Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Computer Science
Number Systems
Contents
Computers & Binary
Number Systems
Converting Between Binary & Denary
Converting Between Hexadecimal & Denary
Converting Between Hexadecimal & Binary
Uses of Hexadecimal
Binary Addition
Binary Shifts
Two's Complement

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 Computers & Binary
Your notes
Why Computers Use Binary

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This note covers exactly what Cambridge 0478 expects you to know about binary
processing—nothing more, nothing less.

Why does data have to be converted to binary to be

processed by a computer?
Data is processed in a computer using logic gates that only have two states
The binary number system only has two digits (1/0), which means each digit can
represent a different state (1 = on, 0 = off)
All data must be converted to binary before a computer can understand and process it
Converting data to binary allows computers to process it at an incredible speed,
perform complex calculations and store vast amounts of data efficiently

Secondary storage is a great example of the process

Magnetic hard drives use North and South polarity to represent a 1 or a 0
In Optical disks, light hitting a flat area (land) is interpreted as a 1 and light hitting a
bump (pit) is interpreted as a 0
Take an example of driving a car

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 When driving a car the accelerator pedal is used to increase the cars speed
If a car was accelerating from 50mph to 100mph the increase would be gradual Your notes
In a computer system, the car is doing either 50mph (0) or 100mph (1), there is no in-
between
Trying to change the computer system so that it has more options would be less
efficient and require more complex parts for the computer to understand

Worked Example
Explain why computers process data in binary format [2]
Answer
Computers process data using logic gates... [1]
... that can only have two states (1/0) [1]

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Mark schemes expect: logic gates + two states (1/0). Phrases like “computers
understand binary” don’t get the mark, this does.

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 Number Systems
Your notes
The Denary, Binary & Hexadecimal Number
Systems

Examiner Tips and Tricks

All conversions here are capped at 16 bits because that’s Cambridge’s limit. No
distractions, just the format you’ll see in Paper 1.

What is denary?
Denary is a number system that is made up of 10 digits (0-9)
Denary is referred to as a base-10 number system
Each digit has a weight factor of 10 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (100), the
next digit to the left 10s (101) and so on
Humans use the denary system for counting, measuring and performing maths
calculations
Using combinations of the 10 digits we can represent any number

In this example, (3 x 1000) + (2 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (8 x 1) = 3268

To represent a bigger number we add more digits

What is binary?
Binary is a number system that is made up of two digits (1 and 0)
Binary is referred to as a base-2 number system
Each digit has a weight factor of 2 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (20), the
next digit to the left 2s (21) and so on
Each time a new digit is added, the column value is multiplied by 2
Using combinations of the 2 digits we can represent any number

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 Your notes

In this example, Binary 1100 = (1 x 8) + (1 x 4) = 12

To represent bigger numbers we add more binary digits (bits)

32,768 16,384 8,192 4,096 2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4

215 214 213 212 211 210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The largest denary number that can be represented using 16 bits is:
65,535 (Binary 1111111111111111)

What is hexadecimal?
Hexadecimal is a number system that is made up of 16 digits, 10 numbers (0-9) and 6
letters (A-F)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Hexadecimal is referred to as a base-16 number system

Each digit has a weight factor of 16 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (16^0), the
next digit to the left 16s (16^1)
In GCSE you are required to work with up to and including 2 digit hexadecimal values

16s 1s

1 3

1 x16 3x1 = 19

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A quick comparison table demonstrates a relationship between hexadecimal and a
binary nibble
Your notes
One hexadecimal digit can represent four bits of binary data

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You must be able to convert binary to hex and back using nibbles. Write out the hex
digits (0–F) during the exam to avoid confusion—it’s a top tip that examiners mention
every year.

Denary Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0

1 0001 1

2 0010 2

3 0011 3

4 0100 4

5 0101 5

6 0110 6

7 0111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

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15 1111 F
Your notes

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 Converting Between Binary & Denary
Your notes
Denary to Binary Conversion

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Every method and number line on this page follows the exact rules and bit limits used
in the Cambridge IGCSE 0478 exam. No extras. No guesswork.

How do you convert denary to binary?

It is important to know the process of converting from denary to binary to understand
how computers interpret and process data
To convert from denary to binary you must start by writing out a binary number line
Find the first column heading with a value larger than the denary value you are
converting
Write down each column heading to the right (not including the largest heading) until
you reach 1

32,768 16,384 8,192 4,096 2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2

Example 1
To convert the denary number 45 to binary, start by writing out the binary number line
The first column heading larger than 45 is 64, so the number line would be:

32 16 8 4 2 1

Start at the leftmost empty column heading (32)

Divide column heading into denary number (how many times does 32 fit into 45?)
1 time with 13 remaining

13

32 16 8 4 2 1

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 Repeat with next column heading (how many times does 16 fit into 13?)
0 times with 13 remaining Your notes
13 13

32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0

Repeat until all columns have a binary value

13 13 5 1 1 0

32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1

Denary 45 is 101101 in binary (6 bits)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge often asks for a specific number of bits—if the question says “8-bit
answer,” you must pad your binary result with leading 0s. Always double-check the
number of bits or you’ll lose a mark.

