Fact Sheet 013

April 2003

CALLITRICHIDS: NUTRITION AND DIETARY HUSBANDRYa

Authors
Susan D. Crissey, PhD Mauvis Gore, PhD Barbara A. Lintzenich, MS
Brookfield Zoo Royal Zoological Society, Scotland Brookfield Zoo
3300 Golf Rd Edinburgh, Scotland 3300 Golf Rd
Brookfield, IL 60513 Brookfield, IL 60513

Kerri Slifka. MS
Brookfield Zoo
3300 Golf Rd
Brookfield, IL 60513

Reviewers
Vince Sodaro Michael L. Power, PhD Duane E. Ullrey, PhD
Brookfield Zoo Nutrition Laboratory Comparative Nutrition Group
3300 Golf Rd Department of Zoological Research Michigan State University
Brookfield, IL 60513 National Zoological Park East Lansing, MI 48824
Washington, DC 20008

Meeting the nutritional needs of Callitrichids is essential to their survival and reproduction in captivity.
Development of appropriate dietary guidelines involves information on 1) feeding ecology, 2) published
nutrient requirements, often from studies of laboratory primates, 3) food preferences, and 4) foods
available in zoos for diet formulation. This monograph is meant to provide a general overview of the
feeding of Callitrichids. Several SSPs have published husbandry manuals for individual species,
including species-specific recommendations. Please refer to these for additional and sometimes more
specific information on nutrition and feeding.

_____
a
Adapted from the AZA Callitrichid Husbandry manual. AZA Callitrichid SSP.

1
 Feeding Ecology

Information on feeding ecology of Callitrichids has increased significantly in recent years. This has
expanded our knowledge of food ingested in the wild, but most studies provide qualitative information
rather than detailed quantitative data on amounts of food and nutrient concentrations in the foods
selected.
It has been reported that, in natural ecosystems, larger Callitrichid species tend to select insects
and fruits whereas the smaller species tend to select insects and exudates (gums, saps, and latex). Insect
foraging appears to be a primary food adaptation of Callitrichids.29 Emperor tamarins (Saguinus
imperator) are primarily frugivorous and insectivorous, with grasshoppers as the main insect-food item.
Their diet also may include exudates, nectar, flowers, and other plant parts. In the dry season when fruit
is scarce, emperor tamarins are often intense nectar feeders, 74 although Rosenberger66 noted that they
may lose as much as 15% of their body weight when consuming large quantities of nectar. Additionally,
moustached (Saguinus mystax) and saddle-back (Saguinus fuscicollis) tamarins spend up to 31% of
feeding time on nectar during the dry season.28 The diet of moustached tamarins includes about 14%
insects as determined by time spent foraging. Both saddle-back and moustached tamarins consume
water and prey from bromeliads52 as do golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia).29 Some may
consume up to 38 species of insects, with some insects weighing over 8.5 grams.52 The diet of black-
handed tamarins (Saguinus midas niger) has been reported to be largely frugivorous (87.5%) but also
includes arthropods and plant exudates.55 Seeds up to 1 cm in diameter or 2 cm in length have been
found in their feces. Golden-handed tamarins (Saguinus midas midas) similarly ingest fruit and insects,
but Pack et al.56 noted important seasonal differences in foods consumed. Knogge 40 studied seed
ingestion and dispersal in both saddle-back and moustached tamarins in the wild. He noted that 95% of
fecal samples contained remnants of 88 fruit species out of a total of 155 fruit species eaten. Seeds
ingested and defecated ranged from 0.6 mm to 2.6 cm in length. Details were provided on seed species
ingested and gut passage time.
Golden-mantled tamarins (Saguinus tripartitus) ingest fruit, gums, and Tettigoniid insects.35
Moustached tamarins also consume fruit seeds and pass these undigested.34 Golden lion tamarins have
been observed to feed largely on fruit and small prey, switching to nectar when fruit is scarce.16
Interestingly, moustached and saddle-back tamarins also foraged on frogs, lizards, and occasionally
nestling birds.36 Similarly, Smith70 studied both saddle-back and moustached tamarins in the field. Both
species were found to capture katydids (Tettigoniids), stick insects (Proscopids), spiders (Araneids), as
well as lizards (Squamatids) and frogs (Anurids), with katydids as the main prey. A review of
vertebrate prey consumed by a variety of marmoset, tamarin, and a lion tamarin species17 included
frogs, lizards, nestling birds and eggs, and mammals. Of note is a report by Townsend 75 of a wild-
caught pet pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea) catching and killing a bird.
Pygmy marmosets are arboreal, rarely coming to the ground. The pygmy marmoset is classified
as an exudate feeder and insectivore. It feeds on exudates by gouging holes with its lower incisors on
the major branches of trees and the stems of vines.39, 64 Favorite insects are grasshoppers, spiders, and
butterflies. Ramirez et al.64 noted that pygmy marmosets spend 67% of their total feeding time in the
investigation and procurement of exudates and 33% of feeding time foraging for insects. Fruit, buds,

