements and desired pressure targets to maintain a stable and controlled wellbore
pressure.
5. Integrated Control Systems: MPD systems utilize sophisticated control algorithms, automation, and
computer-based technologies to integrate the monitoring, analysis, and control of various drilling
parameters. These systems enable real-time decision-making and automation of pressure control
processes.
By implementing MPD principles, drilling operations can achieve enhanced well control, reduced non-
productive time, improved drilling efficiency, and safer operations in challenging drilling environments
such as high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells, deepwater drilling, or drilling in depleted
reservoirs.
7.1.1 Types of MPD
There are several types of MPD techniques, including:
• Constant Bottom Hole Pressure (CBHP)

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• Dual Gradient Drilling (DGD)

• Mud Cap Drilling (MCD)
• Pressurized Mud Cap Drilling (PMCD)
• Underbalanced Drilling (UBD)
7.1.1.1 Constant Bottom Hole Pressure (CBHP)
It is a type of Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) technique that involves maintaining a constant pressure
at the bottom of the wellbore. The CBHP technique is based on the concept of manipulating the drilling
fluid's density and flow rate to control the pressure at the bottom of the wellbore.
The primary objective of CBHP is to maintain a constant pressure at the bottom of the wellbore, which is
within the operating window. This technique ensures that the wellbore pressure is always balanced with
the formation pressure to prevent well control issues such as kicks and blowouts.
The CBHP technique uses surface equipment such as a choke manifold, flow meters, and pressure sensors
to monitor the pressure and flow rate of the drilling fluid. The drilling fluid density is adjusted by adding
or removing weight material, while the flow rate is adjusted using the choke manifold.
CBHP is used in various drilling operations, including drilling in depleted reservoirs, deepwater drilling,
and drilling in HPHT environments. The technique is also used in directional and horizontal drilling to
maintain constant pressure while drilling through various formations.
The benefits of CBHP include improved drilling efficiency, reduced non-productive time, and increased
safety. CBHP also allows for real-time pressure management, which provides greater control over the
drilling operation.
7.1.1.2 Dual Gradient Drilling (DGD)
Dual Gradient Drilling (DGD) is a type of Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) technique that involves drilling
with two different densities of drilling fluids. The two densities of drilling fluids are used to create a
pressure gradient that balances the wellbore pressure with the formation pressure. This technique is
typically used in deepwater drilling and can reduce the risk of wellbore instability and well control issues.
7.1.1.3 Mud Cap Drilling (MCD)
Mud Cap Drilling (MCD) is another type of MPD technique that involves drilling with a light drilling fluid
that creates a mud cap over the formation. This mud cap acts as a barrier that isolates the formation from
the heavier drilling fluid. The technique is typically used in shallow water drilling and can reduce the risk
of formation damage and well control issues.
7.1.1.4 Pressurized Mud Cap Drilling (PMCD)
Pressurized Mud Cap Drilling (PMCD) is a variation of the MCD technique that involves injecting gas into
the mud cap to increase its pressure. This increase in pressure allows for drilling in deeper water depths
than what is possible with MCD alone. The PMCD technique is typically used in water depths greater than
1,500 feet and can improve drilling efficiency and reduce non-productive time.
7.1.1.5 Underbalanced Drilling (UBD)
Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) is an MPD technique that involves drilling with a lower density of drilling
fluid than the formation pore pressure. This technique creates a pressure gradient that allows for the
influx of formation fluids into the wellbore. The technique is typically used in formations with low
permeability and can improve drilling efficiency and reduce formation damage.

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7.2 EQUIPMENT FOR MPD

The equipment used in MPD includes surface and downhole equipment. The surface equipment includes
a choke manifold, flow meters, and pressure sensors. The downhole equipment includes a rotating
control device (RCD) and a drill string pressure control device (DPCD).

Figure: Schematic of MPD

7.3 APPLICATIONS OF MPD
MPD is used in various drilling operations, including:
• Drilling in depleted reservoirs
• Drilling in deepwater
• Drilling in HPHT environments
• Drilling directional/horizontal wells
• Drilling wells with narrow drilling margins

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8 FOMULAE, EXERCISES & KILL SHEETS

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8.1 EXERCISES ON IWCF FORMULAE SHEET

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Note: Max. allowable mud weight is to be taken up to one decimalplace. No rounding of fis required

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Hydraulic Pressure Required to Open (psi)

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9.7 FILLING OF SUB SEA VERTICAL WELL KILL SHEET

9.7.1 Well data:
Hole size : 12 ¼”
Air gap (RKB to MSL) : 76 ft
Water Depth(MSL to SEA BED) : 724 ft
Measured Depth From RKB : 10500 ft
Hole TVD : 9900 ft.
13 5/8” casing shoe depth from RKB : 6500 ft MD
13 5/8” casing shoe depth from RKB : 6300 ft TVD
Internal Capacities:
Drill pipe 5” : 0.0177 bbl/ft
HWDP 5” 400 ft. : 0.0088 bbl/ft
Drill Collar 8” 800 ft. : 0.006 bbl/ft.
Choke line 2 13/16” 820 ft. : 0.0088 bbl/ft
Marine Risers 20” 800 ft. : 0.3886 bbl/ft
Mud pump to rig floor volume : 5.0 bbls.
Annular Capacities:
Drill collar in open hole : 0.0829 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe/HWDP in open hole : 0.1194 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe/HWDP in casing : 0.1288 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe in riser : 0.3626 bbl/ft.
Pump Data:
Pump output at 97% efficiency : 0.119 bbl/stk
Through riser @ 40 SPM : 750 psi
Through choke line @ 40SPM : 880 psi
Formation strength: Casing shoe leaked at 1200 psi with 10 ppg mud. Kick Data:
Kick Data:
SIDPP : 400 psi
SICP : 600 psi
Pit gain : 20 bbls.
Mud weight in use : 10.5 ppg
Seawater weight : 8.6 ppg
Active surface mud volume : 460 bbls

