REFRACTION OF LIGHT – The change in direction of light when it passes obliquely from one

transparent medium to another at the boundary separating the two media is called refraction of
light.

EXAMPLES OF REFRACTION –

1. A water tank or a water pool or a water pond appears less deep than its actual depth. The
bottom of the tank or the pond appears to be raised. The pool appears shallow. Hence, we
should be careful about the actual depth of water before stepping into it.
2. All letters of a printed paper lying below a glass slab appear to be raised when seen through the
glass slab.
3. The lemon in water in a glass tumbler or the rasgullas kept in sugar syrup in a glass jar appears
bigger than their actual size, when viewed from the side.
4. A stick partially immersed in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bent and short at the surface
of water when it is viewed obliquely from above.

 The angle between incident ray and normal (at the point of incidence) is called the angle of
incidence.
 The angle between the refracted ray and the normal (at the point of incidence) is called the
angle of refraction.
 In this phenomenon the angle of refraction is either smaller than the angle of incidence or
greater than the angle of incidence. (Diagram to show the refraction of light when it passes from
air into glass is given above)

OPTICALLY RARER MEDIUM AND OPTICALLY DENSER MEDIUM

1. A medium in which the speed of light is more is known as optically rarer medium.
2. A medium in which the speed of light is less, is known as optically denser medium.
3. Greater the difference in speeds of light in two media, greater will be the deviation in the path
of light in the second medium.
CAUSE OF REFRACTION

 The refraction of light is due to the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to
another.
 The fact that the speed of light waves on one side of a beam of light changes a little before the
change in speed of light waves on its other side, causes a change in the direction of light.

Since the speed of left side of the beam of light is reduced a little before its right side, therefore,
the direction of light changes (or bending of light occurs) on entering the glass slab.
When the beam of light travelling in glass slab comes out into air obliquely (at an angle), then
the part of light waves on the left side of beam of light emerges out into air first and speeds up
first.
Since the speed of left side of the beam of light increases a little before its right side, therefore,
the direction of light changes (or bending of light occurs) on coming out of glass slab into air.

RULES FOR BENDING OF A RAY OF LIGHT WHEN IT GOES FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER

1. When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal
(at the point of incidence).
2. When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal (at the point of incidence).

3. If the incident ray falls normally (or perpendicularly) to the surface of a glass slab, then there is
no bending of the ray of light, and it goes straight.

4. The light emerges from a parallel-sided glass slab in a direction parallel with that in which it
enters the glass slab.

 The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent ray
coming out of the glass slab is called lateral displacement of the emergent ray of light.
 The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal is called the angle of emergence.
BENDING OF STICK

A ray of stick AB is immersed obliquely in water. A portion of it appears to be shortened and raised
up as OB’ under water.

A ray of light BC coming from the lower end B of the stick passes from water into air at point C and
get refracted away from the normal in the direction CX. Another ray of light, BD get refracted in the
direction DY.

The two refracted ray CX and DY, when produced backward, appear to meet at point B’, near to the
water surface than the point B. Thus, B’ is the virtual image of the end B of the stick.

Due to the refraction of light, a virtual image of the part OB of the stick is formed as OB’.
So, what we see under is actually the virtual image OB’ of the part OB of the stick under
water. Thus, the immersed part of the stick appears to be raised and bent at point O on the
surface of water.
A COIN PLACED AT THE BOTTOM OF THE VESSEL FULL OF WATER APPEARS TO BE RAISED

Rays like CP and CQ can not reach the eye, so the coin was not visible at first.
A ray of light, CB coming from the lower end C of the coin passes from water into air at point B and
gets refracted away from the normal in the direction BP’.

Another ray of light, CD gets refracted in the direction DQ’. These refracted rays BP’ and DQ’ reach
the eye of the observer, who sees the coin raised to C’.

The coin which was not visible earlier, comes into view. C’ is the apparent position of the coin
C, which appear to be raised due to refraction of light.

