1. Errors in Numerical Computations • Requires knowledge of the true value.

Definition • Relative error may not be meaningful if the true value is zero.

Errors are the differences between the true value and the approximate/computed value of a number. Example

Types of Errors

1. Inherent Errors
Present before the solution of the problem, due to assumptions or limitations of data.

2. Truncation Errors
Occur when an infinite process is approximated by a finite one (e.g., using only part of a series).

3. Round-off Errors
Occur when numbers are rounded to fit a certain number of significant digits.

Advantages

• Helps in estimating the reliability of a computed result.

3. Significant Digits
• Important for setting acceptable error bounds in engineering calculations.
Definition
Disadvantages
Digits that contribute to the accuracy of a number. They include:
• May accumulate in iterative or long computations.
• All non-zero digits
• Not always easily controllable, especially with limited precision.
• Zeros between non-zero digits
Examples
• Zeros after decimal point and after a non-zero digit

Advantages

• Defines precision in a given number.

• Guides how much rounding is needed.

Disadvantages

• Misinterpretation of significant figures can lead to wrong conclusions.

Example

2. Absolute, Relative, and Percentage Error

Definition

• Absolute Error (Ea): |True value − Approximate value|

• Relative Error (Er): Ea / |True value|

• Percentage Error: (Relative Error) × 100%

4. Rounding Off
Advantages
Definition
• Quantifies how much error is present.
Reducing the number of digits in a number while keeping its value close to the original.
• Helps determine if an approximation is acceptable.
Rules
Disadvantages

• If the digit after rounding position is < 5, leave it. 1. Bisection Method

• If it’s > 5, increase the rounding digit by 1. Definition

• If it's exactly 5, round up only if the digit before is odd (Banker’s rounding). A root-finding method that repeatedly bisects an interval and then selects a subinterval in which a root must lie.
It’s based on the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Advantages
If f(a)⋅f(b)<0f(a) \cdot f(b) < 0, then there exists a root c∈(a,b)c \in (a, b) such that f(c)=0f(c) = 0.
• Makes computations simpler and quicker.
Formula
• Removes insignificant digits that don't affect results much.
Midpoint:
Disadvantages

• Can introduce error.

• Repeated rounding can lead to loss of precision.

Interval update:
Examples
• If f(c)⋅f(a)<0, set b=c

• Else, set a=c

Advantages

• Always converges (guaranteed convergence).

• Simple and easy to implement.

• Brackets the root at every step.

Disadvantages

• Slow convergence (linear order).

• Requires f(a)⋅f(b)<0f(a) \cdot f(b) < 0.

5. Accuracy vs Precision
• Not suitable for functions with multiple roots in the interval.
Definitions
Example
• Accuracy: How close a value is to the true value.

• Precision: How closely multiple measurements agree with each other.

Advantages

• Helps evaluate quality of measurement or computation.

Disadvantages

• A value can be precise but not accurate (systematic error).

Examples

2. Regula Falsi Method (False Position Method)

Definition

Improves on bisection by using a secant line between the endpoints of the interval instead of the midpoint.
Formula • Not guaranteed to bracket the root.

Example

Advantages

• Faster than bisection in many cases.

• Maintains bracketing of root.

Disadvantages

• May converge slowly if the function is steep on one side.

• Still requires f(a)⋅f(b)<0f(a) \cdot f(b) < 0.

Example
4. Secant Method

Definition

Like Newton-Raphson but does not require derivatives. Uses two previous approximations to generate a new one.

Formula

Advantages

• Faster than bisection and regula falsi.

• Doesn’t need derivatives.

Disadvantages

• May fail to converge.

3. Newton-Raphson Method • Less reliable than bisection or regula falsi.
Definition Example
An open root-finding method using tangents to approximate the root. Requires function and its derivative.

Formula

Advantages

• Very fast convergence (quadratic).

• Efficient for functions with well-behaved derivatives.

Disadvantages

• Requires derivative of the function.