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9.8 EXERCISE ON CASING SHOE FAILURE

Well Data:
17 ½'' hole drilled depth : 4,000ft
20'' Casing shoe depth : 1,200ft
13 3/8'' Casing capacity : 0.149 bbl/ft
Length of one 13 3/8'' casing joint : 38ft
Annulas capacity(20'' X 13 3/8'' ) : 0.116 bbl/ft
Mud in use : 11.5 ppg
10 joints of 13 3/8'' casing were lowered were lowered without filling mud. While connecting 11th joint
casing shoe failed. Calculate the reduction in BHP due to shoe failure.
As the casing was lowered without filling mud so the complete 13 3/8'' casing will be empty and annulus
between 20'' x 13 3/8'' casing will be full with 11.5 ppg mud as shown in figure-A .
Length of 13 3/8'' casing lowered = 38 × 10 = 380 ft
Amount of mud in the annulus = 380 × 0.116 = 44.08 bbl
After the shoe failure mud from annulus will enter into the 13 3/8'' casing and due to U-tube effect the
height of mud column in both 13 3/8'' casing & it's annulus will be same as shown in figure-B.
Height of mud column in casing/annulus after shoe failure = 44.08 ( 0.116 + 0.149)
= 166 ft
Drop in mud level in the annulus = 380-166 = 214 ft
Reduction in BHP due to shoe failure = 0.052 × 214 × 11.5 = 128 psi

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9.9 SIZING OF MUD GAS SEPARATOR

Blow through can take place when peak gas flow rates are experienced under following two situations:
1. When friction pressure of the gas through the vent line exceeds liquid seal hydrostatic.
2. When Internal Diameter of the MGS body is small which may cause insufficient retention time for
the gas to separate from mud.
· Steps for sizing the MGS on the basis of vent line friction pressure losses (1st criteria) :
a) Calculate Maximum Pressure & Volume of gas upstream of the Choke
Pmax = 200 ×
Where
Pmax – Maximum Pressure of gas upstream of the choke
P - Formation pressure in thousand of psi ( Pressure of gas at bottom
of hole )
V - Pit gain, bbl
W -Kill mud weight ppg
C - Annular capacity at surface, bbl / 1000 ft
Vmax -= 4

Where Vmax -Maximum Volume of gas upstream of the choke

b) Calculate time necessary to vent the gas ( t ) in min

c) Calculate Volume of gas downstream of the choke using Boyle's law ( Vc )
Pc X Vc = Pmax X Vmax
Where

Pc -Pressure of gas downstream of the choke

( Atmospheric Pressure i.e. 14.7 psi)
d) Calculate Peak gas flow rate to be handled by the MGS ( Qmax ) in bbl / min

e) Calculate Effective vent line length ( Le ) in ft
Le = Length of vent line + n x Leq
Where
n = No. of bends of each type
Leq = Bend / corner equivalent length ( Refer Data sheet )

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f) Calculate Vent line friction pressure ( Pf ) in psi

g) Calculate hydrostatic of liquid seal ( PL) in psi
PL = .052 X mud density X height of liquid seal
To avoid blow through, MGS sizing should be such that PL is more than Pf
• Steps for sizing the MGS on the basis of separator ID ( 2nd criteria ) :
a) Calculate separator capacity ( Cs ) in bbl / ft

b) Calculate Liquid velocity downward in the separator ( VL ) in ft/ min

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To avoid blow through sizing of MGS should be such that VL is less than Gas migration rate in ft/ min
which can be taken as 8.4 ft / min assuming gas migration rate of 500 ft/hr.

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15/8X

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1 5/8’’

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ANNEXURE - 2

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Interpretation of Trip Sheets

It is easy to say investigate every deviation from calculated figures, and of course this is exactly what
should happen.
What exactly do we mean by a discrepancy - 0.1 bbl,0.5 bbl., 1.0 bbl.?
Sometimes our calculations may not be entirely accurate(e.g. not allowing for tool joints).However in the
field, this level of accuracy is acceptable.
So whilst we must investigate any discrepancies , we must be aware of the general trend.
For example, your calculations may give a hole fill of 3.5 bbl./stand. If on every trip out and trip in on the
well we record a displacement of 3.25 bbl./stand with no further happening then obviously this is the
norm.
On subsequent trips we would regard 3.25 bbl./stand as the norm and investigate any discrepancy from
this.
It is important to be aware of the normal trend and investigate any deviation from this . If at any time
there is doubt – CHECK FOR FLOW FROM THE WELL.

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LIST OF API STANDARDS RELEVANT TO WELL CONTROL

API Specification 5L, Line Pipe

API Specification 6A, Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment

API Specification 16A, Specification for Drill-through Equipment

API Specification 16C, Choke and Kill Systems

API Specification 16D, Control Systems for Drilling Well Control Equipment and Control Systems for
Diverter Equipment

API Specification 17D, Subsea Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment

API Specification 17H, Recommended Practice for Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) Interfaces on Subsea
Production Systems

API Standard 53 Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells

API Standard Practice 75, Development of a Safety and Environmental Management Program for Offshore
Operations and Facilities

API Standard 64, Recommended Practice for Diverter system equipment and operations.

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 16ST, Coiled Tubing Well Control Equipment Systems

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 59, Recommended Practice for Well Control Operations

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 16 E, Recommended Practice for Design of Control Systems for Drilling
Well Control Equipment

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