✅ Section A – Very Short Answer

1. What is the main function of the Data Link Layer?

The data link layer provides node-to-node communication, ensuring reliable transfer of
data across a physical link.​
It handles framing, error detection, and flow control between adjacent network nodes.

2. What is framing in the data link layer?

Framing is the process of dividing a data stream into manageable units called frames.​
It helps in error checking and allows the receiver to identify the start and end of each
message.

3. Name two error detection techniques.

●​ Parity check​

●​ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)​

These techniques help detect errors in transmitted data by adding redundant bits.​

4. What is ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)?

ARQ is an error control method where the receiver sends an acknowledgment or requests
retransmission if an error is detected.​
Examples include Stop-and-Wait ARQ and Go-Back-N ARQ.

5. Define MAC Address.

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique hardware address assigned to a

network interface card (NIC).​
It helps in identifying devices at the data link layer in a LAN.
6. What is CSMA/CD?

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a protocol used to
detect and handle collisions in wired Ethernet networks.​
Stations listen before transmitting and wait if the channel is busy.

7. What is the function of Ethernet in networking?

Ethernet is a widely used LAN technology that defines wiring and signaling for the data link
layer.​
It uses protocols like CSMA/CD and provides high-speed communication.

8. What is a parity bit?

A parity bit is an extra bit added to a data byte to make the number of 1s either even (even
parity) or odd (odd parity).​
It is a simple error detection technique.

Perfect! Here's the expanded version of Section B (3–5 Marks) answers from Unit III –
Data Link and MAC Layer. Each answer is structured, easy to understand, and suitable for
exam writing (3–5 mark level).

✅ Section B – Short Answer (3–5 Marks)

1. Explain services provided by the Data Link Layer.

The Data Link Layer provides several key services to ensure reliable node-to-node
communication:

🔹 1. Framing:
●​ Divides the data stream into frames.​

●​ Helps the receiver recognize start and end of the message.​

🔹 2. Error Detection and Correction:

 ●​ Adds redundant bits to detect and sometimes correct errors.​

●​ Uses methods like CRC, parity check, etc.​

🔹 3. Flow Control:
●​ Ensures that the sender does not send faster than the receiver can process.​

🔹 4. Access Control (MAC):

●​ Determines which device gets to use the channel when multiple devices share a
link.​

✔️ These services are crucial in delivering error-free and orderly data frames across the
physical medium.

2. Explain error detection techniques used in Data Link Layer.

Error detection ensures that data is not corrupted during transmission.

✅ 1. Parity Check:
●​ Adds 1 extra parity bit.​

●​ Can be even parity or odd parity.​

●​ Detects single-bit errors only.​

✅ 2. Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC):

●​ Divides data into rows and adds parity for each column.​

✅ 3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

●​ Uses binary division with a generator polynomial.​

●​ Very effective in detecting burst errors.​

●​ Used in Ethernet and storage systems.​

✔️ These methods help in ensuring integrity of data before processing it further.

3. Describe Stop-and-Wait ARQ protocol.

✅ Stop-and-Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request):

A basic error control protocol where:

●​ Sender sends one frame and waits for an ACK.​

●​ If ACK is received: send next frame.​

●​ If timeout or NACK: retransmit the same frame.​

✅ Advantages:
●​ Simple and easy to implement.​

✅ Disadvantages:
●​ Inefficient for long-distance or high-speed links due to idle time during waiting.​

Example:​
If Frame 1 is sent and not acknowledged, it is resent until the correct ACK is received.

4. What is Go-Back-N ARQ?

Go-Back-N is an efficient protocol for reliable transmission using sliding window technique.

🔹 Working:
●​ Sender can send multiple frames (up to a window size N) without waiting.​

●​ If a frame is lost or corrupted, receiver discards that and all subsequent frames.​

●​ Sender retransmits from that frame onwards.​

🔹 Example:
If Frame 3 is lost, frames 4 and 5 are also discarded. Sender retransmits from frame 3.