A POOL OF WATER APPEARS TO BE LESS DEEP THAN IT ACTUALLY

when we look into a pool of water, we do not see the actual bottom of the pool, we see a
virtual image of the bottom of the pool which is formed by the refraction of light coming from
the pool water into the air.

LAWS OF REFRACTION

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light
of a given colour and for the given pair of media.

This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90o)

If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,

𝑛21 = = constant

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.

THE REFRACTIVE INDEX

1. The refractive index can be linked to an important physical quantity, the relative speed of
propagation of light in different media.
2. The value of the refractive index for a given pair of media depends upon the speed of light in the
two media, as given below.
3. The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 (n21) is given by the ratio of the
speed of light in medium 1 (v1) and the speed of light in medium 2(v2).
 speed of light in medium 1 v1
𝑛21 = =
speed of light in medium 2 v2

4. The refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 (n12) is given by the ratio of the
speed of light in medium 2 (v2) and the speed of light in medium 1(v1).

speed of light in medium 2 v2

𝑛12 = =
speed of light in medium 1 v1
5. It tells that how much dens are the second medium/first medium is with respect to the first
medium/second medium respectively.
6. The refractive index depends on the nature of the material of the medium and on the
wavelength (or colour) of the light used.
7. The speed of light in any medium decreases with increase in the refractive index and vice versa.

ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX

1. When light is going from vacuum to another medium, then the value of refractive index is
called the absolute refractive index.
speed of light in vaccum
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
speed of light in medium
2. When light is going from one medium (other than vacuum or air) to another medium, then the
value of refractive index is called relative refractive index.

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY

If a reflected or refracted ray is reversed in direction, it will retrace its original path.
sin i 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
𝑛21 × 𝑛12 = ×
sin r 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑛21 × 𝑛12 = 1
 1
𝑛21 =
n12
The refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is equal to the reciprocal of the
refractive index of medium 2 with respect to the medium 1.

REFRACTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES

A lens is a piece of transparent, optical material bounded by two refracting surfaces which are
usually spherical, or one surface spherical and other plane.

Types of lenses
Convex lens:
1. A convex lens is thick at the centre but thinner at the edges.
2. A convex lens may be of three types; 1. Biconvex, 2. Plano convex, 3. Concavo-convex.
3. A convex lens converges parallel beam of light at a point. Therefore, a convex lens is also called
a converging lens.

Concave lens:

1. A concave lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges.

2. A concave lens may be of three types: 1. Biconcave, 2. Planoconcave, 3. Convexo-concave.
3. The principal focus of a concave lens is a point on its principal axis from which light rays,
originally parallel to the axis, appear to diverge after passing through the concave lens.
4. A concave lens is also known as a diverging lens because it diverges a parallel beam of light
rays.

TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO LENSES

1. Centre of curvature: the centre of curvature of a lens is define as the centre of the spherical
surface from which the lens has been cut.
2. Aperture: The maximum portion of the spherical surfaces from which refraction takes place is
called aperture of the lens.
3. Radius of curvature: The radius of curvature of a lens is the radius of the sphere of which the
lens surface is a part.
4. Optical centre: The geometrical centre of the lens is called its optical centre.
5. Focus: A point on the principal axis at which parallel rays of light after passing through a lens
converge (in case of convex lens) or appear to diverge (in case of concave lens) after passing
through the lens.

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS

RULES:

1. The image is formed at that point where at least two refracted light rays meet (or appear to
meet).
2. A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens, passes through its focus
after refraction through the lens.
3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a convex lens goes straight after refraction
through the lens.
4. A ray of light passing through the focus of a convex lens becomes parallel to its principal axis
after refraction through the lens.
FORMATION OF IMAGE BY CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITION OF THE OBJECT

CONDITION – 1: When the object is placed beyond 2F1

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is diminished
(Smaller than the object)
4. The image is formed between F2 and 2F2,
on the other side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation

is used in photographic camera, where a
small real and inverted image of an object is formed on the film.
CONDITION – 2: When the object is at 2F1.

