ACHIEVER’S EDUCATION CONSULTANT

08141710097
SUMMARY OF MTH212 WITH PAST QUESTIONS

You have already learnt about a vector space and several concepts related to it. In this unit we
initiate the study of certain mappings between two vector spaces, called linear
transformations. The importance of these mappings can be realized from the fact that, in the
calculus of several variables, every continuously differentiable function can be replaced, to a first
approximation, by a linear one. This fact is a reflection of a general principle that every problem
on the change of some quantity under the action of several factors can be regarded, to a first
approximation, as a linear problem.

This requires a study of In this unit we study linear transformations and their properties, as well
as two spaces associated with a linear transformations and their properties, as well as two spaces
associated with a linear transformation, and their dimensions. Then, we prove the existence of
linear transformations with some specific properties, as discuss the notion of an isomorphism
between two vector spaces, which allows us to say that all finitedimensional vector spaces of the
same dimension are the “Same”, in a certain sense. So we have a function f between two vector
spaces such that and above hold true. Says that the sum of two plane vectors is mapped under f to
the sum to sum of their images under f.

Says that a line in the plane R2 is mapped under f to a line in R2. We will show that LT3 LT1
and LT3  LT2. Now, to show that LT2 is true, consider T for any  F and u  U. We have T =
T = T + 0. Let’s see why this is true.

This is called the projection on the first coordinate.

Pr1

Similarly, the functions f and g, from R3 R2, defined by f = and g = are projections from R3
onto the xz-plane and the yz-plane, respectively.

T[ +  = T =

So, far we’ve given examples of linear transformations. Now we give an example of a very
important function which is not linear.

C`

In Unit 3 we introduced you to the concept of a quotient space. We now define a very useful
linear transformation, using this concept.
1, by LT6

Let us see how the idea of Theorem 1 helps us to prove the following useful result. Once you
have read Sec.

Then there exists one and only one linear transformation T:U  V such that T =

We want to know what T is, for any x =  R3, Now, X = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3.

Hence, T = x1 T + x2 T + x3 T x1 + x2 + x3
Let us now look at some vector spaces that are related to a linear operator. In Unit 1 you found
that given any function, there is a set associated with it, namely, its range. We will define the
range of T as well as the Kernel of T. At first, you will see them as sets.

[...]
In this example, we se that finding R and Ker T amounts to solving a system of equations. In
Unit 9, you will learn a systematic way of solving a system of linear equations by the use of
matrices and determinants. The following exercises will help you in getting used to R Let T be
the zero transformation given in Example 2. Find Ker T and R. Does I  R Find R and Ker T for
each of the following operators.

So, 1y1 + 2y2 = 1T + 2T

We will study these dimensions now.

Then, T = 0

= an = 0, which we wanted to prove. Therefore, dim R = n – m = n – nullity , that is, rank T +

nullity = n. let us see how this theorem can be useful.
We would now like to discuss some linear operators that have special properties.

Let us recall, from Unit 1, that there can be different types of functions, some of which are one-
one, onto or invertible.

Now, implies that T = 0

Consider the following counter-example.

An immediate
of V. Each v € V can be uniquely expressed as v =  1 e1. There is a basic theorem which uses
the properties of homomorphisms to show the isomorphism of certain quotient spaces . It is
simple to prove. But is very important because it is always being used to prove more advanced
theorems on vector spaces.

Now, v + Ker T = v` + Ker T  Ker T

 T = 0  T = T. and hence,  is well defined.

=T

We end the proof by showing that  is an isomorphism. So have prove that  is an isomorphism.

Solution: We have V

ST is the composition of the operators S and T. which you have studied in Unit 1, and will also
study in Unit 6. Now we will show that T is surjective.

=1T+2T

Now a+ b + B = a + B + b + B = a + B + B, since b  B. a + B, since B is the zero element of

T , proving that T is surjective.

What are the spaces Ker T and R T = T + T T =  T T =

This is denoted by U  V...

1 T + 1 T, by LT2

This can be proved the same way as we did in Example 4.

R = {z   R3} = R

R is generated by {}.

Pn-1 is D bn-1 b0 x + ---- x2 + …+

We have show that R = R2. R is generated by {}. The only values rank can take are 0 and 1. If
rank = 1, then dim R = 1, That is, R is a vector space over R generated by a single
element, v, say.

Thirdly, T is onto because any  R3 can be written as T

 nullity = nullity + dim R In the case of the direct sum A  B, we have A  B = {0}.

LINEAR TRANSFORMATION – II
We will now show that the set of all linear transformations form a vector space U to a vector
space V forms a vector space itself, and its dimension is dim U . In Unit 1 we defined the
composition of two functions. Over here we will discuss the composition of two linear
transformations and show that it is again a linear operator. These ideas will crop up again in Unit
11.

You must revise Units 1 and 5 before going further.

Prove and use the fact that L is a vector space of dimension

By now you must be quite familiar with linear operators, as well as vector spaces.

S + T a1 S + a2 S + a1 T + a2 T a1S + T + a2 S + T a1 + a2

Show that the set L is a vector space over F with respect to the operations of addition and
multiplication by scalars defined above. We have already observed that L is a vector space over
F. therefore, it must have a dimension.

Implies that

The vector space L, discussed in sec. You have already seen this in Unit 5 .

1, i = j

We must show that C1 = 0, for all i.