Example 2
To convert the denary number 3059 to binary, start by writing out the binary number line
The first column heading larger than 3059 is 4096, so the number line would be:

2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Start at the leftmost empty column heading (2048)

Divide column heading into denary number (how many times does 2048 fit into 3059?)
1 time with 1011 remaining

1011

2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

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 1
Your notes
Repeat with next column heading (how many times does 1024 fit into 1011?)
0 times with 1011 remaining

1011 1011

2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0

Repeat until all columns have a binary value

1011 1011 499 243 115 51 19 3 3 3 1 0

2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

Denary 3059 is 101111110011 in binary (12 bits)

Binary to Denary Conversion

To convert from binary to denary, count how many bits make up the value
Write out the column headings for the number of bits given from right to left
Add together any column heading with a value of 1 in the column

Example 1 (4 bits)
To convert the binary number 1011 to denary, start by writing out the binary headings
from right to left

8 4 2 1

Write in the binary digits under the headings from left to right

8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1

Add together any column heading with a 1 under it

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 (1 x 8) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 11
Binary 1011 is 11 in denary Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If a binary number ends in 1, the denary result must be odd. Use this as a quick logic
check during the exam—examiners love to test basic number sense.

Example 2 (8 bits)
To convert the binary number 01100011 to denary, start by writing out the binary
headings from right to left

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Write in the binary digits under the headings from left to right

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Add together any column heading with a 1 under it

(1 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 99
Binary 01100011 is 99 in denary

Example 3 (14 bits)

To convert the binary number 01110001110100 to denary, start by writing out the binary
headings from right to left

8,192 4,096 2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

Add together any column heading with a 1 under it

(1 x 4096) + (1 x 2048) + (1 x 1024) + (1 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (1 x 16) + (1 x 4) = 7284
Binary 01110001110100 is 7284 in denary

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 Converting Between Hexadecimal & Denary
Your notes
Denary to Hexadecimal Conversion
How do you convert denary to hexadecimal?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 requires you to convert between denary and hex without a
calculator. Every method shown here is designed to match exam conditions exactly.

Method 1 (denary to binary to hexadecimal)

To convert the denary number 28 to hexadecimal, start by converting the denary number
to binary

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

Split the 8 bit binary number into two nibbles as shown below

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

Convert each nibble to its denary value

0001 = 1 and 1100 = 12
Using the comparison table, the denary value 1 is also 1 in hexadecimal whereas denary
value 12 is represented in hexadecimal as C
Denary 28 is 1C in hexadecimal

Method 2 (divide by 16)

To convert the denary number 163 to hexadecimal, start by dividing the denary value by
16 and recording the whole times the number goes in and the remainder
163 16 = 10 remainder 3
In hexadecimal the whole number = digit 1 and the remainder = digit 2
Digit 1 = 10 (A)
Digit 2 = 3

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 Denary 163 is A3 in hexadecimal
Hexadecimal to Denary Conversion Your notes
How do you convert hexadecimal to denary?
Method 1 (hexadecimal to binary to denary)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you're not confident multiplying or dividing by 16, always fall back on binary
conversion. It’s fool proof, and examiners accept either method.

To convert the hexadecimal number B9 to denary, take each hexadecimal digit and
convert it from its denary value to 4 bit binary (nibble)

B (11) 9

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Join the two nibbles to make an 8 bit number (byte)

Convert from binary to denary

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

(1 x 128) + (1 x 32) + (1 x 16) + (1 x 8) + (1 x 1) = 185

Hexadecimal B9 is 185 in denary

Method 2 (multiply by 16)

To convert the hexadecimal number 79 to denary, start by multiplying the first
hexadecimal digit by 16
7 ✖ 16 = 112
Add digit 2 to the result
112 + 9 = 121
Hexadecimal 79 is 121 in denary

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember that the exam is non-calculator, if you are not confident multiplying and Your notes
dividing by 16 then use method 1 on both conversions

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 Converting Between Hexadecimal & Binary
Your notes
Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
How do you convert from binary to hexadecimal?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 expects all conversions to use 8-bit binary and 2-digit hex
where possible. These examples follow the exam format exactly—so you’re revising
the right way.