2
flowers, and nectar also were consumed, but constituted a minor portion of the diet.
Smith69 analyzed gums ingested by saddle-back and moustached tamarins in the wild, and found
that they were relatively high in calcium. He suggested that calcium in gums might be important to
balance the generally high concentrations of phosphorus found in the remainder of the Callitrichid wild
diet. However, when seasonal consumption data were examined, he found that gums were not uniquely
sought as a supplement during gestation or lactation. Bare-ear marmosets (Callithrix argentata) have
been reported to be active mainly where gum-producing trees are found.1 Correa et al.13 suggested that
reports of the proportions of food items ingested in the wild are related to the supplies of foods available
at the time of observation. Both buffy-headed (Callithrix flaviceps) and buffy tufted-ear (C. aurita)
marmosets ingested different amounts of fruit, exudates, and prey in different years, generally in
proportion to food availability. Feeding budget studies indicated that buffy tufted-ear marmosets spent
50.5% of their time feeding on gums, 11% on fruits, and 38.5% on prey items.42 The insect types
ingested included 33% caterpillars, 5% katydids, and 4% homopterans. Geoffroy’s marmosets
(Callithrix geoffroyi) ingested gums in two periods during the day, mainly early in the morning but also
in the afternoon. 57 Power and Oftedal60 compared digestibility and digesta transit time (expressed as
time to first appearance [TFA] of an indigestible marker) of diets containing gum or no gum fed to
pygmy and common marmosets, and cotton-top, saddle-back, and golden lion tamarins. TFA was
longer in marmosets when gum was added to the diet, and digestibility of gum-containing diets was
equal to that of gum-free diets. However, addition of gum to diets fed to tamarins lowered digestibility.
These observations suggested to these researchers that marmosets are adapted to gum digestion.
Diets may vary considerably within species, as well as among species, in types of foods
consumed. This diet variability may be a consequence of seasonal changes in food availability and
distribution. Saguinus species have been grouped according to foraging strategies. Groupings include
1) seasonal exudate feeding, occasionally from tree trunks, 2) insects taken from bark surfaces and tree
trunks used as resting platforms by terrestrial prey, 3) bark stripping for insects and small vertebrates,
and 4) tree gouging year round for exudates.29 Some moustached tamarins may consume soil,
presumably for its mineral content.33 Passamani57 found that diet was related to season, with increased
numbers of prey items available during the wet season. The preliminary results of a long-term study on
semi-free ranging common marmosets found that the number of prey species obtained from the outdoor
habitat increased exponentially over four years.67 The list included gastropods, worms, arachnids,
rodents, and a very large range of insect and bird species.
Callitrichids share food with young. Captive black lion tamarins (Leontopithecus
chrysopygus) obtained most of their solid food from group members prior to 15 weeks of age but
sometimes continued to receive food up to six months of age.20 Rapaport65 suggested from a study on
captive golden lion tamarins that adults alter their feeding behavior to teach immature tamarins which
items are suitable foods.
Callitrichids are small in comparison to other New World primates; with body masses generally
ranging from 105 to 700 g.29 Their claw-like nails allow clinging while foraging. Dentition has been used
to categorize them as marmosets (short-tusked for gouging bark) and tamarins (long-tusked). 21 These
features are correlated with feeding strategy. GI-tract morphology of Callitrichid species has been
associated with the extent of exudate consumption, specifically of gums. Presumably, a more complex
GI-tract benefits gum digestion. Common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) feed on exudates (as well as
fruits and other foods) and possess a cecum (with internal strictures) that is more complex than that of

3
tamarins. These complexities may increase residence time both of digesta and fermentative microbiota,
favoring anaerobic digestion.29 Bare-ear marmosets (C. argentata emiliae) also have a complex cecum
to help process gums.21 These GI-tract features are less well developed in the golden lion tamarin.29

