Module 2: Chapter 1

Unit 1: Chapter 1 - Sections 1 to 2

Learning Outcomes
After completing Module 2, the student should be able to:
ˆ Distinguish between permutations and combinations.
ˆ Find the binomial coecients.

1. Study Structure
1.1 Introduction - Section 1

Read through the introduction. The main concept is that statistics can handle many situations
in the world of uncertainties. In other words, statistics provides the models that are needed to
study situations involving uncertainties.

1.2 Combinatorial Methods - Section 2

Read through this section. In many problems, it is necessary to nd all the possible outcomes
of an experiment. It enables us to nd probabilities. A handy tool to use to provide a systematic
approach is the tree diagram. If you read through Theorem 2, you can answer the following
questions:
ˆ There are three balls in a container. Each of the balls is marked by one of the following
letters: A, B and C. In how many ways can the three balls be arranged? (List all these
possible arrangements). For the rst letter, there are three choices (A, B or C), for the
second letter, there are only two choices, and for the last letter, there is only one choice.

3 × 2 × 1 = 6
↑ ↑ ↑
rst second third
letter letter letter
The outcomes are ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA.
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 ˆ In how many ways can you win the National Lottery? (Pick six numbers between 1 and 49

inclusive).

To draw the rst ball, there are 49 balls available; for the second ball, there are 48 balls

available. For all six places, there are:

49 × 48 × 47 × 46 × 45 × 44 = 10068347520 ways to win the jackpot.

In short, if you are interested in situations where the outcomes are the dierent ways in

which a group of objects can be ordered or arranged, these dierent arrangements are called

permutations. In the Lotto example, all 49 dierent balls can be arranged in 49 × 48 × 47 ×

... × 3 × 2 × 1 dierent ways. To simplify this outcome, we represent this product by using

the factorial notation, 49!

 
n! 49!
or 49 P49 = = = 49! .
(n − r)! 0!

To select only six of these numbers, we use the permutation formula in Theorem 4, and that

is:

49! 49 × 48 × 47 × 46 × 45 × 44 × 43!
49 P6 = = = 10068347520 .
(49 − 6)! 43!

In how many ways can you arrange two of the three balls marked A, B and C? (Also list the

outcomes).

a) If the ball can be used more than once, AA, AB, AC, BA, BB, BC, CA, CB, CC, there

are nine outcomes, 3 2 = 9.

b) If each ball can only be used once, AB, AC, BA, BC, CA, CB, that is,
3!
3 P2 = = 6, also 3×2 = 6 .
(3 − 2)!
c) If the three letters represent the names of three people of whom two are to be selected

onto a committee, how many possible ways are available to select this committee of

two?
 
3 n! 3!
AB=BA, AC=CA, BC=CB, that is, = = = 3 .
2 r! (n − r!) 2! (3 − 2)!
AB and BA are one and the same group of two people, likewise for AC and CA and

BC and CB.

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When you want to know the number of combinations of six balls selected or drawn from a set
of 49 distinct balls, we are simply asking for the total number of subsets of six balls that can be
selected from the set of 49 distinct balls. In general, there are 6! permutations of the balls in the
subset of six balls, so that the P permutations of six balls drawn from the set of 49 distinct balls
49 6

contain each subset 6! times. You basically divide P by 6! to get the number of combinations
49 6

of 49 distinct balls taken six at a time.

 
49 n! 49!
= = = 13983816
6 r! (n − r!) 6! (49 − 6)!

If you are interested in knowing the number of permutations of Lotto games over n weeks, of
which n is the number of times that the ball numbered 1 appears, n is the number of times that
1 2

the ball numbered 2 appears, and n is the number of times that the ball numbered 49 appears,
49

and n +n +n +...+n =n, the number of permutations is:

1 2 3 49

n!
n1 ! × n2 ! × n3 ! × ... × n49 !

Activity
Do the following textbook exercises:

26.
27.
30.
34.
36.
43.
47.

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Unit 2: Chapter 1 - Section 3
1. Study Structure
1.1 Binomial Coecients - Section 3

Read through the section. In an expansion of (x + y)4 four times with itself,

(x + y) (x + y) (x + y) (x + y) = (xxxx) + (xxxy) + (xxyx) + (xyxx) +

(yxxx) + (yyxx) + (yxyx) + (yxxy) +

(xxyy) + (xyxy) + (xyyx) + (yyyx) +

(yyxy) + (yxyy) + (xyyy) + (yyyy)

= (xxxx) + 4 (xxxy) + 6 (yyxx) + 4 (yyyx) + (yyyy)

= x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4

         
4 4 0 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 4 0 4
= xy + x y+ xy + xy + xy
0 1 2 3 4

These combinations are called the binomial coecients. In general, when n is a positive
integer
n  

n n
(x + y) = xn−r y r
r=0
r

The binomial coecients can often be simplied by Theorems 10, 11 and 12. The binomial
coecients can also be found by using the Pascal's triangle, as stated on page 13.

If n is not a positive inter or zero , the expansion of:

n n n−1 1 n (n − 1) xn−2 y 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) xn−3 y 3
(x + y) = x + nx y + + + ...
2! 3!

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Example
Write down the rst four terms of the binomial expansion of:
  12   1  1   1  1  1  
1 1 1 1 1
− 1 (1) 2 −2 14 2 1
−1 − 2 (1) 2 −3 14 3
+ (1) 2 −1
1/2 2 2 2 2 2
1+ = 1 + +
4 2 4 2! 3!