These equations can be solved to get

If you like, you may skip this portion and go straight to sec. We have already seen that V and V*
are isomorphic because dim V = dim V*. The dual of V* is called the second dual of V and is
denoted by V**. We will show that V V**.

c1 f1 + c2 f2 c1 + c2
This is true V f  V*. Now that we have shown that 0 is linear, we want to show that it is
actually an isomorphism. We will show that 0 is 1 -1. What we have just proved is the following
theorem.

Using the second dual try to prove the following exercise.

SoT

The affirmative answer is given by the following result.

[...]

Try the following exercises now A Prove that So0 = 0oS = 0 for all S  A . SoS-1 = S-1 0S =
Iv, where I, denotes the identity transformation on V. this remark leads us to the following
interesting result.

Is S invertible?

Now, let us look at some examples involving the composite of linear operators.
So far we have discussed the composition of linear transformation. We have seen that if S, T 
A , then SoT  A , where V is a vector space of dimension n. Thus, we have introduced another
binary operation in A , namely, the composition of operators, denoted by o.

Remember, we already have the binary operations given in Sec.

For any v E V,  =  ST

Similarly, we can show that  = SoT. By now you must have got used to handling the elements
of A. the next section deals with polynomials that are related to these elements. If an = 1, then p
is called a monic polynomial of degree n. The set of all polynomials in x with coefficients in F is
denoted by F [x].

= 0 and h = 0, where I and 0 are the identity and zero transformations in A

+ am xm, am 0, then p = am -1 h is a monic polynomial such that p = 0, Also deg p = deg h 
deg g V g  S. Thus, we have shown that there exists a monic polynomial p, of least
degree, such that p = 0.

Now suppose p = a0 + a1 x +… + an-1 xn-1 + xn and q = b0 + b1 x + …+ bn-1 xn-1 +

This is a contradiction to the way we chose p, unless p – q = 0, that is, p = q. P is the unique
polynomial satisfying the conditions of Theorem 8. Consider the following example and
exercises.

We will now state and prove a criterion by which we can obtain the minimal polynomial of
linear operator T, once we know any polynomial f  F with f =

It says that the minimal polynomial must be a factor of any such f. Now we only need to check if
T-I, T + I or T – 3I are 0. We will study a systematic method of finding the minimal polynomial
of T, and some applications of this polynomial. But now we will only illustrate one application
of the concept of the minimal polynomial by proving the following theorem.

Therefore, if T-1 exists the constant term in the minimal polynomial of T cannot be

We will now end the unit by summarizing what we have covered in it.

0 otherwise

Both spaces have dimension 2 over R. A. basis for L is {E11, E12}, where E11 = 1, E11 =
0, E12 = 0, E12, = 1.

TS = T = x – y, - = S =

Similarly, you can show that N is a subspace of A . We have proved that M = L .

Then =

this ca be checked on the lines of the solution of E20. The equations can’t be solved, and q does
not exist. The minimal polynomial of D can be D, D2, D3 or D4.
Check that T2-I = 0

P can be x – 1, x + 1 or x2 – 1.

MATRICES I

Matrices were introduced by the English Mathematician, Arthur Cayley, in 1858. He came upon
this notion in connection with linear substitutions. Matrix theory now occupies an important
position in pure as well as applied mathematics.
Matrices are intimately connected with linear transformations.

In this unit we will bring out this link. We will first define matrices and derive algebraic
operations on matrices from the corresponding operations on linear transformations. One type, a
triangular matrix, will be used often in Unit 6. This unit may take you a little longer to
study, than previous ones, but don’t let that worry you.

Consider the following system of three simultaneous equations in four unknowns: x – 2y +

42 + t = 0 x + 1/2y + 11t = 0

A matrix is usually enclosed within square brackets [ ] or round brackets The numbers appearing
in the various positions of a matrix are called the entries of the matrix. These are called the rows
of this matrix. The four vertical rows of entries in the matrix, having 3 elements each, are called
its columns. We describe this by saying that this is a matrix of size 3 x 4 , or that this is a 3 x 4
matrix.

The rows are counted from top to bottom and the columns are counted from left to
right. Thus, the first row is , the second row is , and so on. The element at the intersection of the
ith row and the jth column is called the th elements. If m = n, then the matrix is called a square
matrix.

The set of all n x n matrices over F is denoted by Mn . In an m x n matrix each row is a 1 x n

matrix and is also called a row vector. Similarly, each column is an m x 1 matrix and is also
called a column vector. Let us look at a situation in which a matrix can arise.

Female

Another way could be the 3 x 2 matrix.

Female

How did you solve E 2? Did the th entry of one differ from the th entry of the other for some I
and j? if not, then they were equal. For example, the two 1 x 1 matrices [2] and [2] are equal.
Definition: Two matrices are said to be equal if

The following example will clarify what we mean by equal matrices.

Now that you are familiar with the concept of a matrix, we will link it up with linear

You will see how easy it is to go from matrices to linear transformations, and back. Mn is called
the matrix of T with respect to the bases B1 and B2. If T  L , B is a basis of V and we take B1
= B2 = B, then [T]B, matrix of T with respect to the basis B, and can also be written as
[T]B. Similarly, if we change the positions of the f1’s in B2, the rows of [T]B1, B2 will get
interchanged.

We will now give an example, followed by some exercises.

You know that any element of R3 is Therefore, T =

In Unit 5 you studied about the sum and scalar multiples of linear transformations.

Example 5: What is the sum of 0

This will ultimately lead us to prove that the set of all m x n matrices over F is a vector space
over F. Do keep the properties VS1 – VS10 in mind. This is called the zero matrix.
A +B = B+A

This is true because aij + bij + aijV i. A =  Write out the formal profs of the properties – given
above.