Published Nutrient Requirement Data

Very few studies have been conducted to establish quantitative nutrient requirements of Callitrichids.
The National Research Council51 has summarized much of the published data. Even though information
from controlled studies was insufficient to estimate quantitative requirements for other than energy,
protein, iodine, vitamin D, and vitamin E for Callitrichids, estimated adequate concentrations have been
proposed for 30 nutrients in conventional-ingredient diets intended for post-weaning nonhuman
primates.
Energy. The amount of food that must be consumed per day for maintenance is related to the
digestibility of that food. The apparent digestibility of the gross energy (GE) in a laboratory diet fed to
adults of five Callitrichid species ranged from 71 to 86%.59 Power59 concluded that digestible energy
(DE) requirements (169-310 kcal/BW kg/day) appeared to be inversely correlated with body size except
for pygmy marmosets, which had the smallest body size (0.133 kg) but digested 84% of the GE in their
diet and had a daily DE requirement of 208 kcal/BW kg. Pygmy marmosets have been shown to have
one of the lowest basal metabolic rates among the simians, 98 ml O2/hr at 27-34o C.30 Genoud et al.30
suggested that this low metabolic rate may be related to gum ingestion.
Daily requirements for metabolizable energy (ME) per unit of body weight tend to be higher for
maintenance of adult marmosets and tamarins than for adults of larger nonhuman primates. Reported
ME requirements for Callitrichids range from 142 to 232 kcal/BWkg/day. 7,49 Given that twinning is
common in Callitrichids, energy costs during reproduction should be relatively high. Nievergelt and
Martin53 observed captive common marmosets, both male and female, during pregnancy and lactation.
Females were found to increase their energy intake by up to 100% and lost weight during lactation.
Males helped the females by carrying the infants for significant periods of time, but their energy intakes
and body weights did not change. Nievergelt and Martin53 concluded that subtle changes in behavior
during reproduction may result in some reduction of the male energy budget.
Protein. In 1978, the NRC 50 stated that New World primates need higher dietary
concentrations of protein than their Old World counterparts. Because protein requirements of fewer
than 10 species have been studied, and there are over 100 species of New World primates and over
150 species of Old World primates, such a generalization seems unwarranted. Further, more recent
evidence does not support this conclusion. 51,54 Protein requirements (from casein) for weight
maintenance of adult saddle-back tamarins were shown to be 7.3% of dietary dry matter (DM) or 2.8
g/BWkg/day. 25 Protein requirements (from soy protein concentrate) for maintenance of nitrogen balance
in adult common marmosets were 6.6% of dietary DM or 2.5 g/BW kg/day. 25 Flurer and Zucker25
found that marmosets consumed their feces when diets contained less than 6% protein or lacked one or
more amino acids.
Protein requirements for growth of Callitrichids on purified diets have been estimated to be 18%
of dietary DM for the very young, gradually declining to 12%.51 Protein contributes approximately 19%
of the GE in the milks of common marmosets, pygmy marmosets, and golden lion tamarins.62 For
comparison, Ausman et al.4 have shown that 20.8% protein (from casein) in dietary DM was required

4
for 2-3 week old squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), declining to 10.0% at 2-3 months and to 8.1%
at 9 months.
There have been no studies of protein requirements of pregnant or lactating Callitrichids. It
should be noted that protein requirements are linked to the array and quantity of essential amino acids,
the digestibility of the protein, and the presence of secondary plant compounds, such as tannins, that
may influence protein availability and use. Taurine, an α -aminoethanesulfonic acid, is needed for proper
neurological development of young primates, but its requirement as a dietary essential for adults has not
been established.71 Tardif et al.73 found no difference in growth and reproduction between common
marmosets fed purified diets providing 15% or 25% protein (as fractions of estimated dietary ME
concentration). Estimated adequate concentrations of protein for post-weaning growth and
reproduction of nonhuman primates range from 15 to 22% in the DM of diets containing conventional
feed ingredients.51
Iodine. Iodine deficiency has been observed in common marmosets fed a diet composed of
natural ingredients and containing 0.03 µ g I/g of DM.41 Plasma thyroxine concentrations declined and
plasma thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations increased. Thyroid glands were hypertrophied and
hyperplastic. Cerebral brain-stem cell size was reduced in offspring from second pregnancies. These
signs were prevented by providing 0.65 µ g I/g of DM. Lower supplemental levels of iodine were not
tested. Estimated adequate iodine concentrations in diets containing conventional feed ingredients are
0.35 mg/kg DM.51
Vitamin D. In the few species of New World primates that have been studied, vitamin D2
appears less active than vitamin D3. Well-controlled studies comparing the two vitamin forms in Old
World primates have not been conducted, although there are anecdotal reports that rhesus and other
macaques provided only vitamin D2 showed no evidence of metabolic bone disease.51 It has been
proposed 5,72 that marmosets and tamarins may require higher levels of vitamin D3 than other New
World primates because of target-organ receptor resistance to the active form of the vitamin. Flurer
and Zucker23 found that vitamin D3 at 2,000 IU/kg of air-dry diet supported (apparently normal) serum
25(OH)D concentrations of 12-120 ng/ml in saddle-back tamarins. To establish baseline
concentrations for assessing vitamin D status of captive Callitrichids, Power et al.61 analyzed blood from
18 wild-caught, cotton-top tamarins. Serum concentrations of 25(OH)D ranged between 25.5-120
ng/ml, which they noted was considerably higher than the range of 10-55 ng/ml found in normal humans.
It is noteworthy that Goeldi’s monkeys were found to have lower serum vitamin D metabolite
concentrations than other New World monkeys.15 However, Crissey et al. 14 also reported that renal
dysfunction in this captive colony of Goeldi’s monkeys may have affected the vitamin D metabolite
values.
Commercial diets for Callitrichids can contain very high levels of vitamin D3. These high levels
have led to vitamin D toxicity in pacas (Cuniculus paca) and agoutis (Dasyprocta aguti) housed in
mixed species exhibits with Callitrichids.38 To investigate suitable dietary levels of vitamin D3, Ullrey et
al.76 compared the health status of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) fed higher versus lower
levels of vitamin D3. The levels compared were 2,500 IU vitamin D3/kg DM in a zoo colony, and
26,000 IU vitamin D3/kg DM in a laboratory colony. The lower levels fed in the zoo colony supported
growth, reproduction, serum 25(OH)D concentrations (48-236 ng/ml) similar to those in wild-caught
animals, and apparent good health. The levels of 26,000 IU/kg DM fed in the laboratory colony
resulted in a larger range of serum 25(OH)D concentrations (11-560 ng/ml) but no indications of any

