Graph Coloring

Era Definition
Given a Graph G the GRAPH COLORING

Problem is to color the vertices of the graph

such that adjacent vertices have different colors

The minimum number of colors need to color

a graph G is called chromatic number

dentoed XCG

X G 3
Graph G
 Def A k coloring of a graph G is a

labeling f VIGI 1121 K

A k coloring is Proper it adjacent vertices

have different labels for colors
A graph is k colorable if it has a

proper k coloring The chromatic number G is

the least k such that G is k colorable

A subset of vertices assigned to the Same Color

is called a color class

Rema In a Proper coloring each color class

is an independent set so G is k colorable

if and only if V16 is the union of

k independent sets

All the graphs considered in this chapter are simple

Example 1

Cs Cycle 312 5 3

11

Co Cycle
I
T2 X 6 2

In general X even 2 and

X Codd 3

Complete Graph kn X kn n

Path Pn X Pn 2

For any graph G LEXIE EN

 Applications

Scheduling
suppose we want to Schedue classes for

Cs courses for the Courcees A b C d e f g

god
No two courses with a common student are

scheduled at same time

we have to use minimum of time slots

we convert this to a coloring Problem

Courses represent Vertices 9 Two vertices are adjacent

if the corresponding courses have a common student

 Exagple

We need 3 Slots to schedule the classes

Blue Slot 1 d g a red slots b c

Green Slot 2 Leif

Remy Labels like Red Blue etc are only used

when the number of colors is small and normally

the labels colors are drawn from the integers41,2

Other Appitions
Frequency assignment

Sudoku
 Solving Sudoku Puzzles 9 9

Puzzle solution

God Fill in the blank cells so that each row

Column and 3 3 box has the numbers 1 to 9

exactly once

We construct a graph G from a given Puzzle

G contains one vertex Per each cell

Two vertices of G are adjacent it the corresponding

cells can't be filled with same number

 The Problem of solving a Sudoku puzzle can be

represented as on the graph G

Afgynentsion
Irecoloring extension is the Problem of extending a

graphcoloring of a subset of the vertices of a graph

with a given set of colors to a Proper coloring

of the whole graph

As some cells of Sudoku are filled If a

cell Ci is filled with integer ni the we assign

Ui corresponding vertex of si the color Ni

our goal is to extend Partial Coloring of G

to a proper coloring of the whole graph using

colors 1121 9
 Coloring of BipartiteGrads

Lemme A graph G is bipartite iff it is 2 colorable

RI F G AUB E is bipartite

define f Vca 4112 as

I if UEA
flu
2 if VEB
clearly f is a 2 Coloring of G

E if G is a 2 colorable graph

Let f UCG 721,2 be a 2 coloring of G

let A V Fae I

13 617107 2

Cheely A and B are independent sets

hence G AUB E is bipartite

theorem A graph with maximum degree d
is 9 1 colorable

Prof Proof by induction on of vertices

P K If a k vertex graph has max deg d
then it is dtl colorable

Basecase k 1 only one verten 1 colorable

max
degree 0

Inductive step assume PCK is true for IÉin

we need to show that PK 1 is true

Let G be a graph with K vertices and

has max degree d

 0
incident to
64 all edges
remove an arbitrary veeten from G they

Gku has at most k veetics max deg d

GK is d colorable

Now add the vertex v to G

observe that U has d neighbors and available
colors are d l so we can pick a color for v

that is different from the colors of all these

adjacent vertices neighbors

i we get a
coloring of G with at most

d colors
 Élan.ee ygiiyagritumsw'graena
using DCG 1
many colors

where DCG denote the maximum deg ofG

Algorithm

A graph G and an ordering vertices h or Un

Ilp
Otp A k vertex coloring of G for some k
where KE ACG
Color vertex re with 1

Suppose 61,62 Ui are colored using t

colors say I t let T be the set of

color used to color the vertices adjacent with bit
ta if T Li t
colluity
otherwise
Min 1,2 t IT

STOP when Un is colored

Example
Us

Note the Chromatic number

of G varies according to the

vertices
ordering of the input

For the ordering V V2 V3 Vy V5 V6 the

greedy algorithm uses Two colors

For the ordering U v6 Us by U2V5 the

greedy algorithm uses Four colors

 Recap

cue A subgraph Q of a graph G is called

a clique if any two vertices in Q are adjacent

The clique number of G is the integer

W G Max VQ Q is a cliane

If H is a subgraph of G then G H

G W G

For which graphs X G W G or

G W G 1 XCG f WCG for some f

Mycielski 1955 showed that for any KEIN

there exists a graph G with WG 2 G L
 Desk's term
For any given integer k 7,1 there exists

a graph Gk with Chromatic number k

inglfree
has No kg as a Subgraph

Proof We construct Gk by induction on k

For k 1 and 2 G KI Ga Kz
suppose we have constructed a triangle free graph
sad
Gk on n vertices u tea In 11 14 on

Construct Get from Gk as follows

1 Add Ntl new vertices a uz Un 2 to Gk

2 Join Ui If i Sn to all those vertices

which in GK
say
to Ui is adjacent U Lui an
3 Join 2 to every Ui
 vs
us

us
o

We need to show Gets is triangle free

and XCGKA KH
Claire Gkn is triangle free
proof by contradiction
suppose Gkn has a triangle T
Since original graph Gk is triangle free at
of
least one veeter T must be is 2 or Ui for

some E

if ZET then other two vertices must be

from U but this is contradiction as no two

vertices in 0 are adjacent

if 24T 9 Ui ET their other two vertices

of T are
Up 80g for some P.EE En

But then vi Up Vq forms a triangle

in GK which is again a contradiction

Therefore Gkt is triangle free

Claire X Gkn KH
Since Gk is Subgraph of Gatt
we have X Gai XCGic k

if f V Gic Li k is a k coloring of Gk
then g V Gkn Ll Kika defined as

Isis n
gcoiffloi
91mi f Ui Isi en
g z KH

clearly g is a KH coloring of Gkn

We also have to show that X Gkt K

Suppose XCGkH k h V Giap Lii k

is a k Coloring of Gkn
WLOG ht hc2 k ie hai k for ietn

define g V Gic Li K I

hoi if hai K
glad
hail k
h Ui if
 It is easy to see that
g is K D coloring

of Gis This is a contradiction to X Gk k

X Gkn Ktl