These eight properties imply that Mmxn is a vector space over F

Now that we have shown that Mmxn is a vector space over F, we know it must have a
dimension.

Dimension of M mxn over F

What is the dimension of Mmxn over F? to answer this question we prove the following
theorem. But, before you go further, check whether you remember the definition of a vector
space isomorphism . We proceed to show that the map is also 1-1 and onto.

T =vj

We could as well have tried to obtain mn linearly independent m x n matrices and show that they
generate Mmxn . But that would be quite tedious . Also, we have done so much work on L At
most, how many matrices can there be in any linearly independent subject of M2x3 Let Eij be an
m x n matrix whose th element is 1 and the other elements are 0. Now we move on to the next
section, where we see some ways of getting new matrices from given ones.
B

We now given another ways of getting a new matrix from a given matrix over the complex field.

A = ά Ā, for a  C and A  Mmxn

We combine what we have learnt in the previous two sub-section now.

Example 9: Find Ā where A

E22 leads us to the following definitions.

For example, the matrix Matrix

In this section we will define a diagonal matrix and a triangular matrix. ,fn} be based of U and
V, respectively. Such a matrix is called a diagonal matrix. ,n, we get the identity matrix, In Show
that I, is the matrix associated to the identity operator from Rn to Rn.

Such a matrix is called a Scalar matrix.

S=

A square matrix A such that a ij = 0 V i > j is called an Upper Triangular Matrix.

For example 0 while

Let us now se how to define the product of two or more matrices. We have already discussed
scalar multiplication. Now we see how to multiply two matrices.

To answer this we suppose

We define the matrix [cik] to be the product AB.

Example 10: Let A

Find AB, if it is defined. In fact, even if AB and BA are both defined it is possible that AB  BA.

Thus, SoT

We will now state 5 properties concerning matrix multiplication. 7.4.1, we defined the identity
matrix In.

For A =

Find Let A, B be two diagonal n x n matrices over F. Show that AB is also a Now we shall go on
to introduce you to the concept of an invertible matrix. Finally, we will show you that such
matrix must be invertible. Just as we defined the operations on matrices by considering them on
linear operators first, we give a definition of invertibility for matrices based on considerations of
invertibility of linear operators. It may help you to recall what we mean by an invertible linear
transformation.

In particular, T  L is said to be invertible if  S  L such that ST = TS

We have the following theorem involving the matrix of an invertible linear operator.

Definition: A matrix  Mn is said to be invertible if  B  Mn such that AB =

Remember, only a square matrix can be invertible.

AB = I  0

We now show that if an inverse of a matrix exists, it must be unique.

If A is invertible, then

Now let us go on with proving.

Now, the equivalence of and follows because A is invertible  At is invertible

So we have shown that  . Thus, the theorem is proved. From the following example you can
see how Theorem 7 can be useful.

Example 15

This association will be made use of very often in the next block. Let V be an n-dimensional
vector space over F. Let B = {e1, e2, . ., n The n x n matrix A = [a ij] is called the matrix of the
change of basis from B to B’ It is denoted by MBB.

MB’B =

Let us se an example of how to obtain MB’B. Let B’ be the basis obtained by rotating B through
a angle  in the anti-clockwise direction .

= I = MB’B

7.2 we remarked that the matrix of a linear transformation depends upon the pair of bases
chosen. The relation between the matrices of a transformation with respect to two pairs of bases
can be described as follows. Let us now recapitulate all that we have covered in this unit. We
briefly sum up what has been done in this unit.

We defined matrices and explained the method of associating matrices with

We showed what we mean by sums of matrices and multiplication of matrices by scalars. We

defined the transpose of a matrix, the conjugate of a complex matrix, the conjugate transpose of a
complex matrix, a diagonal matrix, identity matrix, scalar matrix and lower and upper triangular
matrices. We defined the multiplication of matrices and showed its connection with the
composition of linear transformations. Some properties of the matrix product were also listed and
used.

The concept of an invertible matrix was explained. We defined the matrix of a change of
basis, and discussed the effect of change of bases on the matrix of a linear transformation.

[...]

Since [1 2] is of size 1 x 2 and 1 is of size 2 x 1, The sum of these matrices is not defined.

[...]

S We will prove and here. You can prove and in a similar way .

[...]
Applications of Row-reduction In Unit 3 we introduced you to a matrix and showed you how a
system of linear equations can give us a matrix. An important reason for which linear algebra
arose is the theory of simultaneous linear equations. A system of simultaneous linear equations
can be translated into a matrix equation, and solved by using matrices. Finally, we apply this
knowledge to determine the nature of solutions of a system of linear equations.

With this unit we finish Block 2. In the next block we will discuss concepts that are intimately
related to matrices.

MAIN COURSE

Rank Of A Matrix Consider any mxn matrix A, over a field F. We can associate two vector
spaces with it, in a very natural way.

Thus, R1

Rm of A, is called the row space of A, and is denoted by RS .

1 pr,0find

In general, for m x n matrix A, RS is generated by m vectors. Just as we have defined the row
space of A, we can define the column space of A. each column of A is an m-tuple, and hence
belongs to Fm. Cn} is called the column space of A and is denoted by CS . The dimension of CS
is called the column rank of A, and is denoted of pc .

Again, since CS is generated by n vectors and is a subspace of Fm, we get 0  pc  min .

Obtain the column rank and row rank of A =

We will now use Lemma 1 for proving the following theorem.

bm1…… bmr er

You will see that theorem 1 is very helpful if we want to prove any fact about p.