5
improved health status. In fact, evidence of colitis was common, although this might have been
associated with the stresses of housing and handling. NRC51 estimates of requirements in purified diets
are 2,400 IU vitamin D3/kg DM. Estimated adequate concentrations in diets containing conventional
feed ingredients for post-weaning nonhuman primates are 2,500 IU/kg DM, acknowledging that there
are anecdotal reports of higher requirements for Callitrichids under certain circumstances.51
Vitamin E. Callitrichid requirements for vitamin E have been studied only in the common
marmoset. To support normal plasma α -tocopherol concentrations and inhibit hydrogen peroxide-
induced hemolysis, 4 to 48 mg of D-α -tocopherol/kg of purified diet were required.43 When fish oils
were added to a purified diet, requirements increased to over 95 mg of D-α -tocopherol/kg. 31 Young
common marmosets had normal plasma α -tocopherol concentrations on 130 IU or less of α -
tocopherol/kg of purified diet.11 The NRC 51 estimated that the requirement for vitamin E in a purified
diet is in the range of >95-130 mg all-rac-α -tocopheryl acetate/kg DM. The estimated adequate
vitamin E concentration in diets containing conventional feed ingredients was set at 100 mg all-rac-α -
tocopheryl acetate/kg DM.
Other nutrients. Folic acid deficiency has been produced in common marmosets.18
Deficiency signs included weight loss, alopecia, diarrhea, megaloblastic anemia, leucopenia,
granulocytopenia, and lesions of the oral mucosa (bilateral angular cheilosis). The stomatitis appeared
to result from inadequate maturation of the epithelial cells, subsequent ulceration, and secondary
infection.19 The deficiency was prevented by adding 3.3 mg of folic acid/kg of diet, although the
minimum folic acid requirement was not defined.
Vitamin C is a dietary essential for common marmosets, with deficiencies resulting in
hemorrhages, loss of density about the periodontal ligament, and declines in physical mobility, red cell
count, hematocrit, and mean red cell volume.19,26 To maintain blood ascorbate concentrations above
the renal threshold, Flurer et al.22 concluded that 20 mg ascorbic acid/BW kg/day (500 mg/kg diet) was
required. This concentration assured excretion of a small amount of ascorbic acid in the urine. When
compared to common marmosets on the same diet, saddle-back tamarins had significantly lower
circulating ascorbate levels, intimating that there may be a species difference in need.26 Stress appears
to increase the rate of ascorbic acid metabolism, and there was some evidence of a difference in
susceptibility to stress between the two species.24,27 It should be noted that stable forms of vitamin C
were not used in these studies nor were the diets analyzed for vitamin C at the time of feeding. Loss of
vitamin C during diet manufacture and storage could lead to an overestimate of the requirement.
Zinc deficiency was reported in moustached marmosets fed a commercial diet, which was said
to contain 150ppm of zinc, although this value was not confirmed by analysis. When 40 ppm zinc was
added to drinking water, the deficiency signs (alopecia) were alleviated but returned when drinking
water was supplemented with 80ppm zinc.10 This illogical result was not explained.
Diets high in iron can lead to hepatic hemosiderosis in common marmosets.45 Young adults
were given diets containing either 100 or 500 ppm of iron. After seven months, the 500 ppm level was
lowered to 350 ppm, due to the death of one individual. The mean liver iron concentration in
marmosets fed the high-iron diet was 6,371 µ g/g DM, whereas the marmosets fed the low-iron diet had
a mean liver iron of 622 µ g/g DM.
Qualitative and quantitative evidence of the need of Callitrichids for other nutrients appears not
to have been published. Estimated adequate nutrient concentrations (DM basis) in diets containing
conventional feed ingredients and intended for post-weaning nonhuman primates are shown in Table 1.