It is important before revising how to convert from binary to hexadecimal and vice versa
that you fully understand the binary and hexadecimal number systems.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Example 1
To convert the binary number 10110111 to hexadecimal, first split the 8 bit number into 2
binary nibbles

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

For each nibble, convert the binary to it’s denary value

(1 x 8) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 11 (B)
(1 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 7
Join them together to make a 2 digit hexadecimal number
Binary 10110111 is B7 in hexadecimal

Example 2
To convert the binary number 00111001 to hexadecimal, first split the 8 bit number into 2
binary nibbles

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

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 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Your notes
For each nibble, convert the binary to it’s denary value
(1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 3
(1 x 8) + (1 x 1) = 9
Join them together to make a 2 digit hexadecimal number
Binary 00111001 is 39 in hexadecimal

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

How do you convert from hexadecimal to binary?
Example 1
To convert the hexadecimal number 5F to binary, first split the digits apart and convert
each to a binary nibble

8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 =5

8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 = 15 (F)

Join the 2 binary nibbles together to create an 8 bit binary number

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

Hexadecimal 5F is 01011111 in binary

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You might see methods that skip writing out the full 8-bit binary number—especially
in textbooks. In this course, we stick to examiner-approved formatting, so your
answers never fall short.

Example 2

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To convert the hexadecimal number 26 to binary, first split the digits apart and convert
each to a binary nibble
Your notes
8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 =2

8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 =6

Join the 2 binary nibbles together to create an 8 bit binary number

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

Hexadecimal 26 is 00100110 in binary

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 Uses of Hexadecimal
Your notes
Uses of Hexadecimal

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 specifically requires you to explain why hexadecimal is used
instead of binary—especially for things like MAC addresses, colour codes, and URLs.
Everything on this page comes straight from the spec.

Why is hexadecimal used?

In Computer Science hexadecimal is often preferred when working with large values
It takes fewer digits to represent a given value in hexadecimal than in binary
1 hexadecimal digit corresponds 4 bits (one nibble) and can represent 16 unique
values (0-F)
It is beneficial to use hexadecimal over binary because:
The more bits there are in a binary number, the harder it makes for a human to read
Numbers with more bits are more prone to errors when being copied

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In the exam, don’t just say “hex is shorter” or “hex is easier.” Use phrases like “fewer
digits = easier for humans to read” or “less chance of copying errors”—these match
the mark scheme language.

Examples of where hexadecimal can be seen:

MAC addresses
Colour codes
URLs

MAC addresses
A typical MAC address consists of 12 hexadecimal digits, equivalent to 48 digits in in
binary
AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF
10101010:10111011:11001100:11011101:11101110:11111111

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 Writing down or performing calculations with 48 binary digits makes it very easy to
make a mistake
Your notes

Colour codes
A typical hexadecimal colour code consists of 6 hexadecimal digits, equivalent to 24
digits in binary
#66FF33 (green)
01000010:11111111:00110011

URL's

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A URL can only contain standard characters (a-z and A-Z), numbers (0-9) and some
special symbols which is enough for basic web browsing
Your notes
If a URL needs to include a character outside of this set, they are converted into a
hexadecimal code
Hexadecimal codes included in a URL are prefixed with a % sign

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You might see other uses of hex online (like memory dumps or debug screens). For
your exam, stick to the three covered here: MAC addresses, colour codes, and URLs
—they're the only ones that come up in past papers.

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 Binary Addition
Your notes
Adding Positive 8-bit Binary Integers

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 expects you to add 8-bit binary values using clear working,
with carries shown. These examples match the style and format used in the real exam.

What is binary addition?

Binary addition is the process of adding together two binary integers (up to and
including 8 bits)
To be successful there are 5 golden rules to apply:

Binary Addition Binary Answer Working

0+0= 0 1s

0 =0

0+1= 1 1s

1 =1

1+0= 1 1s

1 =1

1+1= 10 2s 1s

1 0 =2

1+1+1= 11 2s 1s

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 1 1 =3
Your notes

Like denary addition, start from the rightmost digit and move left
Carrying over occurs when the sum of a column is greater than 1, passing the excess to
the next left column

Example 1
Add together the binary values 1001 and 0100

8 4 2 1 +

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

Starting from right to left, add the two binary values together applying the 5 golden
rules
If your answer has 2 digits, place the rightmost digit in the column and carry the
remaining digit to the next column on the left
In this example, start with 1+0, 1+0 = 1, so place a 1 in the column

8 4 2 1 +

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

Repeat until all columns have a value

8 4 2 1 +

1 0 0 1

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 0 1 0 0
Your notes
C

1 1 0 1

The sum of adding together binary 1001 (9) and 0100 (4) is 1101 (13)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You can earn marks just for showing carries correctly, even if your final answer is
wrong. Always show your carry bits clearly above or below your sum—examiner
reports say it matters.