If A,B are two matrices such that AB is defined then show that p 

We now see if the rank of a linear transformation is related to the rank of its matrix. It says that
pre-multiplying or postmultiplying a matrix by invertible matrices does not alter its rank.

Hence, PAQ =

Consider the following example, which is the converse of E5.

A = p-1 What is the normal form of diag ?

Let us now look at some ways of transforming a matrix by playing around with its rows. The
idea is to get more and more entries of the matrix to be zero. This will help us in solving systems
of linear equations.
How can you express this system of equations in matrix form?

For this purpose, we will always be multiplying A on the left or the right by a suitable matrix. In
effect, we will be applying elementary row or column operations on a.

Also R2 = 0x3 1x3 2x3 = 0 3 and R12 R21 R32 o R21 R13 ?

Multiplying C1 by a  F, a ≠ 0, denoted by Ci,. Adding a C1 to C1 , where a  F, denoted by

Cij .

Then C21 = 2 24 and C12 = 42 4

We will now prove a theorem which we will use in sec. 8.3.2 for obtaining the of a matrix
easily. This means that the row rank and the column rank remain unchanged. Now, let us show
that the row space remains unaltered.

aR m m ai

Elementary operations lead to the following definition.

[...]

What you have just seen are example of a general phenomenon. We will not state this general
result formally.

Is

The dotted line in it s to indicate the step-like structure of the non-zero rows. Well the following
theorem gives us one good reason.

This equation gives us the following equations

Not only is it easy to obtain the rank of an echelon matrix, one can also solve linear equations of
the type AX =B more easily if A is in echelon form.

Now here is some good news!

Every matrix can be transformed to the row echelon form by a series of elementary row
operations. We say that the matrix is reduced to the echelon form.
A1 =

Now we subtract multiples of the first row from other rows so that the th, th th and th entries
become zero. We now subtract suitable multiples if the 2nd row from the 3rd, 4th and 5th rows
so that the th 4,4th th entries all become zero.

Now we have zero below the entries of the 2nd row, except for the

Thus, we have proved the theorem.

Solution

2 which is the desired row-reduced echelon form. By now must have got used to obtaining row
echelon forms. Let us discuss some ways of applying this reduction. Applications Of Row-
Reduction In this section we shall see how to utilize row-reduction for obtaining the inverse of a
matrix, and for solving a system of leaner equations.

A-1applying R3

If B = 0, the system is called homogenous. In this situation we are in a position to say how many
linearly independent solutions the system of equations has.

How many solutions does it have which are linearly independent over R?

We have to find r. Interchanging equations, multiplying an equation by a non-zero scalar, and

adding to any equation a scalar times some other equation does not alter the set of solutions of
the system of equations.

Then a solution of AX = B is X = an

Gauss was called the “prince of mathematicians” by his contemporaries. He did a great amount
of work in pure mathematics as well as probability theory of errors, geodesy, mechanics, electro-
magnetism and optics.

R1 1 2 3 1

These are again equivalent to x = 1 – 2y and z = 0. The given system is equivalent to AX =

0. Then the given system is equivalent to x +y x = z – t y – z + t = 0 y = z –t which is the solution
in terms of z and t.

[...]

{, Use the Gaussian method to obtain solution sets of the following system equations.

We proved that the rank of a linear transformation is equal to the rank of its

We defined the six elementary row and column operations. We have shown you how to reduce a
matrix to the row-reduced echelon form. We have used the echelon form to obtain the inverse of
a matrix. We proved that the number of linearly independent solutions of a homogenous system
of equations given by the matrix equation AX = 0 is n-r, where r = rank of A n = number of
columns of A...

We proved that the system of linear equations given by the matrix equation AX

We have shown you how to solve a system of linear equations by the process of successive
elimination of variables, that is, the Gaussian method. The column space of A is the subspace of
R2 generated by , ,. The row space of A is the subspace of R3 generated by and .

= C2

A applying R3, R23 and R13 The given system is equivalent to Now, the rank of 2 4 1 is 2.

[...]

any non-zero solution will be a linearly independent solution. Times Equation added to
Equation gives -5x – 10y = 0. Note that you can get several answers to this exercise.  The
augmented matrix is [AB].

Its row-reduced echelon form is

We can solve this system to get the unique solution x1 = -7, x2 = -100 x3 = 5.
Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors

This section consist of three units in which we first introduce you to the theory of
determinants, and give its applications in solving systems of linear equations. The theory of
determinants was originated by Leibniz in 1693 while studying systems of simultaneous linear
equations. In fact, there is a particular kind of determinant that is named Jacobian, after
him. Bezout used determinants extensively for solving systems of linear equations.

In Unit 5 we have given a self-contained treatment of determinants, including the standard

properties of determinants. We have also given formula for obtaining the inverse of a matrix, and
have explained Cramer’s Rule. We end this unit by discussing the determinant rank. Their use
first appeared in the study of quadratic forms.

The concepts that you will study in this unit were developed by Arthur Cayley and others during
the 1840s. What you will discover in the unit is the algebraic eigenvalue problem and methods of
finding eigenvalues and linearly independent eigenvectors. These books will be available at your
study centre.

[...]

Systems of Linear Equations In Unit 4 we discussed the successive elimination method for
solving a system of linear equations. Determinants were used by the German mathematician
Leibniz and the Swiss mathematician Vandermonde gave the first systematic presentation of the
theory of determinants. There are several ways of developing the theory of determinants. In
section 5.3 you will study the properties of determinants and certain other basic facts about them.