6
Table 1. Estimated adequate nutrient concentrations (DM basis) in diets containing conventional feed
ingredients intended for post-weaning Callitrichids, accounting for potential differences in nutrient
bioavailabilities and adverse nutrient interactions, but not accounting for potential losses in feed
processing and storage (adapted from NRC 51).

Nutrient Concentration Nutrient Concentration

Crude protein, % 15-22a I, mg/kg 0.35
Essential n-3 fatty acids, % 0.5b Se, mg/kg 0.3
Essential n-6 fatty acids, % 2c Trivalent Cr, mg/kg 0.2
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), % 10d Vitamin A, IU/kg 8,000
Acid detergent fiber (ADF), % 5d Vitamin D3, IU/kg 2,500g
Ca, % 0.8 Vitamin E, mg/kg 100h
Total P, % 0.6e Vitamin K, mg/kg 0.5i
Non-phytate P, % 0.4 Thiamin, mg/kg 3.0
Mg, % 0.08 Riboflavin, mg/kg 4.0
K, % 0.4 Pantothenic acid, mg/kg 12.0
Na, % 0.2 Available niacin, mg/kg 25.0j
Cl, % 0.2 Vitamin B6, mg/kg 4.0
Fe, mg/kg 100f Biotin, mg/kg 0.2
Cu, mg/kg 20 Folacin, mg/kg 4.0
Mn, mg/kg 20 Vitamin B12, mg/kg 0.03
Zn, mg/kg 100
a
Requirements for growth of young and for lactation are best met by the higher concentrations in this range.
Required protein concentrations are markedly affected by amounts and proportions of essential amino acids. Taurine
may be a dietary essential through the first postnatal year.
b
Requirement can be met by a-linolenic acid. Required concentration may be lower when supplied by
eicosapentaenoic or docosahexaenoic acids.
c
Requirement can be met by linoleic or arachidonic acids.
d
Although not nutrients, NDF and ADF at or near indicated concentrations appear to be positively related to
gastrointestinal health.
e
Some of P in soybean meal and certain cereals is bound in phytate and poorly available.
f
Iron-storage disease (hemosiderosis) is a potential problem, particularly when large quantities of fruits are offered,
presumably because citrate or ascorbate promote iron absorption. Under these circumstances, it may be important to
limit iron to near or slightly below this concentration. Particular attention should be given to iron concentrations in
phosphorus and calcium supplements and to selection of sources that are low in this contaminant.
g
There are anecdotal reports of higher vitamin D3 requirements under some circumstances, perhaps related to
impaired absorption in individuals with colitis.
h
As all-rac-α -tocopheryl acetate.
i
As phylloquinone.
j
Niacin in corn, grain sorghum, wheat, barley, and their byproducts is poorly available unless they have undergone
fermentation or wet-milling.
k
Ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate is a vitamin C source that is biologically available and quite stable during feed
processing and storage.

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 Foods Used in Zoos and Research Colonies

To make judgments concerning the adequacy of foods used in zoos, knowledge of the quantity of
nutrients consumed is of primary importance. For the most part, however, these data are not available.
In a 1985 publication, 12 it was stated that a variety of foods was being offered in marmoset research
colonies and that the problem of marmoset wasting syndrome had been nearly eliminated. Most
facilities fed a commercial diet supplemented with other foods, such as insects, small vertebrates, and
produce. At the time of this NAG publication, similar commercial products are still available. It
appears quite possible to maintain and breed Callitrichids in captivity on a combination of manufactured
diets and other commonly fed items. The level of protein reported in 198512 to be adequate was 20%
(DM basis) with a comment that this may be above true requirement levels. Fat levels were about 7%
with carbohydrate at 61.4% and ash at 5.3% (DM basis).
One study of a diet fed to captive Geoffroy’s marmosets involved calculation of the nutrient
content of a mixed diet with respect to possible nutritional problems found in the collection.63 Because
the animals were housed both singly and in groups, the data were not readily applicable to judgments of
dietary adequacy. Theoretically, the diet met the 1978 NRC 50 recommended nutrient levels for New
World primates and appeared adequate for other species. The authors suspected the levels of protein
and some minerals were inadequate for these particular marmosets.
Consideration should be given to differences in composition between categories of foods
consumed in the wild and those categories of foods fed in zoos and research laboratories. Studies of
foods consumed by free-ranging primates indicate that they may be considerably different in nutrient
content from those same categories of foods in captivity. Generally, fruits in the wild are higher in fiber
and lower in sugars than fruits cultivated for human use.9 Also, fruits consumed in the wild may be
primarily unripe, while ripe fruits are usually fed in zoos. Ripening increases the sugar level, and rapid
gastrointestinal fermentation may partially explain why fresh fruit fed in zoos sometimes causes loose
stools. Additionally, free-ranging Callitrichids consume many other foods, including exudates and
various species of insects. This variety of food items is not commercially available to institutions.
Some captive Callitrichids may be offered neonatal mice, or “pinkies”, as a protein source.
Pinkies carry a serious risk of a rare but rapidly progressive viral hepatitis from consumption of liver and
spleen tissue containing lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), an arenavirus.8,46-48
Marmoset pellets, which contain cereal grains, are standard fare for many captive Callitrichids.
Two recent studies32,68 indicate, however, that medically significant levels of IgA-gliadin antibodies can
be found in marmosets and tamarins whose diets contained cereal grain proteins.