🔹 Advantage:
 ●​ Better efficiency than Stop-and-Wait.​

🔹 Disadvantage:
●​ Wasted bandwidth during retransmission.​

5. What is a MAC address? How is it different from IP address?

✅ MAC Address (Media Access Control):

●​ Unique hardware address for a device on a LAN.​

●​ 48-bit, usually written as: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.​

●​ Assigned by device manufacturer.​

✅ IP Address:
●​ Logical address assigned by the network.​

●​ Changes as the device moves across networks.​

Feature MAC Address IP Address

Level Data Link Layer Network Layer

Uniqueness Globally unique Unique within a network

Example 00:0A:95:9D:68:16 192.168.1.1

Permanenc Fixed Changeable

e (hardware-based) (software-based)

✔️ Both addresses are important—MAC for local delivery, IP for global routing.
Great! Here is the detailed Section C (8–10 Marks) content for Unit III – Data Link and
MAC Layer. Each answer is expanded with diagrams, comparisons, and clear structure
for better understanding and scoring high in exams.
✅ Section C – Long Answer (8–10 Marks)
1. Explain error detection and correction techniques in the Data Link
Layer with diagrams.

Error detection and correction ensure reliable data communication by identifying and fixing
errors caused during transmission.

🔹 Error Detection Techniques:

✅ 1. Parity Check:
●​ Even Parity: Total 1s in data + parity bit is even.​

●​ Odd Parity: Total 1s is odd.​

●​ Detects single-bit errors only.​

Diagram:

Data: 1001001

Parity Bit: 1 (Even Parity)

Sent: 10010011

✅ 2. Checksum:
●​ Used in TCP/IP.​

●​ Sender adds all data in segments, sends sum as checksum.​

●​ Receiver repeats and compares.​

✅ 3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

 ●​ Uses polynomial division.​

●​ Remainder (CRC bits) is sent with data.​

●​ Receiver divides again; if remainder = 0 → No error.​

Diagram:

Data: 1101

Generator: 1011

CRC: Calculated using binary division

🔹 Error Correction Technique:

✅ Hamming Code:
●​ Adds redundant bits at specific positions.​

●​ Can locate and correct single-bit errors.​

●​ Based on parity checking of multiple bit groups.​

Example:

Data: 1011 → Hamming encoded as 0110011

Receiver checks parity and corrects the error.

✔️ Conclusion: These techniques enhance data integrity and are crucial in modern
communication systems.

2. Explain Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective Repeat ARQ with

comparison and diagrams.

These are error control protocols used in the data link layer to ensure reliable
transmission.
✅ 1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ:
●​ Sends one frame at a time.​

●​ Waits for ACK before sending next.​

●​ Simple but inefficient.​

Diagram:

Sender → Frame1 → Wait → ACK1 → Frame2 ...

✅ 2. Go-Back-N ARQ:
●​ Sender sends multiple frames (window size = N).​

●​ If error in a frame, it goes back and resends from there.​

Diagram:

Frame 1 ✓ Frame 2 ✓ Frame 3 ✗ → Resend Frame 3, 4, 5...

✅ 3. Selective Repeat ARQ:

●​ Also uses windowing.​

●​ Retransmits only the erroneous frame, not the whole window.​

●​ Requires more buffer and complexity.​

Diagram:

Frame 1 ✓ Frame 2 ✗ Frame 3 ✓ → Resend Frame 2 only.

📊 Comparison Table:
Feature Stop-and-Wait Go-Back-N Selective Repeat

Efficiency Low Moderate High

Buffer Required Minimal Sender only Sender &

Receiver

Retransmission One Frame From error frame Only lost frame

Complexity Low Medium High

3. What is MAC addressing? How does it work in Ethernet?

✅ MAC Address:
●​ A unique 48-bit address assigned to a NIC.​

●​ Format: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E​

●​ Written in hexadecimal.​

✅ Working in Ethernet:
1.​ Sender’s MAC address is included in the Ethernet frame.​

2.​ Frame is broadcasted on the LAN.​

3.​ Receiver compares its own MAC with the destination MAC.​

4.​ If matched, frame is accepted.​

✅ Importance:
●​ Provides physical layer identification.​

●​ Essential for LAN communication.​

Ethernet Frame Structure (Simplified):

| Dest MAC | Src MAC | Type | Data | CRC |

✔️ MAC addresses are fixed and local. They help devices communicate at the hardware
level before IP comes into play.

4. Explain Multiple Access Protocols with Collision Detection.

When multiple devices share a single communication medium, collision can occur. To avoid
and handle this, multiple access protocols are used.