We go on to give applications in solving a system of linear equations and obtaining the inverse
of a matrix. We end with discussing a method of obtaining the rank of a matrix. The concept of a
determinant must be understood properly because you will be using it again and again.

After completing this unit, you should be able to

Evaluate the rank of a matrix by using the concept of the determinant rank.

Defining Determinants

There are many ways of introducing and defining the determinant function from Mn to F. In this
section we give one of them, the classical approach. This was given by the French mathematician
Laplace , and still very much in use.

Solution: we want to obtain

Now, let us see how this definition is extended to define det for any n x n matrix A, n ≠ 1.

an1 an2
Maximum The following example will help you to get used to calculating determinants. So we
don’t need to calculate A32. We will obtain |A31|, |A33|, and |A34| by expanding along the
second, third and second row, respectively.

At this point we mention that there are two other methods of obtaining determinants –

We will not be doing these methods here. Fr purposes of actual calculation of determinants the
method that we have given is normally used. The other methods are used to prove various
properties of determinants. So far we have looked at determinant algebraically only.

Determinant as area and volume: Let u =

In fact, what we have just said is true for any n > 0.
2 1 2 and 1 0 1

Now we give some examples of determinants that you may come arose often.

[...]

The answer of E4 is part of a general phenomenon, namely, the determinant of an upper or lower
triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal elements.

INVERSE PF A MATRIX

In unit 7 you studied matrix multiplication, let us see what happens to the determinant of a
product of matrices. The given matrix is equal to a b c 2 c a b . Therefore, We get the required
determinant to be.

= 2, because a b c c a b =a

Following show that det ≠ det + det What we have just said is that det.

Another corollary to Theorem 1 is

At each stage you have seen the very close relationship between linear transformations and
matrices. This definition is independent of the basis of V that is chosen because, if we choose
another basis B′ of V we obtain the matrix A′ = [T] B′,, which is similar to A . We have the
following example and exercises.

What is det?

Let us now see what the adjoint of a square matrix is, and how it will help us in obtaining the
inverse of an invertible matrix. In section 9.2 we used the notation Aij for the matrix obtained
from a square matrix A by deleting its ith row and jth column.

Example 9: Obtain the cofactors C12 and C23 of the matrix A = 0 2 -1

We will not be proving this theorem here.

[...]

In Unit 7 you came across one method of finding out id a matrix is invertible. The following
theorem uses the adjoint to give another way of finding out if a matrix A is invertible.

0 det A Adj = 0

We will use the result in the following example.

0 cos

In Section 8.4 we discussed the Gaussian elimination method for obtaining a solution of this
system. In this section we give a rule due to the mathematician Cramer, for solving a system of
linear equations when the number of equations equals the number of variables.

Di = det

= determinant of the matrix obtained from A by replacing the ith column by B, and D = det .

Theorem 5: The homogeneous system AX = 0 has a non-trivial solution if and only if det =
0

, this mapping is not one-one Therefore, Ker A ≠ 0, that is AX = 0 for some non-zero XVn
Does the sytem x–y.

+ 2z = 0 have a non-zero solution?

In this section we will discuss the determinant rank and show that it is the rank of the concerned
matrix. First we give a necessary and sufficient condition for n vectors in Vn to be linearly
dependent.

A submatrix of is a matrix that can be obtained from A by deleting some rows and
Now, consider the matrix A = 0 4 5

In general, we have the following definition.

Example 13: Obtain the determinant rank of A =

0 2 1 , And now we come to the reason for introducing the determinant rank – it gives us another
method for obtaining the rank of a matrix. It follows by the definition of linear
independence, that these column vectors, when extended to the column vectors of A, remain
linearly independent. Retaining these linearly independent columns of B we get a p x p
submatrix C of B. so, C is a submatrix of A whose determinant will be non-zero, by theorem
6, since its columns are linearly independent.
Example 14: Find the rank of

We don’t have to reduce a matrix to echelon form each time.

But, in

2 -1 2 ,
genvalues and genvectors E20 shows how much time can be taken by using this method. On the
other hand, E20 shows how little time it takes to obtain p, using the determinant rank.

Since the 3rd row has the maximum

= 2 + 3 the first determinant is zero, using the row equivalent of P2. The second determinant is
zero, using the row equivalent of P5, since R3 = 2R1.

Now the determinant of the 3 x 3 submatric

1 2 -1 is zero. Also, the determinant of the 3 x 3 submatrix is zero. In fact, you can check that the
determinant of any of the 3x3 submatrices Now let us look at the 2 x 2 submatrices of A. Since 3
1 = 5 ≠ 0 we find that p The determinant rank of A  2.

Obtaining eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

You have had several opportunities, in earlier units, to observe that the matrix of a linear
transformation depends on the choice of the bases of the concerned vector spaces. In this unit we
will consider the problem of finding a suitable basis B, of the vector space V, such that the n x n
matrix [T]B is a diagonal matrix. This will be seen in Section 10.4. The solution of this problem
has basic applications in almost all branches of the sciences, technology and the social science
besides its fundamental role in various branches of pure and applied mathematics.

The emergence of computers and the availability of modern computing facilities has further
strengthened this study, since they can handle very large systems of equations. We go on to
discuss a method of obtaining them, in Section 6.3. In this section we will also define the
characteristic polynomial, of which you will study more in the next unit.

Consider the linear mapping T : R2

Let us look at some examples of how we can find eigenvales.