Food Preferences

As mentioned previously, the food most consumed by free-ranging animals may not be that most sought
but that most available. There also may be differences in food choice based on varying physiologic
conditions. Often there are large day to day fluctuations in food consumption within and among animals
that are not readily explained.
Foods in the diets of captive Callitrichids are limited as to types and varieties as compared to

8
options in the wild. Studies with several laboratory species have shown that foods are not necessarily
selected on the basis of nutrient content. Instead, Callitrichids given a limited variety of succulent foods
may select those that are high in sugar, high in fat, or simply novel.63 Thus, it is important to offer foods
that complement each other nutritionally.
There are a number of publications listing nutrient concentrations in commonly offered foods
such as produce.58 Other publications provide information on nutrient concentrations in insects.2 State
and federal regulations require provision of the guaranteed analysis of packaged commercial products
for a limited number of items, such as protein, fat, and fiber, but this information does not generally
include concentrations of vitamins and minerals. Many times, manufacturers will provide these values
upon request, or the product can be chemically analyzed.
Using published research on requirements, the NRC 51 guidelines, data on the feeding ecology of
wild Callitrichids, and the nutrient content of foods available in zoos, it is possible to formulate diets that
are appropriate for captive Callitrichids.

Formulation of Appropriate Diets

When formulating diets for captive Callitrichids, flexibility is needed to accommodate animal preferences
and variations in weight, exercise, physical condition, environment, and behavioral considerations, as
well as commercial availability of food items. Thus, guidelines for nutrient content and food categories
rather than recommendations for specific food items in set quantities may be appropriate. The
guidelines below allow for flexibility in diet formulation while assuring that a nutritionally adequate diet
will be offered.
Foods to be included in the diet, means of food presentation, and enclosure design all may be
viewed as components of environmental enrichment. As long as target dietary nutrient levels are met,
food presentation can be altered to fit behavioral and enrichment needs. Natural feeding strategies
might be mimicked by offering diets in feeding tubes, fashioned like bromeliads, or in “flaky” substrates,
to reflect searching for food under bark. Gums can be offered in ways that encourage substantial
activity. 37

Dietary Recommendations

Callitrichids should be fed at least twice per day. The interval between morning and afternoon feeding
should be between 4 ½ and 6 ½ hours. More food should be provided in the morning (or more active
period) than in the afternoon (less active period), though the same food categories should be offered.
Since marmosets spend much of their time in the wild foraging, food might be offered multiple times
throughout the day, and the food scattered to promote foraging.
When consumed in its entirety, the diet should contain the nutrient concentrations presented in
Table 1 (DM basis). It is possible to achieve the nutrient levels in Table 1 by offering a diet consisting
of the indicated food items (or food groups) in percent by weight, as fed.
For flexibility, three diets are presented. Each of these diets meets or exceeds the target nutrient
levels. Examples of items included in food groups are presented in the Appendix. It is assumed that
insects fed will be crickets or mealworms. As mealworms contain substantially more fat and energy
than crickets, if an animal is overweight, a higher percentage of crickets to mealworms should be used.

9
Insects should be fed an appropriately fortified 8% calcium diet 24-48 hours prior to feeding them to
the Callitrichids. The vegetables and starchy vegetables offered should be cooked (steamed or
microwaved) to enhance digestibility. Nectar, if the animals consume nectar in the wild, can be fed
(diluted 50:50 with water) and mixed with the diet. This is not in addition to the diet. Fruit must be
decreased by weight as nectar is offered. If for logistic or cost reasons, it is felt that the use of insects
should be decreased, increasing the nutritionally complete portion of the diet is appropriate (by weight).