✅ 1. ALOHA (Pure & Slotted):

●​ Pure ALOHA: Devices transmit freely. If collision → wait random time.​

●​ Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into slots → higher efficiency.​

✅ 2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

●​ Device senses the channel before sending.​

Types:

●​ CSMA/CD (Collision Detection):​

 ○​ Used in wired Ethernet.​

○​ If collision is detected → transmission stops → backoff.​

Diagram:​
​
Listen → Send → Collision? → Backoff → Retry

●​
●​ CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance):​

○​ Used in wireless (Wi-Fi).​

○​ Tries to avoid collisions using RTS/CTS mechanism.​

✔️ These protocols are essential for managing shared channels and reducing data loss due
to collisions.

5. Compare Twisted Pair, Coaxial, and Fiber Optic Cables.

Feature Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Structure 2 insulated copper wires Copper core + shielding Glass or plastic

fibers

Speed Low to Moderate (up to Moderate (10 Mbps–100 Very High (up to
1 Gbps) Mbps) Tbps)

Distance Up to 100 meters Up to a few kilometers Up to 100 km or

more

EMI Low Medium High (immune)

Resistance
 Cost Cheapest Moderate Expensive

Usage LANs, telephones Cable TV, broadband Backbone

networks, ISPs

✅ Conclusion:
●​ Twisted Pair is best for short-range, low-budget setups.​

●​ Coaxial is better for moderate-speed, shielded transmission.​

●​ Fiber Optics is ideal for high-speed, long-distance communication.​

Great! Let's talk about numericals from Unit II – Physical Layer of Computer Networks.
While most of Computer Networks is theoretical, some basic numericals are commonly
asked in exams, especially from:

✅ Topics Involving Numericals in Unit II:

1. Bandwidth and Data Rate Calculation

●​ Formula:​
Data Rate (bps)=2×Bandwidth×log⁡2L\text{Data Rate (bps)} = 2 \times
\text{Bandwidth} \times \log_2 L​
Where:​

○​ Bandwidth = in Hz​

○​ LL = number of signal levels​

●​ Example Question:​
​
​
If a noiseless channel has a bandwidth of 3 kHz and uses 8 levels, what is the
maximum data rate?​
​
​
 Solution:​
Data Rate=2×3000×log⁡2(8)=2×3000×3=18,000 bps\text{Data Rate} = 2 \times 3000
\times \log_2(8) = 2 \times 3000 \times 3 = 18,000 \text{ bps}

2. Nyquist Formula

●​ For a noiseless channel:​

Maximum Data Rate=2×B×log⁡2L\text{Maximum Data Rate} = 2 \times B \times
\log_2 L
●​ Where:​

○​ BB = Bandwidth in Hz​

○​ LL = Signal levels​

3. Shannon Capacity Formula (for noisy channels)

Channel Capacity=B×log⁡2(1+SN)\text{Channel Capacity} = B \times \log_2(1 + \frac{S}{N})

Where:

●​ BB = Bandwidth (Hz)​

●​ SN\frac{S}{N} = Signal-to-noise ratio​

●​ Example Question:​
​
​
A channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz and an SNR of 31. What is the maximum data
rate?​
​
​
Solution:​
log⁡2(1+31)=log⁡2(32)=5\log_2(1 + 31) = \log_2(32) = 5
Capacity=1,000,000×5=5,000,000 bps or 5 Mbps\text{Capacity} = 1,000,000 \times 5
= 5,000,000 \text{ bps or 5 Mbps}

4. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

●​ Questions related to number of slots, frame size, and transmission time.​

 ●​ Example:​
​
​
A TDM system combines 5 channels, each sending 200 bytes/sec. If each slot takes
1 ms, find frame duration.​
​
​
Solution:​
Frame = 5 slots → 5 ms/frame​

5. Propagation Time and Transmission Time

●​ Formulas:​
Propagation Time=DistancePropagation Speed\text{Propagation Time} =
\frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Propagation Speed}} Transmission Time=Message Size
(bits)Bandwidth (bps)\text{Transmission Time} = \frac{\text{Message Size
(bits)}}{\text{Bandwidth (bps)}}

✅ Summary of Formulas
Concept Formula

Nyquist Bit Rate 2×B×log⁡2L2 \times B \times \log_2 L

Shannon Capacity B×log⁡2(1+S/N)B \times \log_2(1 + S/N)

Propagation Time Distance/Speed\text{Distance} / \text{Speed}

Transmission Time Size/Data Rate\text{Size} / \text{Data Rate}