C3

Since is an eigenvalue of T, it has an eigenvector, which must be non-zero. As with every other
concept related to linear transformations, we can define eigenvalues and eigenvectors for
matrices also. Looking at matrices as linear transformations in the above manner will help you in
the understanding of eigenvalues and eigenvectors for matrices.
Definition: A scalar  is an eigenvalue of an n x n matrix a over F if there exists X 

Vn, X ≠ 0, such that AX =X are eigenvectors of the matrix A corresponding to the eigenvalue
.

Example 5: Obtain an eigenvalue and a corresponding eigenvector of A =

Note that x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0, because if either is zero then the other will have to be zero.

The an eigenvector corresponding to it is Now you can solve an eigenvalue problem

yourself!
The algebraic eigenvalue problem for matrices is to determine all the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of a given matrix.

Similarly,  is an eigenvalue of the linear transformation T if and only if det =

So far we have been obtaining eigenvalues by observation, or by some calculations that may not
give us all the eigenvalues of a given matrix or linear transformation. The remark above suggests
where to look for all the eigenvalues In the next section we determine eigenvalues and
eigenvectors explicitly.

This leads us to define the concept of the characteristic polynomial.

0 t+1

Now we will prove a theorem that will help us in section 10.4.

= fA det

Let us consider some more examples so that the concepts mentioned in this section become
absolutely clear to you.

Eigenvalues of Linear Transformations

This definition does not depend on the basis B chosen, since similar matrice have the same
characteristic polynomial , and the matrices of the same linear transformation T with respect to
two different ordered bases of V are similar.

t-1 -2 0

Note that there are infinitely many eigenvectors corresponding to 1, namely, W1 = { C3| T = i}
= {| x  C}.

00t

= |tI – At|, since It = I and Let X be an eigenvector corresponding to .

1 P = 0 -1

The matrix in Example 8 is not diagonalizable. , we cannot find a basis of V4 consisting of

eigenvectors.

[...]

In this unit we first show that every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation, and use
this to compute the inverse of the concerned matrix , if it exists. We advise you to study Unit 2.4
and 6 before starting this unit. Obtain the minimal polynomial of a matrix if the characteristic
polynomial is known.

Thus, f = An + c1an-1 + c2An-2 …

+ cn-1A + cnI = 0, and the Cayley-Hamilton theorem is proved.

Remark 1: You may be templed to give the following ‘quick’ proof Theorem f = det f = det
= det = det = 0

Well , the left hand side of the above equation, f, is an n x n matrix while the right hand side is
the scalar 0, being the value of det.

]B, this implies that f

We will now use Theorem 1 to prove a result that gives us a method for obtaining the inverse of
an invertible matrix. If f1 is not constant, then the equation f1 = 0 has a root 2 C, and f1 =
f2. They may not all be distinct. Here i is repeated twice and – i only occurs once.

We can similarly show that any polynomial f over r can be written as a product of linear
polynomials and quadratic polynomials.

Now we go to show the second and final link that relates the minimal and characteristic
polynomials of T:V

V, where V is a vector space over F. let p be the minimal polynomial of T. We will show that a
scalar  is a root of p. The proof will utilize the following remark.

Since

It has 2 repeated complex roots, i –i . Now, the minimal polynomial must be a real polynomial
that divides the characteristic polynomial. These roots are precisely the eigenvalues of the
concerned linear transformation A method for obtaining the minimal polynomial of a linear
transformation .

= t2

, the minimal polynomial can be t or t2 .

MCQ1: Let w
and v be vector spaces. A function
T: V → W is called a linear transformation from v to w  if for all x
   and scalar K

I.             
      
   =  
Answer: I and II

FBQ1: Let T:U→V be a linear transformation, defined btTU=0 ∀ u∈U. Then we call T a
__________________________
Answer: Null zero transformation

FBQ2: If U and V are two vector spaces over a field F and T:U→V is a bijection linear
transformation. Then we say U and V are …………………………………..
Answer: Isomorphic

FBQ3: Another name for linear transformation is ……………………………………………

Answer: Vector space homomorphism

FBQ4: The rank of a linear transformation T is defined to be ………………………………….

Answer: Dimension R(T)

FBQ5: Suppose U is a vector space over a field F, and T is an identity transformation, then the
function T:U→U will be defined by __________________________________
Answer: T(u)=U

FBQ6: A homomorphism theorem states that if v and w are vector spaces over a field F and
T:VT:V→W is a linear transformation. Then VKer T _______________________
Answer: R(T)

FBQ7: The nullity of T= ___________

Answer: Dimension of ker T

FBQ8: A linear transformation T:U→U is called _________________ if each v∈V, there exists
u∈U such that Tu=v that RT=V.
Answer: Subjective

FBQ9: Two finite –dimensional vectors U and V are isomorphic if and only if
________________
Answer: Dimension of U= Dimension of V

FBQ10: Let U,V be vector spaces over a field F of dimension m and n respectively, then L(U, V)
is a vector of dimension _______
Answer: Mn

FBQ11: L(R2, R) is a real vector space of dimension _______

Answer: 2

FBQ12: Let U be a vector space over F, then the space L(U, F) is called the _________of U
Answer: Dual space

FBQ13: A transformation on T:U→F is called __________

Answer: Linear function

FBQ14: The basis f1,f2, …, fm of V is called the ___________ of the basis e1,e2,…, em of V
Answer: Dual basis

FBQ15: A polynomial Px=a0+a1x+…+an-1xn-1+xn is called ________

Answer: Monic polynomial

FBQ16: A … is a sequence in which each successive terms of the sequence are in equal ratio.
Answer: geometric progression