Example 2
Add together the binary values 00011001 and 10001001

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Starting from right to left, add the two binary values together applying the 5 golden
rules
If your answer has 2 digits, place the rightmost digit in the column and carry the
remaining digit to the next column on the left
In this example, start with 1+1, 1+1 = 10, so place a 0 in the column and carry the 1 to the
next column

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

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 1 C
Your notes
0

Repeat until all columns have a value

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 C

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

The sum of adding together binary 00011001 (25) and 10001001 (137) is 10100010 (162)

Overflow & Binary Addition

What is an overflow error?
An overflow error occurs when the result of a binary addition exceeds the available bits
For example, if you took binary 11111111 (255) and tried to add 00000001 (1) this would
cause an overflow error as the result would need a 9th bit to represent the answer (256)

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If the next question asks what error has occurred, it's probably testing overflow. Look
for sums that go over 255—Cambridge loves this trick.

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 Binary Shifts
Your notes
Binary Shifts
What is a logical binary shift?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 expects you to perform binary shifts on 8-bit values and
explain how the result changes (×2, ÷2). Every example here mirrors the real exam
format—including overflow and underflow errors.

A logical binary shift is how a computer system performs basic multiplication and
division on non-negative values (0 and positive numbers)
Binary digits are moved left or right a set number of times
A left shift multiplies a binary number by 2 (x2)
A right shift divides a binary number by 2 (/2)
A shift can move more than one place at a time, the principle remains the same
A left shift of 2 places would multiply the original binary number by 4 (x4)

How do you perform a logical left shift of 1?

Here is the binary representation of the denary number 40

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

To perform a left logical binary shift of 1, we move each bit 1 place to the left
The digit in the 128 column (MSB) will move left causing an overflow error
The 1 column becomes empty so is filled with a 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 = 40

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 = 80

The original binary representation of denary 40 (32+8) was multiplied by 2 and became
80 (64+16)

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How do you perform a logical left shift of 2?
Here is the binary representation of the denary number 28 Your notes

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

To perform a left binary shift of 2, we move each bit 2 places to the left
The digit in the 128 (MSB) and 64 column will move left causing an overflow error
The 1 and 2 column become empty so are filled with a 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 = 28

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 112

The original binary representation of denary 28 (16+8+4) was multiplied by 4 and

became 112 (64+32+16)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Your textbook might show shifts with longer binary values—but in IGCSE exams, you’ll
only ever be asked about 8-bit unsigned integers. That’s why all our examples are
capped at 8 bits.

How do you perform a logical right shift of 1?

Here is the binary representation of the denary number 40

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

To perform a right binary shift of 1, we move each bit 1 place to the right
The digit in the 1 column (LSB) will move right causing an underflow error
The 128 column becomes empty so is filled with a 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

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 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 40
Your notes
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20

The original binary representation of denary 40 (32+8) was divided by 2 and became 20
(16+4)

How do you perform a logical right shift of 2?

Here is the binary representation of the denary number 200

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

To perform a right binary shift of 2, we move each bit 2 places to the right
The digits in the 1 (LSB) and 2 columns will move right causing an underflow error
The 128 and 64 columns become empty so are filled with a 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 = 200

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 50

The original binary representation of denary 200 (128+64+8) was divided by 4 and
became 50 (32+16+2)

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 Two's Complement
Your notes
Two's Complement
What is two's complement?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 requires you to represent signed binary values using 8-bit
two’s complement only. This page follows the exact bit structure and method
examiners expect to see.

In IGCSE Computer Science, two's complement is a method of using signed binary

values to represent negative numbers
Using two's complement the left most bit is designated the most significant bit (MSB)
To represent negative numbers this bit must equal 1, turning the column value in to a
negative
Working with 8 bits, the 128 column becomes -128

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = -1

In the example above to represent -1, add column values with a 1 to the MSB
MSB (-128)
Add 64 (-128+64 = -64
Add 32 (-64+32 = -32)
Add 16 (-32+16 = -16)
Add 8 (-16+8 = -8)
Add 4 (-8+4 = -4)
Add 2 (-4+2 = -2)
Add 1 (-2+1 = -1)
The two's complement representation of -1 is 11111111

Quick two's complement conversion

To represent -76
Write out the positive version of the number

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 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Your notes
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 76

Starting from the least significant bit (right most column), copy out the binary values up
to and including the first 1

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 0

For the remaining digits, invert them (0s to 1s/1s to 0s)

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

-128 + 32 + 16 + 4 = -76
The two's complement representation of -76 is 10110100

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The “flip and add 1” trick isn’t shown here, but the method above is what examiners
prefer: copy from the right, then invert. It’s reliable, repeatable, and rewarded in
papers.

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