Computer: Definition, Classification, Organization

A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according
to a set of instructions called a program. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data to
produce meaningful results. Computers are used in various fields, including
education, business, science, and entertainment.

Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified based on their size, functionality, and purpose:

1. Based on Size and Performance:

o Supercomputers: Extremely powerful, used for complex calculations
(e.g., weather forecasting, scientific research).
o Mainframe Computers: Large, high-performance systems used by
organizations for critical applications (e.g., banking, airlines).
o Minicomputers: Mid-sized computers used in small businesses or
departments.
o Microcomputers (Personal Computers): Small, affordable, and widely
used (e.g., desktops, laptops, tablets).
2. Based on Functionality:
o Analog Computers: Process continuous data (e.g., thermometers,
speedometers).
o Digital Computers: Process discrete data (e.g., PCs, smartphones).
o Hybrid Computers: Combine features of analog and digital computers
(e.g., medical imaging systems).
3. Based on Purpose:
o General-Purpose Computers: Designed for a wide range of tasks (e.g.,
PCs).
o Special-Purpose Computers: Designed for specific tasks (e.g., ATMs,
traffic control systems).

Organization of a Computer

The organization of a computer refers to its structure and how its components
interact to perform tasks. Key components include:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

 o The "brain" of the computer.
o Performs arithmetic, logic, and control operations.
o Consists of:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical and
logical operations.
 Control Unit (CU): Directs operations by fetching, decoding,
and executing instructions.
 Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to
hold data and instructions temporarily.
2. Bus Architecture:
o A communication system that transfers data between components.
o Types of buses:
 Data Bus: Transfers data between CPU, memory, and I/O
devices.
 Address Bus: Carries memory addresses for reading/writing
data.
 Control Bus: Carries control signals to coordinate operations.

3. Instruction Set:

o A set of commands that a CPU can execute.

o Includes operations like addition, subtraction, data movement, and
control flow.
 4. Memory and Storage Systems:
o Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile memory used for temporary data
storage during program execution.
o Secondary Memory (Storage): Non-volatile memory for long-term
data storage (e.g., HDD, SSD).
o Cache Memory: High-speed memory that stores frequently accessed
data for faster retrieval.
5. Input/Output (I/O) Devices:
o Input Devices: Allow data entry (e.g., keyboard, mouse, scanner).
o Output Devices: Display or produce results (e.g., monitor, printer).
o I/O Controllers: Manage communication between the CPU and I/O
devices.

System and Application Software

1. System Software:
o Manages hardware and provides a platform for running application
software.
o Examples:
 Operating Systems (OS): Windows, macOS, Linux.
 Device Drivers: Enable communication between hardware and
OS.
 Utilities: Tools for system maintenance (e.g., antivirus, disk
cleanup).
2. Application Software:
o Designed for specific tasks or user needs.
o Examples:
 Productivity Software: Word processors, spreadsheets.
 Entertainment Software: Games, media players.
 Business Software: Accounting, CRM systems.
 System Bus Design

 Definition:
The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted inside any digital
electronic device. A Computer bus consists of a set of parallel conductors, which
may be conventional wires, copper tracks on a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or
microscopic aluminum trails on the surface of a silicon chip. Each wire carries just
one bit, so the number of wires determines the most significant data WORD the
bus can transmit: a bus with eight wires can carry only 8-bit data words and hence
defines the device as an 8-bit device.
 The bus is a communication channel.
 The characteristic of the bus is shared transmission media.
 The limitation of a bus is only one transmission at a time.
 A bus used to communicate between the major components of a computer is
called a System bus.
Computer:

System bus contains 3 categories of lines used to provide the communication

between the CPU, memory and IO named as:
1 . Address lines (AL)
2. Data lines (DL)
3. Control lines (CL)
1. Address Lines:
 Used to carry the address to memory and IO.
 Unidirectional.
 Based on the width of an address bus we can determine the capacity of a main
memory
Example:

2. Data Lines:
 Used to carry the binary data between the CPU, memory and IO.
 Bidirectional.
 Based on the width of a data bus we can determine the word length of a CPU.
 Based on the word length we can determine the performance of a CPU.
Example:
3. Control Lines:

 Used to carry the control signals and timing signals

 Control signals indicate the type of operation.
 Timing Signals are used to synchronize the memory and IO operations with a
CPU clock.
 Typical Control Lines may include Memory Read/Write, IO Read/Write, Bus
Request/Grant, etc.
An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an intermediary between
computer hardware and the user. It manages hardware resources and provides
common services for computer programs. The primary functions of an operating
system include:

1. Process Management

 Definition: Manages the execution of processes (programs in execution) on

the CPU.
 Key Responsibilities:
o Process Scheduling: Decides which process gets access to the CPU
and for how long (e.g., Round Robin, Priority Scheduling).
o Process Creation/Termination: Handles the creation and termination
of processes.
o Process Synchronization: Ensures that multiple processes can work
together without conflicts (e.g., using semaphores or mutexes).
o Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Allows processes to
communicate and share data (e.g., pipes, shared memory).
o Deadlock Handling: Detects and resolves deadlocks (situations where
processes are stuck waiting for resources).

2. Memory Management

 Definition: Manages the allocation and deallocation of memory to processes.

 Key Responsibilities:
o Allocation: Assigns memory to processes when they need it.
o Deallocation: Frees up memory when a process terminates or no
longer needs it.
o Protection: Ensures that one process cannot access the memory space
of another process.
o Virtual Memory: Uses disk space as an extension of RAM to allow
processes to use more memory than physically available.
o Paging/Segmentation: Divides memory into fixed-size pages or
variable-size segments for efficient management.

3. File Management
  Definition: Manages files stored on secondary storage devices (e.g., hard
drives, SSDs).
 Key Responsibilities:
o File Creation/Deletion: Handles the creation and deletion of files.
o File Organization: Manages directories and file structures (e.g.,
hierarchical file systems).
o File Access Control: Manages permissions and access rights for files
(e.g., read, write, execute).
o Storage Allocation: Allocates and deallocates storage space for files.
o Backup and Recovery: Provides mechanisms for backing up and
restoring files in case of data loss.

Other Key Functions of an Operating System:

 Device Management: Manages hardware devices (e.g., printers, keyboards)

through device drivers.
 Security and Access Control: Protects the system from unauthorized access
and ensures data integrity.
 Networking: Manages network connections and communication between
systems.
 User Interface: Provides interfaces (e.g., command-line, graphical) for users to
interact with the system.

Operating Systems (OS) can be categorized into different types based on their design,
functionality, and use cases. Here are the main types of operating systems:

1. Single-User, Single-Tasking OS

 Description: Designed to manage one user and one task at a time.

 Example: Early versions of MS-DOS.
 Use Case: Simple systems with minimal resource requirements.

2. Single-User, Multi-Tasking OS

 Description: Allows a single user to run multiple applications simultaneously.

 Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux (desktop versions).
 Use Case: Personal computers and laptops.
3. Multi-User OS

 Description: Supports multiple users accessing the system simultaneously.

 Examples: UNIX, Linux (server versions), Windows Server.
 Use Case: Servers, mainframes, and enterprise systems.

4. Real-Time OS (RTOS)

 Description: Designed for real-time applications where timely processing is

critical.
 Types:
o Hard Real-Time OS: Strict deadlines (e.g., medical systems, automotive
systems).
o Soft Real-Time OS: Tolerant of minor delays (e.g., multimedia
systems).
 Examples: VxWorks, FreeRTOS, QNX.
 Use Case: Embedded systems, robotics, industrial automation.

5. Distributed OS

 Description: Manages a group of independent computers and makes them

appear as a single system.
 Examples: Amoeba, Google's Borg.
 Use Case: Cloud computing, distributed databases, and large-scale systems.

6. Batch Processing OS

 Description: Executes jobs in batches without user interaction.

 Examples: IBM's OS/360 (historical).
 Use Case: Large-scale data processing (e.g., payroll systems).

7. Time-Sharing OS

 Description: Allows multiple users to share system resources by dividing CPU

time into slices.
 Examples: UNIX, Multics.
 Use Case: Multi-user environments like universities and research labs.