FBQ17: For T∈AV, the unique monic polynomial P of the smallest degree such that PT=0 is
called __________ T
Answer: Minimal polynomial
FBQ18: The division algorithm states that given f(x) and p(x), there exist polynomial g(x) and
h(x) such that __________ hx=0
Answer: F(x)=p(x)g(x)+h(x)

FBQ19: For any vector space V, the minimal polynomials for the identity transformation and the
zero transformation are x-1 and ______
Answer: X

FBQ20: Every vector space is isomorphic to its ______________________

Answer: Second dual

FBQ21: The degree of the polynomial (x2-1) is __________________

Answer: 4

FBQ22: The matrices are said to be equal if they are of the ____________
Answer: Same order and element

FBQ23: A square matrix A such At=A is called a ________

Answer: Symmetric matrix

FBQ24: A square matrix A such At=-A is called a ________

Answer: Anti- symmetric matrix

FBQ25: A matrix obtained by replacing each of its entry by complex conjugate is called
…………………….
Answer: Conjugate matrix

FBQ26: In conjugate matrix, A-=A- if only if A is a called __________

Answer: Real matrix

FBQ27: Given a matrix A∈Mm×nF, the matrix formed by taking conjugate of matrixAt is called
_________
Answer: Conjugate transpose of A

FBQ28: A square matrix A for which A-t is called _______________

Answer: Hermitian matrix

FBQ29: A square matrix A for which A-t=-A is called _______________

Answer: Skew- Hermitian matrix

FBQ30: The conjugate of 1123 is ……………………………………

Answer: Its self

FBQ31: For a real matrix A, A is Hermitian if A is …………………………….

Answer: Symmetric
FBQ32: For a real matrix A, A is skew-Hermitian if A is …………………….
Answer: Skew- symmetric

FBQ33: A matrix whose entries along the diagonal are non-zero is called …………………….
Answer: Diagonal matrix

FBQ34: A square matrix A∈MnF is said to be _______________ if there exists B∈MnF such
that B=BA= In
Answer: Invertible

FBQ35: The integer PcA=PrA is called ___________ of A, and is denoted by PA.

Answer: Rank

FBQ36: A matrix obtained by subjecting 1n to an elementary row or column operation is called

_________
Answer: Elementary matrix

FBQ37: A m×n matrix A with the following properties (i) The non-zero rows come
before the row(ii) In each non-zero row, the first non-zero entry is 1.(iii) The first non-zero entry
in every non-zero row ( after the first row) is to the right of the first non-zero entry in the
preceeding row is called……………………..
Answer: Row-reduction echelon matrix

FBQ38: If E is a row-reduction echelon form of A. Then, the rank of A is …………………….

Answer: Number of non-zero rows of E

FBQ39: Consider a matrix A=2513, its determinant is _________

Answer: 1

FBQ40: The determinant rank of m×n matrix A is equal to the ___________

Answer: Rank of A

FBQ41: The rank of A=1425 is ________

Answer: 2

FBQ42: If A=126541732,then, the determinant of A is _________________

Answer: -13

FBQ43: If A is a linear transformation represented by a matrix A and there is a vector X∈Rn ≠0

such that AX=λX, for some scalar λ, then is called __________
Answer: Eigen value

FBQ44: For an eigenvalue λ of T, the non-zero subspace W λ is called the ________ of T

associated with eigenvalue.
Answer: Eigen value
FBQ45: The eigenvalue for the linear operator T:R3→R3 such that Tx, y,z=2x, 2y,2z is
_______________
Answer: 2

FBQ46: A linear transformation T:V→V on a finite dimensional vector V is said to be _____if

there exist a basis B=v1,v2, …,vn of V such that the matrix of T with respect to the basis B is
diagonal.
Answer: Diagonalisable

FBQ47: The __________________ of a matrix A over F is the monic polynomial p(t) such that
(i) PA=0 and (ii) if q(t) is non-zero polynomial over F such that degq<degp, then qA≠0.
Answer: Minimal polynomial

FBQ48: The determinant of A=sinθ-cosθcosθsinθ is _______________________

Answer: 1

FBQ49: If A=1020, then PrA is ___________

Answer: 2

FBQ50: If B=-iiii, where i is a complex value, then |B|2 is ----____________

Answer: 4

MCQ1: Let w and v be vector spaces. A function T: V → W is called a linear transformation

from v to w if for all x x,y∈V and scalar K T(x+y) = Tx+T(y) TKx=KT(x)
Answer: I and II

MCQ2: Which of the following is linear

Answer: F: R→ R defined in by fx=2x

MCQ3: Which of the following is not a linear transformation?

Answer: None of the options

MCQ4: Given a linear transformation T: U→ V, which of the following is true?