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is of the same size
as the object.
4. The image is formed at 2F2,
on the other side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation

is used in terrestrial telescope, for erecting the inverted image by the objective lens of the
telescope.
CONDITION – 3: When the object is placed between F1 and 2F1

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is enlarged (or magnified).
4. The image is formed beyond 2F2, on
the other side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation is

used in film and slide projectors, when enlarged image of a small (or film) is formed on a screen.

CONDITION – 4: When the object is placed at the focus of a convex lens (object at F1)

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is highly enlarged (or magnified)
4. The image is formed at infinity, on the
other side of the lens.

Application: The above case is used in making

searchlights in theatres. In a search light, a
powerful lamp is placed at the principal focus
of a concave lens, which produces a powerful and parallel beam of light.
CONDITION – 5: Object between O and F1

1. The image is virtual.

2. The image is erect.
3. The image is enlarged (or magnified)
4. The image is formed on the same
side of the lens, behind the object.

Applications: When the object is placed

between the optical centre of a concave lens and the principal focus, an erect and magnified
image is formed. It is used as a magnifying glass (or a simple microscope).

CONDITION – 6: When the object is at infinity (rays coming from it are parallel to the principal axis)

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is diminished at
a point (highly diminished)
4. The image is formed at F2, on
the other side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation is used in a burning glass.

CONDITION – 7: When the object is at infinity (rays coming from it are not parallel to the principal
axis)

1. The image is real.

2. The image is inverted.
3. The image is highly diminished.
4. The image is formed on the focal
plane on the other side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation

is used for an objective lens in a telescope.

IMAGE FORMED BY CONCAVE LENS

RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE LENSES
1. Ray of light parallel to the principal axis, after passing through the concave lens, appears to
diverge from the focus located on the same side of the lens.
2. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a concave lens, emerges without any
deviation after refraction.
3. A ray of light appearing to meet at the second focal point of a concave lens is refracted
parallel to the principal axis.

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS

CONDITION – 1: When the object is located at

infinity (such that the rays coming from
it are parallel to the principal axis)
1. The image is virtual.
2. The image is erect.
3. The image is highly diminished to a point size.
4. The image is formed at F1 on the same side of the lens as the object.

CONDITION – 2: When the object is any where between the optical centre and infinity

1. The image is virtual.

2. The image is erect.
3. The image is diminished.
4. The image is formed between the optical
centre and principal focus on the same
side of the lens.

Application: This type of image formation is used mainly in spectacles for the correction of short
sightedness or myopia.

NEW CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTION

1. All the distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive whereas the
distances measured against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
3. The distances measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive
where as distances measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
negative.

LENS FORMULA

A formula which gives the relationship between image distance (v), object distance (u), and focal
length (f) of a lens is known as the lens formula. The lens formula can be written as:

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
This lens formula applies to both types of spherical lenses: convex lenses as well as concave
lenses.

MAGNIFICATION PRODUCED BY LENSES

1. The linear magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
2. The linear magnification produced by a lens is equal to the ratio of image distance to the
object distance.

ℎ
𝑚=
ℎ
v
𝑚=
u
POWER OF A LENS

1. The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light rays
falling on it.
2. The power of a lens depends on its focal length.
3. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
 1
𝑃=
f
4. A lens of short focal length has more power whereas a lens of long focal length has less
power.
5. The unit of the power of a lens is dioptre, which is denoted by the letter D. One dioptre is
the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
6. The power of a convex lens is positive whereas the power of a concave lens is negative.

POWER OF A COMBINATION OF LENSES

1. If a number of lenses are placed in close contact, then the power of the combination of
lenses is equal to the algebraic sum of the powers of individual lenses.
2. Thus, if two lenses of powers p1 and p2 are placed in contact with each other, then their
resultant power P is given by: P = p1 + p2