• May diverge if starting point is not close to the root.

1. Interpolation 3. Newton's Backward Interpolation Formula

Definition Formula

Interpolation is the process of estimating unknown values that fall within a known range of data points.
It is used to find the value of a function for intermediate points from a given set of values.

Advantages

• Allows estimation of values between known data points.

• Useful in scientific and engineering computations.

Advantages
Disadvantages
• Best suited for estimating values near the end of the table.
• Accuracy depends on the spacing and quality of data.
Disadvantages
• Poor results if the function is highly non-linear or has discontinuities.
• Less accurate far from the end.
2. Newton's Forward Interpolation Formula (Equal Intervals)
Example:
Formula

Advantages

• Best suited when interpolating near the beginning of the data set.

Disadvantages

• Not ideal for points near the end.

Example:

4. Lagrange's Interpolation Formula (Unequal Intervals)

Formula

Advantages

• Can be used for unequally spaced data points.

• No need for constructing difference tables.

Disadvantages

• Computationally intensive for large data sets.

• Formula becomes lengthy with more points.

Example: • Quadratic/Cubic Spline: Piecewise quadratic or cubic functions for better smoothness.

Advantages

• Reduces oscillations compared to high-degree polynomial interpolation.

• Better accuracy over small intervals.

Disadvantages

• More computational effort.

• Requires solving systems of equations for cubic splines.

Example:

5. Newton's Divided Difference Formula

Formula

Advantages

• Handles unequal intervals.

• Efficient in updating when new data points are added.

Disadvantages

• Requires calculation of divided differences. 1. Numerical Integration

Example: Definition

Numerical Integration is the process of finding the approximate value of a definite integral when it cannot be
computed analytically or exact values of the function are known only at certain points.

A. Trapezoidal Rule

Definition

Approximates the area under a curve by dividing it into trapezoids.

Formula

6. Piecewise Interpolation (Spline Interpolation) Advantages

Definition • Easy to understand and implement.
Constructs separate polynomials in each sub-interval of the domain such that they fit together smoothly. • Works with any number of intervals.
Types Disadvantages
• Linear Spline: Piecewise linear approximation. • Less accurate compared to Simpson’s Rule unless the number of intervals is large.

Example C. Simpson’s 3/8 Rule

Definition

A more accurate rule using cubic polynomials. Requires that the number of intervals be a multiple of 3.

Formula

B. Simpson’s 1/3 Rule Advantages

Definition • Higher precision when applicable.

Approximates the area under a curve using parabolas. Requires an even number of intervals. • Useful when Simpson’s 1/3 Rule can't be applied due to odd number of subintervals.

Formula Disadvantages

• Restriction on number of subintervals (must be a multiple of 3).

Example:

Advantages

• More accurate than Trapezoidal Rule.

• Suitable for smooth functions.

Disadvantages

• Only applicable when the number of subintervals is even.

Example

D. Gaussian Quadrature

Definition

A technique that chooses both nodes and weights to achieve the exact result for polynomials of the highest
possible degree.
Formula (for interval [-1, 1]): Disadvantages

• Not very accurate.

• Error can accumulate quickly.

Advantages Example:

• Extremely accurate for polynomial functions.

• Requires fewer function evaluations.

Disadvantages

• Complex to calculate nodes and weights manually.

Examples

B. Modified Euler’s Method

Formula

Advantages

• Better accuracy than basic Euler.

Disadvantages

• Still less accurate than Runge-Kutta for stiff equations.

Example:

2. Numerical Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs)

A. Euler’s Method

Definition

A simple numerical method to approximate the solution of first-order ODEs.

Formula

Advantages

• Easy to understand and implement.

C. Runge-Kutta Methods

1. Second Order (RK2)

Example:
Formula

Example:

Advantages

• Highly accurate.

• Widely used in practical ODE problems.

Disadvantages

• More computational effort.

• Needs multiple evaluations of f(x , y) per step.

2. Fourth Order (RK4)

Formula