1 1 1
= 1+ − + +
8 128 1024

Activity
1. Construct the Pascal's triangle and write the binomial expansion of:
1.1 (x + y)6

1.2 (1 + y)7

2. Construct the |Pascal's triangle and write the binomial expansion of:
2.1 (1 − x)5

2.2 (1 − 4x) 2
3

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Self-Test

1. Do the following textbook exercises:

28.

31.

33.

38.

39.

40.

46.

2. Construct the Pascal's triangle and write the binomial expansions of (3 + 2y)5 .
1
3. Write down the rst ve terms of the binomial expansion of (1 − x) 2 .

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Answers to Activities and Self-Tests
Module 2
Unit 1 - Activity
26. a)

26. b)

38
27.

a) 5 Count the number of times you get $2 after four ips of the coin.
b) 4 Count the number of times the person will get $4 after four ips of the coin.

30. a) 6 × 5 = 30

b) 6 × 6 = 36

34. For each question, the student has three choices in answering the question.
There are 15 questions. The number of ways is 315 = 14348907.

36. a) 10 P4 = (10) (9) (8) (7) = 5040

 
10 10! 10 (9) (8) (7) (6!) 5040
b) = = = = 210
4 4! (6!) 4 (3) (2) (1) (6!) 24

43. There are 10 letters in the word. There are three times a t, three times a s, two times
an i, one a and one c. The number of permutations is then:

10!
= 50400
3! (3!) (2!)

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 The rst and last letters are s and s. From the other eight letters, there are three t's,
two i's, one s, one c and one a. The number of permutations is then:
8!
= 3360
3! (2!)
 
7 7!
47. a) 2
=
2! (7 − 2)!
= 21

 
4 4!
b) 2
=
2! (4 − 2)!
=6

  
3 4
c) 1 1
= 12

Unit 2 - Activity

1.
1 n=0

1 1 n=1

1 2 1 n=2

1 3 3 1 n=3

1 4 6 4 1 n=4

1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

1 6 15 20 15 6 1 n=6

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 n=7

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 n=8

40
1.1 (x + y)6 = x6 y 0 + 6x5 y 1 + 15x4 y 2 + 20x3 y 3 + 15x2 y 4 + 6x1 y 5 + x0 y 6

= x6 + 6x5 y + 15x4 y 2 + 20x3 y 3 + 15x2 y 4 + 6xy 5 + y 6

1.2 (1 + y)7 = 17 y 0 + 7 (1)6 (y) + 21 (1)5 y 2 + 35 (1)4 y 3 + 35 (1)3 y 4 + 21 (1)2 y 5 + 7 (1) y 6 + 10 y 7

= 1 + 7y + 21y 2 + 35y 3 + 35y 4 + 21y 5 + 7y 6 + y 7

2.1 (1 − x)5 = 1 (−x)0 + 5 (−x)1 + 10 (−x)2 + 10 (−x)3 + 5 (−x)4 + (−x)5

= 1 − 5x + 10x2 − 10x3 + 5x4 − x5

1  1   1  −3/2
(1)− /2 (−4x) 2
3 1 3
3 3 − 2 (1) (−4x) 3
+ (1) /2 (−4x) +
3/2 1 2 2 2 2
2.2 (1 − 4x) 2 = 1 + + ...
2 2! 3!

= 1 − 6x + 6x2 + 4x3 ...

Self-Test 1

1. 28.

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31. a) 6 You can have a (1, 1, 1) , (2, 2, 2) , ..., (6, 6, 6)

b) 6.5 = 30 There are six ways to get the same on the rst two dice,
(1, 1) , (2, 2) , ..., (66) and there are ve ways of getting
the third die to dier.

c) 5.4 = 20 The rst die is xed.

For the second die, there are ve outcomes and for the third die,
there are four outcomes.

OR

6 P3
= 20
3!

d) 6 + 30 + 20 = 56

33. a) 5 P2 = 20

b) 5 P3 = 60

38. 6! = 720

n! 6!
39. = = 90
n1 !n2 !n3 ! 2!2!2!

40. 5! = 120

5! − 2 (4!) = 72
 
20 20!
46. a) = = 77520
7 7! (13)!
 
20 20!
b) = = 184756
10 10! (10)!
       
20 20 20 20
c) + + + = 1351
17 18 19 20

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2.
1 n=0

1 1 n=1

1 2 1 n=2

1 3 3 1 n=3

1 4 6 4 1 n=4

1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

 5
(3 + 2y)5 = 3 (2y)0 + 5 (3)4 (2y)1 + 10 (3)3 (2y)2 + 10 (3)2 (2y)3 + 5 (3)1 (2y)4 + (3)0 (2y)5

= 243 + 810y + 1080y 2 + 720y 3 + 240y 4 + 32y 5

 1   1  −3/2 2
 1   1   3  −5/2
1 1 − (1) (−x) − 2 − 2 (1) (−x) 3
+ (1) /2 (−x) +
1/2 −1 2 2
3. (1 − x) 2 = 1 + 2 +
2 2! 3!
1    
− 52 (1)− /2 (−x) 4
7
2
− 12 − 32
+ ...
4!

1 1 1 5 4
= 1 − x − x2 − x3 − x ...
2 8 16 128

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