Diet Example 1.
Food items % in diet (by weight as fed)
Commercial marmoset diet* 72
Fruit 10
Vegetables 5
Starchy vegetables 5
Insects 8
*The commercial marmoset diet that will complement the diet above is one with the following
specifications. This particular product is canned (hence the higher moisture content). With the use of
this product, the diet must contain a source of vitamin C. (This can be obtained from the fruit, if a good
source is used.) This product contains the following nutrients as stated on the label and/or in the
informational literature:
Crude protein minimum % 9.3 Ash maximum % 2.5
Crude fat minimum % 3.2 Calcium minimum % 0.33
Crude fiber maximum % 0.8 Phosphorus minimum % 0.24
Moisture maximum % 60 Vitamin D3 IU/g 2.5

Diet Example 2.
Food items % in diet (by weight as fed)
Commercial primate diet* 50
Fruit 12
Vegetables 10
Starchy vegetables 10
Insects 18
*The commercial primate diet that will complement the diet above is one with the following
specifications. This product contains the following nutrients as stated on the label and/or in the
informational literature:
Crude protein minimum % 25 Ash maximum % 6.1
Crude fat minimum % 5 Calcium minimum % 1.0
Crude fiber maximum % 4 Phosphorus minimum % 0.6
Moisture maximum % 10 Vitamin D3 IU/g 2.5

10
Diet Example 3.
Food items % in diet (by weight as fed)
a
Commercial primate diet* 47
b
Commercial marmoset diet* 10
Water 3
Fruit 10
Vegetables 10
Starchy vegetables 10
Insects 10
a
* The commercial primate diet which will complement the diet above is one with the following
specifications. This product contains the following nutrients as stated on the label and/or in the
informational literature:
Crude protein minimum % 25 Ash maximum % 6.1
Crude fat minimum % 5 Calcium minimum % 1.0
Crude fiber maximum % 4 Phosphorus minimum % 0.6
Moisture maximum % 10 Vitamin D3 IU/g 2.5

*b The commercial marmoset diet which will complement the diet above is one with the following
specifications. This is a powdered product formulated to be mixed with water and heated to a gel.
Thus water was added as part of the diet. It also is stated that it should be used with another
manufactured primate diet (such as used in this example). This product contains the following nutrients
as stated on the label and/or in the informational literature:

Crude protein minimum % 33

Crude fat minimum % 14 Calcium minimum % 0.85
Crude fiber maximum % 6 Phosphorus minimum % 0.67
Moisture maximum % 2 or 0 Vitamin D3 IU/g 2.5
Ash maximum % 5

Additionally, a diet including a dry manufactured extrusion plus a moistened mixture of

powdered manufactured product and fruit has been fed successfully to cotton-top marmosets.76
The quantity of food to offer per day is difficult to determine unless based on accurate
measurements of body mass (or body weight). Charting an animal’s body mass and physical
appearance over time will help identify optimal (and normal fluctuations) in weight. Deviations from
normal can help identify impending problems, such as developing infectious disease. An average active
adult Callitrichid will consume about 5% of its body weight per day, as dry matter. Total diet intake
may approach 16 to 24% of body weight on an as fed basis (depending on the moisture content of the
diet). However, amounts of food consumed also depend on exercise and physiological state. During
lactation, intake may increase 1.5 times. If an animal is inactive, consumption may be less. In large
colonies or where there is appreciable competition for food among animals of differing age, sex, or
social dominance (or competing pests), sufficient food should be provided so small quantities remain
after the feeding period. However, amounts of food offered should not be so large that sorting results in

11
consumption of an imbalanced diet. Both the nutrient densities and digestibilities of the foods offered
are important. The challenge for the animal care-giver is to assure that each animal meets its nutrient
needs.
The quantities of foods in the above example diets to offer per day can be calculated by using
the following formula:
Amount of a food item = (total amount of diet required per day)(% of food item in diet)/100
Food items should be of a size appropriate for easy handling by individual Callitrichids. Sizes
and shapes can be varied for behavioral enrichment. Food sharing and stealing is common within family
groups and may serve to teach the young about important food items. However, if fed as outlined
above, problems of individuals in a group not receiving sufficient food because of competition should be
minimized.
Certain foods (like excessive quantities of fruit) may periodically cause diarrhea in some animals.
The manufacturer’s literature for a gel diet states that loose stools may result from feeding large
quantities. Reductions in the proportion of fruit or temporary restriction to a nutritionally complete
primate biscuit or canned diet may clear up the problem. Use of a nutritionally complete primate diet is
critical to proper dietary management of these animals, but the diet should be reassessed for nutrient
content if one commercial product is substituted for another. Oral medications may be hand-fed in
favorite food items.
Fresh water should be available at all times. Food and water dishes should be disinfected daily
to prevent bacterial build-up, especially of Pseudomonas spp.
Feeding regimes for hand-rearing young are available from the studbook keeper and the Infant
Diet/Care Notebook.6 Zoos have hand-reared a number of Callitrichid infants successfully and
reintroduced them after weaning to a family group for socialization and to learn parental care techniques.
Ultimately, it is the diet (food items) actually consumed that will determine nutrient status. If the
diet (or certain portions of the diet) is not consumed, nutrient intakes may be inadequate. Thus, periodic
assessment of diet consumption is important.
Following is an example method for determining diet consumption. Data on diet offered and
consumed should be collected for at least five days. Different keepers should be involved to account
for variations in food preparation. Consumption is calculated by determining the quantity (by weight) of
food items offered and subtracting the quantity of food remaining. Food portions should be prepared
by each care-giver, according to their normal procedures. Each item should be weighed on a digital
scale before placing it in the food pan. Orts (leftover food) should be collected and weighed at the end
of the feeding time or before the beginning of the next feeding time. Enrichment food items should be
accounted for in the same manner.
Moisture concentrations of food may change from feeding to ort collection because of
desiccation or from additions of water from rain or misting, and must be accounted for. Determinations
of intake on a dry-matter basis can be made by using a drying oven to determine dry matter in samples
of food items offered and of recovered orts. If a drying oven is not available, a food pan containing
weighed food samples should be placed near, but outside, the cage where the animals are housed, in an
area free of pests. The pan should be left for the same period of time as the fed diet and subjected to
the same environmental conditions. The percentage water gain or loss should be determined and a
correction factor calculated. This factor can then be used to determine the actual quantity of diet
consumed without the conflicting problem of moisture change. A computer analysis (e.g., Zoo Diet

12
Analysis or Zootrition ) can be used to calculate the nutrient content of the diet offered and
consumed. For nutritional advice, please consult your nutritionist or obtain a name of a professional
nutritionist from the AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.

Special Considerations

There are some issues affecting certain individuals or species of Callitrichids that deserve special
consideration.
Overweight. If nutrient concentrations in the total diet are adequate, the amounts of each food
item can be proportionately decreased (beginning with a 5% decrease) to reduce weight to normal.
Other options include decreasing the proportion of calorically dense food items and/or increasing the
proportion of lower calorie items. Body mass should be frequently monitored.
Seasonality. A common occurrence in the wild, animals in captivity occasionally undergo
seasonal fluctuations in food intake and body mass. If these are determined to be normal for the species
or an individual, adjustments in amounts of food offered can be made. Again, body mass should be
frequently monitored.
Periodontal disease. Animals which consume primarily soft foods (that do not abrade dental
tartar from teeth) have an increased susceptibility to periodontal disease. A nutritionally balanced diet
also is important in maintaining oral health. Crunchy or hard foods should be offered periodically to help
keep teeth clean.
Vitamin D. As previously discussed, it has been proposed that some Callitrichids may require
more vitamin D than other New World primates.5,72 The requirement for vitamin D for common
marmosets has been stated to be 110 IU/day/100 g body weight (approximately equivalent to 22,000
IU/kg dietary DM), although the study conducted by these researchers was not designed to define the
requirement.72 If animals are housed indoors without UVB-light exposure, they must rely entirely on
their diet to meet vitamin D needs; if outdoors, they can convert 7-dehydrocholesterol (a vitamin D
precursor) in the skin to pre-vitamin D3 upon exposure to sunlight. Research is underway with respect
to vitamin D deficiency and vitamin D requirements for primates housed indoors;44 2,500 IU vitamin
D3/kg dietary DM is currently recommended.51
Wasting disease. Dietary protein and energy concentrations are very important in preventing
protein/calorie malnutrition, which can lead to Marmoset Wasting Syndrome.7 Research has shown
that Callitrichids require about 150-160 kcal ME/BW kg/day. 49 The NRC 51 estimated that 2.5-2.8 g of
high-quality protein is required/BWkg/day for adult Callitrichids.
Species specific concerns. Cotton-top tamarins have been used as a model for studying
colitis and colon cancer. There may be a congenital or stress-related connection. There also have been
reports of high blood pressure and heart disease in pygmy marmosets. The relationship to diet is
unknown. Callimicos may be somewhat metabolically different from marmosets and tamarins and may
handle certain nutrients such as vitamin D differently.14 The animal manager should consult individual
SSP manuals for details on species specific differences.

13
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Appendix

Food categories

These food categories and food items are representative of those that are available commercially. For
additional information on food categories and exchanges of food items within a category, consult Zoo
Menu Meddler (Brookfield Zoo), adapted from information published by the American Dietetic
Association.3

Fruit Vegetables Starchy vegetables

apples carrots sweet potatoes
bananas green beans white potatoes
grapes cucumbers peas
oranges green peppers acorn squash
papayas zucchinis cooked rice
blueberries cauliflower cooked pasta
strawberries corn
pineapple cooked/canned navy beans
grapefruit
pears

19