Answer: All of the options

MCQ5: Which of the following is true for this linear transformation T: U→ V is one – one if
and only if kerT = (0) onto if and only R(T)=V
Answer: I and II

MCQ6: Two finite-dimensional vectors space U and V are isomorphic if and only if
Answer: Dim U = dim V

MCQ7: In the rank unity theorem, Dim V – nullity (ST) = DIM V – nullity (T) – DIM R((T) ∩
kerS) which implies
Answer: Nullity (ST) = nullity (T) + dim (R(T) ∩ kerS)
MCQ8: The minimal polynomial of a matrix A over f is the monic polynomial P(t) such that
I.P(a) = 0II.If q(t) is a non-zero polynomial over F such that deg q < deg p, q(A) ≠ 0 Which
of the following is property of minimal polynomial?
Answer: I and II

MCQ9: If the characteristic polynomial T:R4→R4 is (t+1)2(t-2)2, then the minimal polynomial
could be 
Answer: (t+1)(t+2)

MCQ10: What is the characteristic polynomial of A if 211-12-1-113

Answer: ft=t3-7t2+19t-19

MCQ11: Let 32-10, then the characteristic polynomial of A is

Answer: t2-3t+2

MCQ12: Let T:V→V be a linear transformation. A vector x∈V is an Eigen vector of the linear
transformation T ifX is none zeroTx=ʎx for some scalar ʎ∈F. Which of the following is the
definition of eigen vector?
Answer: I and II

MCQ13: Obtain an eigen value for the linear operator T:R^3→R^3 by T(x,y,z)=(2x,2y,2z)
Answer: 2

MCQ14: Two matrices are said to be equal if I.They have the same size. i.e, they have the same
numbers of rows as well as columnsII.Their elements at all the corresponding positions are the
same.Which of the following qualify the definition of equal matrices?
Answer: I and II

MCQ15: Find the eigen values of 2221

Answer: 0, 3

MCQ16: Describe T:R3→R3 such that T]B = 124231312, where B is the standard basis of R3
Answer: Tx,y,z=(x+2y+4z, 2x+3y+z, 3x+y+2z)

MCQ17: Calculate 312+ 01

Answer: 39

MCQ18: If A is an upper triangular 3×3 matrix, say A = 123045006. Therefore At is

Answer: Lower triangular

MCQ19: A matrix A is invertible when

Answer: The determinant is zero

MCQ20: Let A = 100708009 , B = 213540 , find AB if it is defined

Answer: 21467360
MCQ26: Let U, V, W be vector spaces over F. Suppose S∈L(v,w) and T∈L(u,v), then we have
Answer: S₀T∈L(u,w)

MCQ27: Let T:R2→R3 and S:R3→R2 be defined by Tx1,x2=x1,x2, x1+x2 and

Sx1,x2,x3=x1,x2. Then one of the following is true
Answer: S₀T≠T₀S

MCQ28: The required polynomial for any vector space V, the minimal polynomial for identity I
and 0 the zero transformation is
Answer: x-1and x

MCQ29: The sum of matrix A and B where B is the identity matrix with respect to addition will
give the matrix
Answer: Matrix 0

MCQ30: In properties of matrix addition, the equation A + B = B + A refers to

Answer: Commutative

MCQ31: The transpose of 2 by 3 matrix will give a

Answer: 3 by 2 matrix

MCQ32: Let [aij] be a square matrix, then the entries a11, a12,a13, …,a1n are called
Answer: The diagonal entries of A

MCQ33: The conjugate of (2 3+i i ) is

Answer: (2 3-i -i )

MCQ34: For a matrix A = 1220, we have the following except

Answer: A=AT

MCQ35: Find det(T) where we defined T : R3→R3 by T(x1, x2, x3) = (3x1 + x3, -2x1 +x2,-x +
2 ×2 + 4x3)
Answer: 9

MCQ36: Obtain the cofactor C12 of the matrix A = 02-1341216

Answer: -16

MCQ37: Given A = 102310001 and B = 2109038005. Calculate ꞁABꞁ

Answer: 30

MCQ38: If A = 100120, find Pr (A)

Answer: 2

MCQ39: Let T : R2→R2be defined by Tx,y=(x,-y) for all x,y∈R. Show that T is a linear
transformation
Answer: T(x1 + y1) +β(x2 + y2)) =αT(x21 + y1) + βT(x2 + y2)

MCQ40: If Let T:U→V is one - one and onto linear transformation, then we can have
Answer: T-1:V→U

MCQ41: Obtain the determinant rank of A=1425

Answer: 2

MCQ42: Obtain the characteristic polynomial of the matrix 120-1

Answer: t2-1

MCQ43: The minimal polynomial of A=02-1341216 is either

Answer: (t-1)(t-2) or (t-1)(t-2)

MCQ44: Let U and V be finite dimensional vector space over F and T:U→V be a linear
transformation, then rank (T) + nullity (T) = ?
Answer: dim U

MCQ45: Let T:U→V be a linear transformation, then Tis 1-1 . if T(U1) = T(U2) implies that
Answer: U1= U2

MCQ46: A matrix having three horizontal rows and four vertical columns is called
Answer: 4 by 4 matrix

MCQ47: If 1023=xyz3, find x, y and z

Answer: x=1, y=0,z=2

MCQ48: What is the sum of 1001 and -100-1

Answer: 0000

MCQ49: Calculate 2B, where B=121413000

Answer: 11223000

MCQ50: Calculate 312

Answer: 36

MCQ21: Let e1=0,1,0 and e2=0,0,1 form the standard basis of R3. Let 1,2,2,3 and 3,4 be three
vectors in R2. Obtain the linear transformation T:R3→R2 such that T(e1)=1,2, T(e2)=2,3 and
T(e3)=3,4
Answer: Tx1,x2,x3=(x1+2x2+3x3, 2x1+3x2+4x3)

MCQ22: Given T:U→V is one – one if and only if

Answer: KerT = (0)

MCQ23: Given a linear transformation T:U→V is onto if and only if

Answer: RT= kerV
MCQ24: Let S, T ∈L(u,v) where S and Tare linear transformation. We define S+T:U→V by
(S+T)U=
Answer: Su+T(u)

MCQ25:
Answer: