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Models of Computation
Jeff Erickson

December 28, 2018

http://jeffe.cs.illinois.edu/teaching/algorithms/ • http://algorithms.wtf/
 © Copyright 2014–2017 Jeff Erickson. Last update December 28, 2018.

For the most recent edition, see http://jeffe.cs.illinois.edu/teaching/algorithms/.

 I’m writing a book.
I’ve got the page numbers done,
so now I just have to fill in the rest.
— Stephen Wright

About These Notes

These are lecture notes that I wrote for the course “Algorithms and Models of Computation”
at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign for the first time in Fall 2014, and revised in Fall
2016. This course is a broad introduction to theoretical computer science, aimed at third-year
computer science and computer engineering majors, that covers both fundamental topics in
algorithms, for which I already have copious notes, and fundamental topics on formal languages
and automata, for which I wrote the notes you are reading now.
The most recent revision of these notes (or nearly so) is available online at http://jeffe.cs.
illinois.edu/teaching/algorithms/ (or at the shorter URLs http://algorithms.fyi/ and http://
algorithms.wtf/) along with my algorithms notes and a near-complete archive of past homeworks
and exams from all my theoretical computer science classes. I plan to revise and reorganize
these whenever I teach this material, so you may find more recent versions on the web page of
whatever course I am currently teaching.

About the Exercises

Each note ends with several exercises, many of which I used in homeworks, discussion sections,
or exams. ? Stars indicate more challenging problems (which I have not used in homeworks,
discussion sections, or exams). Many of these exercises were contributed by my amazing teaching
assistants:
Alex Steiger, Chao Xu, Charles Carlson, Connor Clark, Gail Steitz, Grant Czajkowski,
Hsien-Chih Chang, Junqing Deng, Konstantinos Koiliaris, Nick Bachmair, Spencer
Gordon, Tana Wattanawaroon, and Yipu Wang
Please do not ask me for solutions to the exercises. If you are a student, seeing the solution
will rob you of the experience of solving the problem yourself, which is the only way to learn the
material. If you are an instructor, you shouldn’t ask your students to solve problems that you
can’t solve yourself. (I don’t always follow my own advice, so some of the problems are buggy.)

Caveat Lector!
These notes are best viewed as an unfinished first draft. You should assume the notes
contain several major errors, in addition to the usual unending supply of typos, fencepost errors,
off-by-one errors, and brain farts. Before Fall 2014, I had not taught this material in more than
two decades. Moreover, the course itself is still very new—Lenny Pitt and I developed the
course and offered the first pilot in Spring 2014 (with Lenny presenting the formal language
material)—so even the choice of which material to emphasize, sketch, or exclude is still very
much in flux.
I would sincerely appreciate feedback of any kind, especially bug reports.
Thanks, and enjoy!

— Jeff
 Contents
1 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Regular Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Finite-State Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Nondeterministic Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Context-Free Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6 Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7 Undecidability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8 Universal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9 Nondeterministic Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1 Strings
Throughout this course, we will discuss dozens of algorithms and computational models that
manipulate sequences: one-dimensional arrays, linked lists, blocks of text, walks in graphs,
sequences of executed instructions, and so on. Ultimately the input and output of any algorithm
must be representable as a finite string of symbols—the raw contents of some contiguous portion
of the computer’s memory. Reasoning about computation requires reasoning about strings.
This note lists several formal definitions and formal induction proofs related to strings. These
definitions and proofs are intentionally much more detailed than normally used in practice—most
people’s intuition about strings is fairly accurate—but the extra precision is necessary for any
sort of formal proof. It may be helpful to think of this material as part of the “assembly language”
of theoretical computer science. We normally think about computation at a much higher level
of abstraction, but ultimately every argument must “compile” down to these (and similar)
definitions.
But the actual definitions and theorems are not the point. The point of playing with this
material is to get some experience working with formal/mechanical definitions and proofs,
especially inductive definitions and recursive proofs. Or should I say recursive definitions and
inductive proofs? Whatever, they’re the same thing. Strings are a particularly simple and
induct
convenient playground for recurs ion; we’ll see many more examples throughout the course.
When you read this note, don’t just look at the content of the definitions and proofs; pay close
attention to their structure and the process for creating them.

1.1 Strings
Fix an arbitrary finite set Σ called the alphabet; the individual elements of Σ are called symbols
or characters. As a notational convention, I will always use lower-case letters near the start of
the English alphabet (a, b, c, . . . ) as symbol variables, and never as explicit symbols. For explicit
symbols, I will always use fixed-width upper-case letters (A, B, C, . . . ), digits (0, 1, 2, . . . ),

1
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

or other symbols (, $, #, •, . . . ) that are clearly distinguishable from variables. For further
emphasis, I will almost always typeset explicit symbols in RED.
A string (or word) over Σ is a finite sequence of zero or more symbols from Σ. Formally, a
string w over Σ is defined recursively as either

• the empty string, denoted by the Greek letter " (epsilon), or

• an ordered pair (a, x ), where a is a symbol in Σ and x is a string over Σ.

We normally write either a · x or simply ax to denote the ordered pair (a, x). Similarly, we
normally write explicit strings as sequences of symbols instead of nested ordered pairs; for
example, STRING is convenient shorthand for the formal expression (S, (T, (R, (I, (N, (G, ")))))).
As a notational convention, I will always use lower-case letters near the end of the English
alphabet (. . . , w, x, y, z) for string variables, and SHOUTY  RED  MONOSPACED  TEXT to typeset
explicit (non-empty) strings.
The set of all strings over Σ is denoted Σ∗ (pronounced “sigma star”). It is very important to
remember that every element of Σ∗ is a finite string, although Σ∗ itself is an infinite set containing
strings of every possible finite length.

1.2 Two Recursive Functions

Our first several proofs about strings will involve two natural functions, one giving the length of
a string, the other gluing two strings together into a larger string. These two function behave
exactly the way you think they do, but if we actually want to prove anything about them, we first
have to define them in a way that supports formal proofs. Because the objects on which these
functions act—strings–are defined recursively, the functions must also be defined recursively.
The length |w | of a string w is the number of symbols in w, defined formally as follows:
¨
0 if w = ",
|w| :=
1 + |x| if w = ax.

For example, the string FIFTEEN has length 7, the string SEVEN has length 5, and the string 5
has length 1. Although they are formally different objects, we do not normally distinguish
between symbols and strings of length 1.
The concatenation of two strings x and y, denoted either x • y or simply x y, is the
unique string containing the characters of x in order, followed by the characters in y in
order. For example, the string NOWHERE is the concatenation of the strings NOW and HERE;
that is, NOW • HERE = NOWHERE. (On the other hand, HERE • NOW = HERENOW.) Formally,
concatenation is defined recusively as follows:
¨
z if w = ",
w • z :=
a · (x • z) if w = ax.

(Here I’m using a larger dot • to formally distinguish the operator that concatenates two arbitrary
strings from from the syntactic sugar · that builds a string from a single character and a string.)
When we describe the concatenation of more than two strings, we normally omit all dots
and parentheses, writing wxyz instead of (w • (x • y)) • z, for example. This simplification is
justified by the fact (which we will prove shortly) that the function • is associative.

2
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

1.3 Induction on Strings

Induction is the standard technique for proving statements about recursively defined objects.
Hopefully you are already comfortable proving statements about natural numbers via induction,
but induction is actually a far more general technique. Several different variants of induction
can be used to prove statements about more general structures; here I describe the variant
that I recommend (and actually use in practice). This variant follows two primary design
considerations:

• The case structure of the proof should mirror the case structure of the recursive defin-
ition. For example, if you are proving something about all strings, your proof should have
two cases: Either w = ", or w = ax for some symbol a and string x.

• The inductive hypothesis should be as strong as possible. The (strong) inductive hypoth-
esis for statements about natural numbers is always “Assume there is no counterexample k
such that k < n.” I recommend adopting a similar inductive hypothesis for strings: “Assume
there is no counterexample x such that |x| < |w|.” Then for the case w = a x, we have
|x| = |w| − 1 < |w| by definition of |w|, so the inductive hypothesis applies to x.

Thus, string-induction proofs have the following boilerplate structure. Suppose we want to prove
that every string is perfectly cromulent, whatever that means. The white boxes hide additional
proof details that, among other things, depend on the precise definition of “perfectly cromulent”.

Proof: Let w be an arbitrary string.

Assume, for every string x such that |x| < |w|, that x is perfectly cromulent.
There are two cases to consider.

• Suppose w = " .

Therefore, w is perfectly cromulent.

• Suppose w = a x for some symbol a and string x .

The induction hypothesis implies that x is perfectly cromulent.

Therefore, w is perfectly cromulent.

In both cases, we conclude that w is perfectly cromulent. ƒ

Here are three canonical examples of this proof structure. When developing proofs in this
style, I strongly recommend first mindlessly writing the green text (the boilerplate) with lots of
space for each case, then filling in the red text (the actual theorem and the induction hypothesis),
and only then starting to actually think.
Many students are confused (or at least bored and distracted) by the fact that we are proving
mind-bogglingly obvious facts. If you’re one of these students, try to remember that the lemmas
themselves are not the point. Pay close attention to the structure of the proofs. Notice how each
proof follows the boilerplate described above. Notice how every sentence of the proof follows
mechanically from earlier sentences, definitions, and the rules of standard logic and arithmetic.

Lemma 1.1. Adding nothing does nothing: For every string w, we have w • " = w.

3
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

Proof: Let w be an arbitrary string. Assume that x • " = x for every string x such that |x| < |w|.
There are two cases to consider:

• Suppose w = ".

w•" ="•" because w = ",

=" by definition of concatenation,
=w because w = ".

• Suppose w = ax for some symbol a and string x.

w • " = (a · x) • " because w = ax,

= a · (x • ") by definition of concatenation,
=a·x by the inductive hypothesis,
=w because w = ax.

In both cases, we conclude that w • " = w. ƒ

Lemma 1.2. Concatenation adds length: |w • x| = |w| + |x| for all strings w and x.

Proof: Let w and x be arbitrary strings. Assume that | y • x| = | y| + |x| for every string y such
that | y| < |w|. (Notice that we are using induction only on w, not on x.) There are two cases to
consider:

• Suppose w = ".

|w • x| = |" • x| because w = "

= |x| by definition of •
= |"| + |x| |"| = 0 by definition of | · |
= |w| + |x| because w = "

• Suppose w = a y for some symbol a and string y.

|w • x| = |a y • x| because w = a y
= |a · ( y • x)| by definition of •
= 1 + | y • x| by definition of | · |
= 1 + | y| + |x| by the inductive hypothesis
= |a y| + |x| by definition of | · |
= |w| + |x| because w = a y

In both cases, we conclude that |w • x| = |w| + |x|. ƒ

Lemma 1.3. Concatenation is associative: (w • x) • y = w • (x • y) for all strings w, x, and y.

Proof: Let w, x, and y be arbitrary strings. Assume that (z • x) • y = z • (x • y) for every string
z such that |z| < |w|. (Again, we are using induction only on w.) There are two cases to consider.

4
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

• Suppose w = ".
(w • x) • y = (" • x) • y because w = "
=x•y by definition of •
= " • (x • y) by definition of •
= w • (x • y) because w = "

• Suppose w = az for some symbol a and some string z.

(w • x) • y = (az • x) • y because w = az
= (a · (z • x)) • y by definition of •
= a · ((z • x) • y) by definition of •
= a · (z • (x • y)) by the inductive hypothesis
= az • (x • y) by definition of •
= w • (x • y) because w = az

In both cases, we conclude that (w • x) • y = w • (x • y). ƒ

1.4 More Than One Path up the Mountain

This is not the only boilerplate that one can use for induction proofs on strings. For example,
we can model our case analysis on the following observation, whose easy proof we leave as an
exercise (hint, hint): A string w ∈ Σ∗ is non-empty if and only if either
• w = a for some symbol a ∈ Σ, or

• w = x • y for some non-empty strings x and y.

In the latter case, Lemma 1.2 implies that |x| < |w| and | y| < |w|, so in an inductive proof, we
can apply the inductive hypothesis to either x or y (or even both).
Here is a proof of Lemma 1.3 that uses this alternative recursive structure:

Proof: Let w, x, and y be arbitrary strings. Assume that (z • x 0 ) • y 0 = z • (x 0 • y 0 ) for all strings
x 0 , y 0 , and z such that |z| < |w|. (We need a stronger induction hypothesis here than in the
previous proofs!) There are three cases to consider.
• Suppose w = ".
(w • x) • y = (" • x) • y because w = "
=x•y by definition of •
= " • (x • y) by definition of •
= w • (x • y) because w = "

• Suppose w is equal to some symbol a.

(w • x) • y = (a • x) • y because w = a
= (a · x) • y because a • z = a · z by definition of •
= a · (x • y) by definition of •
= a • (x • y) because a • z = a · z by definition of •
= w • (x • y) because w = a

5
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

• Suppose w = u • v for some nonempty strings u and v.

(w • x) • y = ((u • v) • x) • y because w = u • v
= (u • (v • x)) • y by the inductive hypothesis, because |u| < |w|
= u • ((v • x) • y) by the inductive hypothesis, because |u| < |w|
= u • (v • (x • y)) by the inductive hypothesis, because |v| < |w|
= (u • v) • (x • y) by the inductive hypothesis, because |u| < |w|
= w • (x • y) because w = u • v

In all three cases, we conclude that (w • x) • y = w • (x • y). ƒ

1.5 Indices, Substrings, and Subsequences

Finally, I’ll conclude this note by formally defining several other common functions and terms
related to strings.
For any string w and any integer 1 ≤ i ≤ |w|, the expression wi denotes the ith symbol in w,
counting from left to right. More formally, w i is recursively defined as follows:
¨
a if w = ax and i = 1,
w i :=
x i−1 if w = ax and i > 1.
As one might reasonably expect, w i is formally undefined if i < 1 or w = ", and therefore (by
induction) if i > |w|. The integer i is called the index of w i .
We sometimes write strings as a concatenation of their constituent symbols using this subscript
notation: w = w1 w2 · · · w|w| . While completely standard, this notation is slightly misleading,
because it incorrectly suggests that the string w contains at least three symbols, when in fact w
could be a single symbol or even the empty string.
In actual code, subscripts are usually expressed using the bracket notation w [i]. Brackets
were introduced as a typographical convention over a hundred years ago because subscripts and
superscripts1 were difficult or impossible to type.2 We sometimes write strings as explicit arrays
w[1 .. n], with the understanding that n = |w|. Again, this notation is potentially misleading;
always remember that n might be zero; the string/array could be empty.
A substring of a string w is another string obtained from w by deleting zero or more symbols
from the beginning and from the end. Formally, a string y is a substring of w if and only if
there are strings x and z such that w = x yz. Extending the array notation for strings, we write
w [i .. j ] to denote the substring of w starting at w i and ending at w j . More formally, we define
¨
" if j < i,
w[i .. j] :=
w i · w[i + 1 .. j] otherwise.

1The same bracket notation is also used for bibliographic references, instead of the traditional footnote/endnote
superscripts, for exactly the same reasons.
2A typewriter is an obsolete mechanical device loosely resembling a computer keyboard. Pressing a key on a
typewriter moves a lever (called a “typebar”) that strikes a cloth ribbon full of ink against a piece of paper, leaving the
image of a single character. Many historians believe that the ordering of letters on modern keyboards (QWERTYUIOP)
evolved in the late 1800s, reaching its modern form on the 1874 Sholes & Glidden Type-WriterTM , in part to separate
many common letter pairs, to prevent typebars from jamming against each other; this is also why the keys on most
modern keyboards are arranged in a slanted grid. (The common folk theory that the ordering was deliberately
intended to slow down typists doesn’t withstand careful scrutiny.) A more recent theory suggests that the ordering
was influenced by telegraph3 operators, who found older alphabetic arrangements confusing, in part because of
ambiguities in American Morse Code.

6
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

A proper substring of w is any substring other than w itself. For example, LAUGH is a proper
substring of SLAUGHTER. Whenever y is a (proper) substring of w, we also call w a (proper)
superstring of y.
A prefix of w[1 .. n] is any substring of the form w[1 .. j]. Equivalently, a string p is a prefix
of another string w if and only if there is a string x such that px = w. A proper prefix of w is
any prefix except w itself. For example, DIE is a proper prefix of DIET.
Similarly, a suffix of w[1 .. n] is any substring of the form w[i .. n]. Equivalently, a string s is a
suffix of a string w if and only if there is a string x such that xs = w. A proper suffix of w is
any suffix except w itself. For example, YES is a proper suffix of EYES, and HE is both a proper
prefix and a proper suffix of HEADACHE.
A subsequence of a string w is a string obtained by deleting zero or more symbols from
anywhere in w. More formally, z is a subsequence of w if and only if

• z = ", or
• w = a x for some symbol a and some string x such that z is a subsequence of x.
• w = a x and z = a y for some symbol a and some strings x and y, and y is a subsequence
of x.

A proper subsequence of w is any subsequence of w other than w itself. Whenever z is a (proper)

subsequence of w, we also call w a (proper) supersequence of z.
Substrings and subsequences are not the same objects; don’t confuse them! Every substring
of w is also a subsequence of w, but not every subsequence is a substring. For example, METAL is
a subsequence, but not a substring, of MEATBALL. To emphasize the distinction, we sometimes
redundantly refer to substrings of w as contiguous substrings, meaning all their symbols appear
together in w.

Exercises
Most of the following exercises ask for proofs of various claims about strings. Here “prove” means
give a complete, self-contained, formal proof by inductive definition-chasing, using the boilerplate
structure recommended in Section 1.3. Feel free to use Lemmas 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 without proof,
but don’t assume any other facts about strings that you have not actually proved. (Some later
exercises rely on results proved in earlier exercises.) Do not appeal to intuition, and do not use
the words “obvious” or “clearly” or “just”. Most of these claims are in fact obvious; the real
exercise is understanding and formally expressing why they’re obvious.

3A telegraph is an obsolete electromechanical communication device consisting of an electrical circuit with a

switch at one end and an electromagnet at the other. The sending operator would press and release a key, closing and
opening the circuit, originally causing the electromagnet to push a stylus onto a moving paper tape, leaving marks
that could be decoded by the receiving operator. (Operators quickly discovered that they could directly decode the
clicking sounds made by the electromagnet, and so the paper tape became obsolete almost immediately.) The most
common scheme within the US to encode symbols, developed by Alfred Vail and Samuel Morse in 1837, used (mostly)
short (·) and long (−) marks—now called “dots” and “dashes”, or “dits” and “dahs”—separated by gaps of various
lengths. American Morse code (as it became known) was ambiguous; for example, the letter Z and the string SE were
both encoded by the sequence · · · · (“di-di-dit, dit”). This ambiguity has been blamed for the S key’s position on the
typewriter keyboard near E and Z.
Vail and Morse were of course not the first people to propose encoding symbols as strings of bits. That honor
apparently falls to Francis Bacon, who devised a five-bit binary encoding of the alphabet (except for the letters J and U)
in 1605 as the basis for a steganographic code—a method or hiding secret message in otherwise normal text.

7
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

Note to instructors: Do not assign any of these problems before solving them
yourself, especially on exams. It’s very easy to underestimate the difficulty of these
problems, or at least the lengths of their solutions, which for exams is a reasonable proxy
for difficulty. Also, several later exercises rely implicitly on identities like #(a, x • y) =
#(a, x) + #(a, y) that are only proved in earlier exercises. It’s unfair to assign these problems
to students without telling them which earlier results they can use.

Useful Facts About Strings

1. Let w be an arbitrary string, and let n = |w|. Prove each of the following statements.

(a) w has exactly n + 1 prefixes.

(b) w has exactly n proper suffixes.
(c) w has at most n(n + 1)/2 distinct substrings. (Why “at most”?)
(d) w has at most 2n − 1 distinct proper subsequences. (Why “at most”?)

2. Prove the following useful identities for all strings w, x, y, and z directly from the definition
of •, without referring to the length of any string.

(a) If x • y = x, then y = ".

(b) If x • y = y, then x = ".
(c) If x • z = y • z, then x = y.
(d) If x • y = x • z, then y = z.

3. Prove the following useful fact about substrings. An arbitrary string x is a substring of
another arbitrary string w = u • v if and only if at least one of the following conditions
holds:

• x is a substring of u.
• x is a substring of v.
• x = yz where y is a suffix of u and z is a prefix of v.

4. Let w be an arbitrary string, and let n = |w|. Prove the following statements for all indices
1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ k ≤ n.

(a) |w[i .. j]| = j − i + 1

(b) w[i .. j] • w[ j + 1 .. k] = w[i .. k]
(c) wR [i .. j] = (w[i 0 .. j 0 ])R where i 0 + j = j 0 + i = |w| + 1.

Recursive Functions

5. For any symbol a and any string w, let #(a, w ) denote the number of occurrences of a
in w. For example, #(A, BANANA) = 3 and #(X, FLIBBERTIGIBBET) = 0.

(a) Give a formal recursive definition of the function #: Σ × Σ∗ → N.

8
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

(b) Prove that #(a, x y) = #(a, x) + #(a, y) for every symbol a and all strings x and y.
Your proof must rely on both your answer to part (a) and the formal recursive
definition of string concatenation.
(c) Prove the following identity for all alphabets Σ and all strings w ∈ Σ∗ :
X
|w| = #(a, w)
a∈Σ

[Hint: Don’t try to use induction on Σ.]

6. The reversal w R of a string w is defined recursively as follows:

(
" if w = "
wR :=
x R • a if w = a · x

(a) Prove that (wR )R = w for every string w.

(b) Prove that |wR | = |w| for every string w.
(c) Prove that (w • x)R = x R • wR for all strings w and x.
(d) Prove that #(a, wR ) = #(a, w) for every string w and every symbol a. (See Exercise 5.)

7. For any string w and any non-negative integer n, let w n denote the string obtained by
concatenating n copies of w; more formally, we define
(
" if n = 0
wn :=
n−1
w•w otherwise

For example, (BLAH)5 = BLAHBLAHBLAHBLAHBLAH and " 374 = ".

(a) Prove that wm • wn = wm+n for every string w and all non-negative integers n and m.
(b) Prove that #(a, wn ) = n · #(a, w) for every string w, every symbol a, and every
non-negative integer n. (See Exercise 5.)
(c) Prove that (wR )n = (wn )R for every string w and every non-negative integer n.
(d) Prove that for all strings x and y that if x • y = y • x, then x = wm and y = wn for
some string w and some non-negative integers m and n. [Hint: Careful with "!]

8. The complement w c of a string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ is obtained from w by replacing every 0 in w

with a 1 and vice versa. The complement function can be defined recursively as follows:


" if w = "
c c
w := 1 · x if w = 0 x

0 · x c if w = 1 x

(a) Prove that |w| = |wc | for every string w.

9
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

(b) Prove that (x • y)c = x c • y c for all strings x and y.

(c) Prove that #(1, w) = #(0, wc ) for every string w.
(d) Prove that (wR )c = (wc )R for every string w.
(e) Prove that (wn )c = (wc )n for every string w and every non-negative integer n.

9. For any string w ∈ {0, 1, 2}∗ , let w + denote the string obtained from w by replacing each
symbol a in w by the symbol corresponding to (a + 1) mod 3. for example, 0102101+ =
1210212. This function can be defined more formally as follows:


 " if w = "


1· x +
if w = 0 x
w+ :=

 2· x +
if w = 1 x


0· x +
if w = 2 x

(a) Prove that |w| = |w+ | for every string w ∈ {0, 1, 2}∗ .
(b) Prove that (x • y)+ = x + • y + for all strings x, y ∈ {0, 1, 2}∗ .
(c) Prove that #(1, w+ ) = #(0, w) for every string w ∈ {0, 1, 2}∗ .
(d) Prove that (w+ )R = (wR )+ for every string w ∈ {0, 1, 2}∗ .

10. For any string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ , let swap(w) denote the string obtained from w by swapping the
first and second symbols, the third and fourth symbols, and so on. For example:
swap(101) = 011
swap(100111) = 011011
swap(10 11 00 01 10 1) = 01 11 00 10 01 1.
The swap function can be formally defined as follows:


" if w = "
swap(w) := w if w = 0 or w = 1

 ba • swap(x) if w = ab x for some a, b ∈ {0, 1} and x ∈ {0, 1}∗

(a) Prove that |swap(w)| = |w| for every string w.

(b) Prove that swap(swap(w)) = w for every string w.
(c) Prove that swap(wR ) = (swap(w))R for every string w such that |w| is even. [Hint: Your
proof must invoke four different recursive definitions: reversal wR , concatenation •,
length |w|, and the swap function!]

11. For any string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ , let sort(w) denote the string obtained by sorting the characters
in w. For example, sort(010101) = 000111. The sort function can be defined recursively
as follows: 

" if w = "
sort(w) := 0 · sort(x) if w = 0 x

sort(x) • 1 if w = 1 x

Prove the following for all strings w, x, y ∈ {0, 1}∗ :

10
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

(a) Prove that sort(w) ∈ 0∗ 1∗ for every string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ .

(b) Prove that #(0, w) = #(0, sort(w)) for every string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ .
(c) Prove that |w| = |sort(w)|, for every string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ .
(d) Prove that sort(w) = 0#(0,w) 1#(1,w) , for every string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ . (In other words,
prove that our recursive definition is correct.)
(e) Prove that sort(wR ) = sort(w), for every string w ∈ {0, 1}∗ .

12. Consider the following recursively defined function:



 y if x ="



x if y ="
merge(x, y) := 0 · merge(w, y) if x = 0w



 0 · merge(x, z) if y = 0z


1 · merge(w, y) if x = 1w and y = 1z
For example:
merge(10, 10) = 1010
merge(10, 010) = 01010
merge(010, 0001100) = 0000101100

(a) Prove that merge(x, y) ∈ 0∗ 1∗ for all strings x, y ∈ 0∗ 1∗ . (The regular expression
0∗ 1∗ is shorthand for the language {0a 1 b | a, b ≥ 0}.)
(b) Prove that sort(x • y) = merge(sort(x), sort( y)) for all strings x, y ∈ {0, 1}∗ . (The
sort function is defined in the previous exercise.)

13. Consider the following pair of mutually recursive functions on strings:

( (
" if w = " " if w = "
evens(w) := odds(w) :=
odds(x) if w = a x a · evens(x) if w = ax

For example, evens(MISSISSIPPI) = ISSIP and odds(MISSISSIPPI) = MSISPI.

(a) Prove the following identity for all strings w and x:

(
evens(w) • evens(x) if |w| is even,
evens(w • x) =
evens(w) • odds(x) if |w| is odd.

(b) State and prove a similar identity for odds(w • x).

(c) Prove that every string w is a shuffle of evens(w) and odds(w).

14. Consider the following recursively defined function:

¨
" if w = "
stutter(w) :=
aa • stutter(x) if w = ax

For example, stutter(MISSISSIPPI) = MMIISSSSIISSSSIIPPPPII.

11
Models of Computation Lecture 1: Strings [Sp’18]

(a) Prove that |stutter(w)| = 2|w| for every string w.

(b) Prove that evens(stutter(w)) = w for every string w.
(c) Prove that odds(stutter(w)) = w for every string w.
(d) Prove that stutter(w) is a shuffle of w and w, for every string w.
(e) Prove that w is a palindrome if and only if stutter(w) is a palindrome, for every
string w.

15. Consider the following recursive function:

¨
z if w = "
faro(w, z) :=
a · faro(z, x) if w = ax

For example, faro(0011, 0101) = 00011011. (A "faro shuffle" splits a deck of cards into
two equal piles and then perfectly interleaves them.)

(a) Prove that |faro(x, y)| = |x| + | y| for all strings x and y.
(b) Prove that faro(w, w) = stutter(w) for every string w.
(c) Prove that faro(odds(w), evens(w)) = w for every string w.

16. For any string w, let declutter(w) denote the string obtained from w by deleting any symbol
that equals its immediate successor. For example, declutter(MISSISSIPPI) = MISISIPI,
and declutter(ABBCCCAAAACCCBBA) = ABCACBA.

(a) Given a recursive definition for the function declutter.

(b) Using your recursive definition, prove that declutter(stutter(w)) = declutter(w) for
every string w.
(c) Using your recursive definition, prove that declutter(wR ) = (declutter(w))R for every
string w.
(d) Using your recursive definition, prove that w is a palindrome if and only if declutter(w)
is a palindrome, for every string w.

17. Consider the following recursively defined function

¨
" if w = "
hanoi(w) =
hanoi(x) • a • hanoi(x) if w = ax

Prove that |hanoi(w)| = 2|w| − 1 for every string w.

18. Consider the following recursively defined function

¨
" if w = "
slog(w) =
a · slog(evens(w)) if w = ax
 
Prove that |slog(w)| = log2 (|w| + 1) for every string w.

12
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Let my luggage be brought up, and Haga V. subir mi equipaje, y no
don't forget the towels. olvide las toallas.
We want dinner at six o'clock. Queremos comer a las seis.
Will you dine at table d'hôte at ¿Quiere V. comer en la mesa redonda
seven, Sir? a las siete?
No, I shall dine with some friends No, comeré con algunos amigos en
in town and return late. la cuidad y volveré tarde.
It is very warm in this country. Hace mucho calor en este país.
Have you any cooling drinks? ¿Tiene V. algunos refrescos?
Please reserve us two good seats at Sírvase V. reservarnos dos buenos
table d'hôte. asientos en la mesa redonda.{300}
There is a bell at the side of the Hay campanilla al lado de la
chimney-piece. chimenea.
Is there no electric bell? ¿No hay timbre eléctrico?
No, Sir, but we have electric light No, Señor, pero tenemos luz
in all the rooms. eléctrica en todos los cuartos.
I notice that there is neither soap Veo que no hay ni jabón ni agua
nor fresh water. fresca.
The servant will put everything in La criada pondrá todo en orden
order directly. inmediatamente.
Please let me have my bill. Hágame V. el favor de la cuenta.
Here is your account, Sir. Aquí tiene V. su cuenta, Señor.
Very well, please receipt it. Muy bien, sírvase V. poner el recibí.
Waiter here is something for you. Mozo, aquí tiene V. para sí.
The Money-changer. El Cambista.
Where could I get my money ¿Donde podría cambiar mi dinero?
changed?
Where is the nearest money- ¿Donde está la casa de cambio más
changer's? próxima?{301}
Is there a money-changer's close ¿Hay algún cambista cerca de aquí?
by?
I wish to change some English Quiero cambiar algún dinero inglés.
money.
What do you give for a sovereign? ¿A cómo paga V. la libra esterlina?
Can you change me a five-pound ¿Puede V. cambiarme un billete de
note? banco de cinco libras?
What is the rate of exchange to- ¿A qué tipo está hoy el cambio?
day?
I will take half in silver. Tomaré la mitad en plata.
I should like a peseta's worth of Quisiera una peseta en calderilla.
coppers.
Could you cash me this cheque on ¿Podría V. hacerme efectivo este
London? cheque sobre Londres?
The Theatre. El Teatro.
Is there a good theatre (music-hall, ¿Hay en ésta un buen teatro (teatro
picture-house) here? de variedades, cine)?
Which is the best theatre? ¿Cual es el mejor teatro?
Is there a performance to-night? ¿Hay función esta noche? {302}
What are they playing? ¿Qué representan?
What time does the performance ¿A qué hora principia (es) la
begin? función?
What time is the performance ¿A qué hora acaba (termina) la
over? función?
Is there a good orchestra? ¿Hay buena orquesta?
What are the prices? ¿Cuáles son los precios (de las
localidades)?
The boxes, the stalls, the circle, the Los palcos, las butacas, el anfiteatro,
gallery (the gods). la galería (el paraíso).
What time does the box-office ¿A qué hora se abre la taquilla?
open?
A ticket, a pass, a pass-out check. Un billete, un billete de favor, una
contraseña.
Let me have a programme, please, Hágame V. el favor de un programa,
and the book of words. y el libreto.
Can I hire a pair of opera glasses? ¿Puedo alquilar unos gemelos?
The interval. El entreacto.
The curtain. El telón.
The Seasons. Las Estaciones.
Winter is over at last. Al fin se acabó el invierno.
Do you like winter? ¿Le gusta a V. el invierno?
I like it as much as summer. Me gusta tanto como el verano.
You are perhaps the only one of V. será tal vez el único de esa
that opinion. opinión.
In winter one is not comfortable En invierno no se está bien sino al
except by the fireside. lado del fuego.
Can you skate? ¿Sabe V. patinar?
Yes, a little. Sí, un poco.
Have you skated this winter? ¿Ha patinado V. este invierno?
The winter has been very severe El invierno ha sido muy riguroso
this year. este año.
I am glad to see the spring. Me alegro de ver la primavera.
It is the season I like best. Es la estación que me gusta más.
It is the most pleasant of all Es la más agradable de todas las
seasons. estaciones.
The season is very backward. La estación está muy atrasada.{304}
I fear we shall have a very hot Temo que tendremos un verano muy
summer. caluroso.
One would think that the order of Se diría que las estaciones están
the seasons had been reversed. todas trastornadas.
Summer is the season of the El verano es la estación de la
harvest. cosecha.
Summer is over. Ya pasó el verano.
After summer comes the autumn. Después del verano viene el otoño.
Autumn is the season of vintages. El otoño es la estación de las
vendimias.
Towards the middle of autumn the Hacia mediados del otoño las
mornings and evenings are cool. mañanas y las tardes son frescas.
Which season do you like best, ¿Cuál estación le gusta a V. más,
Sir? Señor?
Unquestionably, I like the spring Sin duda alguna, me gusta más la
best. primavera.
Is it as hot in England as in Spain ¿Hace tanto calor en Inglaterra como
in the summer? en España en el verano?{305}
Never. It is not too warm in Nunca. No hace demasiado calor en
summer nor too cold in winter. el verano ni demasiado frío en el
invierno.
The winter in the north of Spain is En el norte de España el invierno es
almost as cold as in England. casi tan frío como en Inglaterra.
No doubt, but for my part I should Sin duda, pero por mi parte preferiría
prefer the winter of Northern Spain el invierno del norte de España al de
to that of England, especially Inglaterra, especialmente al de
London, as it is very foggy there. Londres, pues allí hace mucha
niebla.
You are right; it must be V. tiene razón; se debe mencionar,
mentioned, however, that the fog is sin embargo, que la niebla no se
not so much due to the climate of debe tanto al clima de aquel país
that country as to the immense como al enorme consumo de carbón
quantities of coal consumed daily que tiene lugar todos los días en las
in the dwellings and numerous casas{306} particulares y en las
manufactories. muchas fábricas.
I have read that as soon as a means He leído que tan pronto como se
of consuming the smoke is haya inventado un modo de
invented, London will have a very consumir el humo, Londres tendrá
agreeable climate. un clima muy agradable.
Let us hope that this will soon be Esperemos que sea pronto.
the case.

The Weather. El Tiempo.

How is the weather? ¿Cómo está el tiempo?
What sort of weather is it? ¿Qué tiempo hace?
Is it fine? ¿Hace buen tiempo?
Yes, it is fine. Sí, hace buen tiempo,
It is beautiful weather. Hace un tiempo hermoso.
It is charming weather. Hace un tiempo magnífico.
It is most delightful weather. Hace un tiempo delicioso.
The weather is settled. El tiempo se ha com puesto.{307}
The weather is unsettled El tiempo está variable (inconstante,
(changeable). inseguro, tornadizo).
The weather is very close. El tiempo está muv pesado
(bochornoso).
It is getting cloudy. El cielo se encapota.
It is cloudy. Está nublado.
It is bad weather. Hace mal tiempo.
It is very bad weather. Hace muy mal tiempo.
It is windy. Hace viento.
It is very windy. Hace mucho viento.
The wind drops. Cede el viento.
It is foggy. Hace niebla.
It is very foggy. Hace mucha niebla.
It is mild. Está templado.
It is cool. Hace fresco.
It is warm. Hace calor.
It is cold. Hace frío.
It is very-hot. Hace mucho calor.
It is very cold Hace mucho frío.
It is piercingly cold. Hace un frío penetrante.
It is dry. Está seco.
It is damp. Está húmedo.
It is going to rain. Va a llover.
I feel drops of rain. Siento gotas de lluvia.
It rains. It is raining. Llueve. Está lloviendo.{308}
It rains (is raining) very fast (very Llueve muy fuerte.
hard).
It pours. It is pouring. Llueve a cántaros.
It is only a shower. No es más que un chubasco.
It does not rain. It is not raining. No llueve.
The weather is stormy. El tiempo está tempestuoso
(borrascoso).
We shall have a storm. Tendremos tempestad.
Do you hear the thunder? ¿Oye V. los truenos?
It thunders. It is thundering. Truena. Está tronando.
The thunder roars. Suenan los truenos.
It lightens. It is lightening. Relampaguea. Está
relampagueando.
It has thundered and lightened all Ha tronado y relampagueado toda la
night. noche.
The weather is clearing up. El tiempo se está aclarando.
It freezes. It is freezing. It freezes Hiela. Hiela muy fuerte.{309}
(is freezing) very hard.
The river is frozen. El río está helado.
We shall have snow. Tendremos nieve.
There is much snow. Hay mucha nieve.
It hails. It is hailing. Graniza. Está granizando.
It thaws. It is thawing. Deshiela, Está deshelando.
It is dusty. Hace polvo.
It is very dusty. Hace mucho polvo.
It snows. It is snowing. Nieva. Está nevando.
I am very glad of it. Me alegro de ello.
We shall go sleighing. Iremos a pasear en trineo.
Have you a sleigh. ¿Tiene V. trineo?
It is good sleighing to-day. Hoy es buen día para pasear en
trineo.
The rain has laid the dust. La lluvia ha abatido el polvo.
The pavement is slippery. La acera está resbaladiza.
It is very bad walking. Se anda con dificultad.
It is daylight. Es de día.
It is night. Es de noche.
It is dark. Está oscuro.
It is very dark. Está muy oscuro.
It is moonlight. Hace luna.
It is starlight. Está estrellado.
The days are drawing in. Los días disminuyen.
The days begin to get shorter. Los días principian a disminuir.{310}
The days are very short. Los días son muy cortos.
The days are lengthening. Los días aumentan.
I am warm. Tengo calor.
I am cold. Tengo frío.
It is very cold. Hace mucho frío.
Are you warm? ¿Tiene V. calor?
Are you cold? ¿Tiene V. frío?
Are you not warm? ¿No tiene V. calor?
Are you not cold? ¿No tiene V. frío?
I am quite wet. Estoy calado.
I am wet through. Estoy calado hasta los huesos.
Dry your clothes. Seque V. su ropa.
We shall have a fine day. Tendremos buen día.
The sun shines. Hace sol.
Look at that beautiful rainbow! ¡Vea V. ese hermoso arco iris!
What is the weather like to-day? ¿Qué tiempo hace hoy?
It is clear. Está claro.
It is very nice to-day. Está muy bueno hoy.
What do you think of a walk in the Como hace tan buen tiempo, ¿qué
fields, the weather being so fine? piensa V. de un paseo en los
campos?{311}
It seems to me rather uncertain. El tiempo me parece un poco
incierto (inseguro).
What sort of weather had you in ¿Qué tal estaba el tiempo ayer en
London yesterday when you left Londres cuando salió V. de allá?
there?
It was very foggy, as is usual during Hacía mucha niebla, como de
this month. ordinario en este mes.
Is it true that in England the sun is ¿Es verdad que en Inglaterra no se
invisible during a quarter of the ve el sol durante la cuarta parte del
year? año?
It is not so bad as that, but there are No es tan malo como eso, pero hay
days, especially in November and días, especialmente en noviembre y
February, when we cannot see the febrero, en que, con la niebla, no
sun, nor even the lamps in the podemos ver el sol, ni tampoco los
streets for the fog. mismos faroles de las calles.
Is it possible? ¿Es posible?
I hope we shall not have bad Espero que no tendremos mal
weather to-morrow. tiempo mañana.{312}
It rained the whole day when we Llovía todo el día que fuimos al
went into the country. campo.
It does not rain now, let us hurry Ya no llueve, volvamos de prisa.
back.
Has much snow fallen? ¿Ha caído mucha nieve?
Yes, the roads are covered with Sí, los caminos están cubiertos de
snow. nieve.
Snow has been falling during the Ha nevado toda la noche.
whole night.
There was no snow at all last El invierno pasado no cayó ninguna
winter. nieve.
Did you hear the thunder last night? ¿Oyó V. anoche los truenos?
Yes, it was a terrible storm, and it Sí, era una tempestad terrible, y
rained in torrents. llovía a mares.
Do you think the river will soon ¿Cree V. que el río se helará pronto?
freeze over?
I have no doubt that we shall be No dudo que podremos patinar
able to skate to-morrow if this frost mañana si continúa esta helada.{313}
lasts.
Oh, yes, if it does not thaw Ah, sí, si entretanto no deshiela.
meanwhile.
Periods of Time. Períodos de Tiempo.
Come to-day. Venga V. hoy.
Go there on Christmas-day. Vaya V. allá el día de Navidad.
It is broad day-light. Está muy entrado el día.
The day you are coming. El día que V. venga.
To-day will be fine. Hará buen tiempo hoy.
I rise in the morning at six o'clock. Me levanto a las seis de la mañana.
Send it to me this morning. Envíemelo V. esta mañana.
Come and spend the evening at my Venga V. a pasar la tarde en mi casa.
house.
I did it in the fore-noon. Lo hice antes de mediodía.
I will do it to-morrow morning. Lo haré mañana por la mañana.
I shall see you this afternoon. Le veré a V. esta tarde.
I shall go and see him the day after Iré a verle pasado mañana.
to-morrow.
I was there yesterday. Estuve allí ayer.{314}
He sent it to me two days after. Me lo envió dos días después.
The next day I went there. Fuí allá al día siguiente.
The next day I saw him. Le ví el día siguiente.
Two days ago. Hace dos días.
A fortnight ago. Hace quince días.
It is three weeks since. Ya hace tres semanas.
About that time. Hacia aquel tiempo.
Last month. El mes pasado.
Next month. El mes que viene.
Last year. El año pasado.
Next year. El año próximo. El año que viene.
The year one thousand nine El año mil novecientos quince.
hundred and fifteen.
I shall see you at Easter. Le veré a V. por Pascua.
I shall move at mid-summer. Mudaré de casa el día de San Juan.
At Michaelmas. El día de San Miguel.
The quarter is ended. Ha terminado el trimestre.
The next quarter. El próximo trimestre.
The first of next month. El primero del mes que viene.
The second of last month. El dos del mes pasado.{315}
The fourth of the present month. El cuatro del mes actual.
The last day of the month. El último día del mes.
At the end of the month. Al fin del mes.
At the end of the week. Al fin de la semana.
Towards the middle of the month. Hacia mediados del mes.
Last week. La semana pasada.
Next week. La semana que viene.
In a week. En una semana.
In a fortnight. En quince días.
This day week (time to come). De hoy en ocho.
This day fortnight (time to come). De hoy en quince.
This day week (time past). Hace una semana. Hace ocho días.
This day fortnight (time past). Hace una quincena. Hace quince
días.
It will soon be a week since... Hará pronto una semana que...
We shall go there some day. Iremos allá algún día.
One of these days. Un día de estos.
He says he will pay you some day Dice que le pagará a V. algún día.
or other. {316}
I do it daily. Lo hago todos los días.
Every day. Todos los días. Cada día.
Every other day. Cada tercer día. Un día sí y otro no.
A weekly paper. Un semanal.
A daily paper. Un diario.
Time and Dates. Horas y Fechas.
Do you know what time it is? ¿Sabe V. qué hora es?
What time is it? ¿Qué hora es?
I do not know. No sé. No lo sé.
Could you tell me the time? ¿Podría V. decirme la hora que es?
I cannot tell you exactly. No puedo decírselo exactamente.
Yes, Sir; it is half-past six. Sí, Señor; son las seis y media.
Will you kindly tell me the time? ¿Tiene V. la bondad de decirme qué
hora es?
What is the time by your watch? ¿Qué hora es por su reloj de V.?
¿Qué hora tiene V.?
It is one o'clock. Es la una.
It is nearly two o'clock. Son cerca de las dos.{317}
It is about two o'clock. Son las dos próximamente.
It is half-past two. Son las dos y media.
It is on the stroke of three. Van a dar las tres. Las tres están al
caer.
It is ten minutes past five. Son las cinco y diez.
It is a quarter past seven. Son las siete y cuarto.
It is twenty minutes past eight. Son las ocho y veinte.
It is a quarter to eleven. Son las once menos cuarto.
It has just struck twelve. Acaban de dar las doce.
It is noon. Es mediodía.
It is midnight. Es medianoche.
It is early. Es temprano.
It is late. Es tarde.
It is very late. Es muy tarde.
Come about nine o'clock. Venga V. a eso de las nueve.
Is your watch right? ¿Va bien su reloj de V.?
My watch is right. Mi reloj va bien.
My watch is not right. Mi reloj no va bien.
My watch is too fast. Mi reloj adelanta.
My watch is too slow. Mi reloj atrasa.{318}
It gains a quarter of an hour every Adelanta un cuarto de hora todos
day. los días.
It loses half-an-hour every day. Atrasa media hora todos los días.
It has stopped. Se ha parado.
It stops now and then. Se para de cuando en cuando.
It does not go. No anda.
Look at your watch. Mire V. su reloj.
It is not wound up. No tiene cuerda.
I forgot to wind it up. He olvidado darle cuerda.
It is out of order. Está desarreglado (descompuesto).
Something is broken in it. Se le ha roto algo.
The mainspring is broken. Se ha roto el muelle real.
I think the chain is broken. Creo que se ha roto la cadena.
Have it mended. Mándelo V. componer.
I am going to send it to the watch- Voy a mandarlo al relojero.
maker.
Send it to... Mándelo a...
He is a good watch-maker. Es buen relojero.
Yes, but he charges too much. Sí, pero cobra demasiado. {319}
It is true, but you can rely on what Es verdad, pero se puede fiar en lo
he does. que hace.
I bought this watch in Switzerland. Compré este reloj en Suiza.
Tell me the time the train for... is Dígame V. a qué hora saldrá el tren
going to start. para...
It will start at half-past one. Saldrá a la una y media.
I must leave at three o'clock in the Tendré que marcharme a las tres de
afternoon. la tarde.
My friend will arrive by the Mi amigo llegará por el ferrocarril
Northern Railway at four o'clock del Norte mañana por la mañana a
to-morrow morning. las cuatro.
What is the date of the letter you ¿Cuál es la fecha de (¿De qué fecha
have in your hand? es) la carta que tiene V. en la mano?
How is the letter dated which you ¿Qué fecha tiene la carta que ha
have received from your brother recibido V. de su hermano en...?
in...?
His letter bears the date fifth of Su carta tiene la fecha de 5 de enero
January, 1915. de 1915.{320}
What is the date to-day? ¿A cuántos estamos hoy?
What day of the month is it? ¿A cuántos estamos del mes?
What day of the month is this? ¿A cuántos del mes estamos hoy?
It is the fifteenth of March. Estamos a quince de marzo.
To-day is the sixteenth. Hoy estamos a dieciseis.
To-day is the nineteenth of Hoy es día diecinueve de febrero.
February.
Is it the first of the month? ¿Es el primero del mes?
No, it is the second. No, es el dos.
I think it is the fifth. Creo que estamos a cinco.
When will the races take place—in ¿Cuándo tendrán lugar las carreras
the morning or in the evening? —por la mañana o por la tarde?
At noon. A mediodía.
When do you expect to return from ¿Cuando espera V. volver de su
your journey? viaje?
I shall return by the steamer Volveré por el vapor "Reina," que
"Queen" which is due on the first of deberá llegar el primero de abril.
April.
News. Noticias.
Is there any news to-day? ¿Hay noticias hoy?
Is there anything new? ¿Hay algo de nuevo?
Do you know anything new? ¿Sabe V. algo de nuevo?
What is the news? ¿Qué hay de nuevo?
What news is there? ¿Qué noticias hay?
What news do you bring us? ¿Que noticias nos trae V.?
Have you not got anything fresh to ¿No tiene V. nada de nuevo que
tell us? decirnos?
Have you not heard of anything ¿No ha oído V. nada de nuevo?
new?
What do they talk about in the ¿Qué se dice en la ciudad?
town?
What is the news in your ¿Qué se dice en su localidad de V.?
neighbourhood?
I know nothing new. No sé nada de nuevo.
There is nothing new. No hay nada de nuevo.
There is no news. No hay noticias.
I have not heard of anything. No he oído nada.
There is nothing fresh talked about. No se dice nada de nuevo.
There is good news. Hay buenas noticias.{322}
The news is good. La noticias son buenas.
There is bad news. Hay malas noticias.
The news is very bad. Las noticias son muy malas.
This is good news. Esta noticia es buena.
This is bad news. Esta noticia es mala.
I have heard that... He oído decir que...
I did not hear of that. No he oído hablar de eso.
Did you read the papers? ¿Ha leído V. los periódicos?
What do the papers say? ¿Qué dicen los periódicos?
I have not read the papers to-day. No he leído los periódicos hoy.
Did you see that in any paper? ¿Ha visto V. eso en algún periódico?
It is only mentioned in a private Se hace mención de ello sólamente
letter. en una carta particular.
Do they say who received the ¿Se dice quién recibió la carta?
letter?
This news wants confirmation. Esta noticia necesita confirmación.
From whom have you had that ¿De quién tiene V. esa noticia?
news?
How do you know that? ¿Cómo sabe V. eso?{323}
I have it on good authority. Lo sé de buena tinta.
That news has not been confirmed. Esa noticia no se ha confirmado.
That report has proved false. Ese rumor resulta ser falso.
That is no longer talked of. Ya no se habla más de eso.
Do they still talk of war? Se habla todavía de guerra?
Do they think we shall have peace? ¿Se cree que tendremos paz?
It is not likely. No es probable.
Have you heard from your brother? ¿Ha recibido V. noticias de su
hermano?
Have you heard lately from your ¿Ha recibido V. últimamente
friend? noticias de su amigo?
Is it long since he wrote to you? ¿Hace mucho (tiempo) que no le
escribe a V.?
I have not heard from him for two Hace dos meses que no tengo
months. noticias de él.
He has not written for these three Hace tres semanas que no me
weeks. escribe.
I expect to hear from him.{324} Espero noticias de él.
What does he say to you about ¿Que le dice a V. de Madrid?
Madrid?
He gives me a description of most Me da una descripción de la mayor
of the curiosities of that city. parte de las curiosidades de esa
ciudad.
Is he pleased with Madrid? ¿Le gusta Madrid?
He is enjoying himself self so much Tanto se divierte allí que no dice
there that he does not speak of nada de volver.
returning.
Age. Edad.
How old are you? ¿Cuántos años tiene V.?
What is your age? ¿Qué edad tiene V.?
What may be his age? ¿Qué edad tendrá él?
How old may he be? ¿Cuántos años tendrá él?
He will be twelve the fifteenth of Tendrá doce años el quince del mes
next month. que viene.
I shall soon be ten. Tendrá pronto diez años.
I am twenty-five. Tengo veinticinco años.{325}
How old is your father? ¿Cuántos años tiene su padre de V.?
What is your brother's age? ¿Qué edad tiene su hermano de V.?
How old is your brother? ¿Cuántos años tiene su hermano de
V.?
He is not yet twenty. No ha cumplido todavía los veinte.
He is not yet of age. No es todavía mayor de edad.
He is still under age. Aun es menor.
How old may that child be? ¿Cuántos años tendrá ese niño?
He is only six years old. Tiene sólamente seis años.
He is tall for his age. Es alto para su edad.
How old is your sister? ¿Cuantos años tiene su hermana de
V.?
She is more than seven. Tiene más de siete años.
She is almost eight. Tiene casi ocho años.
She is twenty. Tiene veinte años.
She is in the flower of her youth. Está en la flor de su juventud.
Your uncle must be very nearly Se tío de V. debe de tener cerca de
forty years old. cuarenta años.
He is in his forty-second year. Ha entrado en los cuarenta y dos
años.{326}
He is in the prime of life. Está en la flor de la edad.
Your grandfather looks very aged. Su abuelo de V. parece muy viejo.
How old do you think he is? ¿Cuántos años le parece a V. que
tiene?
How old would you take him to be? ¿Cuántos años le echaría V.?
He cannot be more than eighty. No puede tener más que ochenta
años.
He is eighty-four. Tiene ochenta y cuatro años.
He is older than I. Tiene más años que yo.
I did not think him so old. No le creía tan viejo.
He carries his age well. No representa su edad.
Is your father still living? ¿Vive todavía su padre de V.?
He must be very old. Debe ser muy viejo.
He is just entering his hundredth Acaba de entrar en los cien años.
year.
He has become quite childish. Se ha vuelto niño.
Asking and Giving Advice. Pedir y Dar Consejo.
What shall we do? ¿Qué haremos?{327}
What must we do? ¿Qué debemos hacer?
What are we to do? ¿Qué hemos de hacer?
What remains for us to do? ¿Qué nos queda que hacer?
What is to be done? ¿Qué se ha de hacer?
We must decide something. Tendremos que tomar alguna
resolución.
I am quite puzzled. Estoy muy perplejo.
I do not know what to do. No sé qué hacer.
I am greatly embarrassed. Estoy en el mayor embarazo.
We are very much perplexed. Estamos muy perplejos.
If I were you. Si fuera V. Yo que V.
If I were in your place. Si estuviera en su lugar de V.
I advise you to... Le aconsejo a V. que...
I am of opinion that you should go Soy de opinión que V. debe ir allá.
there.
If you will take my advice you will Si quiere V. seguir mi consejo, lo
do it. hará.
An idea strikes me. Se me ocurre una idea.
I have been thinking of that. He pensado en eso. {328}
A thought has struck me. Me ha ocurrido una idea.
Let me alone. Déjeme V. en paz.
Let us do one thing. Hagamos una cosa.
I have changed my mind. He mudado de opinión.
Let us do something else. Hagamos otra cosa.
We must go another way to work. Tendremos que emprenderlo de otro
modo.
What do you say about it? ¿Qué dice V. de ello? ¿Qué le
parece a V.?
What do you think of it? ¿Qué piensa V. (opina V.) de ello?
I think as you do. Opino como V.
It is very well thought out. Está muy bien pensado.
It is very well imagined. Está muy bien concebido.
It is a good idea. Es buena idea.
It is a very good idea. Es muy buena idea.
I am of your opinion. Soy de la opinión de V.
It is the best way. Es el mejor modo.
Would it not be better...? ¿No sería mejor...?
It is the best we can do. Es lo mejor que podemos hacer.{329}
It is the only thing we have to do. Es la única cosa que nos queda que
hacer.
That is the only course we can take. Ese es el único partido que podemos
tomar.
Affirming and Denying. Afirmar y Negar.
I am going to tell you that... Voy a decirle a V. que...
I assure you that... Le aseguro a V. que...
That I assure you. Eso se lo aseguro a V.
That I can assure you. Eso se lo puedo asegurar a V.
You may rely upon what I tell you. Puede V. fiarse en lo que le digo.
There is no doubt about it. No cabe duda.
You are right. Tiene V. razón.
You are quite right. Está V. muy en lo cierto.
Yes. No. Sí. No.
I say it is. Digo que sí.
I say it is not. Digo que no.
I maintain that it is so. Sostengo que es así.
I maintain that it is not so. Sostengo que no es así.{330}
I suppose so. Supongo que sí.
I suppose not. Supongo que no.
I should say so. Me parece que sí.
Certainly. Cierto que sí.
Certainly not. Cierto que no.
You may well think that... Bien puede V. pensar que...
You may easily think that... V. puede fácilmente creer que...
Do you think so? ¿Lo cree V.? ¿Lo cree V. así?
I think so. Lo creo. Así lo creo.
I think so too. Yo lo creo también.
I should think so! ¡Ya lo creo!
I think not. Creo que no.
I do not think so. No lo creo.
I should think not indeed! ¡Eso sí que no!
You must know that... V. debe saber que...
I must tell you... Debo decirle a V....
I am inclined to think... Me inclino a creer...
I dare say it is so. No dudo que será así.
What do you mean? ¿Qué quiere V. decir?
I do not know what you mean. No sé lo que V. quiere decir.
Is it certain that...? ¿Es cierto que...?
Is it true that...? ¿Es verdad que...?
Yes, it is true. Sí, es verdad.{331}
It is quite true. Es muy verdad.
It is positive. Es positivo.
It is only too true. Es demasiado cierto.
It is a fact. Es un hecho.
It is an absolute fact. Es un hecho positivo.
Are you sure of what you say? ¿Está V. seguro de lo que dice?
Would you believe that...? ¿Querrá V. creer que...?
I could believe it. Podría creerlo.
Do you believe it? ¿Lo cree V.?
I believe it. Lo creo.
I believe so too. Yo lo creo también.
That I believe. Eso lo creo yo.
Do not believe it. No lo crea V.
I do not believe it. No lo creo.
I do not believe a word of it. No creo ni una palabra de ello.
I emphatically deny it. Lo niego rotundamente.
No such thing. No hay tal cosa.
Are you quite sure of it? ¿Está V. seguro de ello?
Nothing is more certain. Nada hay más cierto.
I answer for it. Respondo de ello.
I could not answer for it. No podría responder de ello.
You may believe it. Puede V. creerlo.
It cannot be true. No puede ser verdad.{332}
You are mistaken. Se engaña V. Se equivoca V.
It is not true. No es verdad.
It is a fib. Es mentira (cuento, historia).
It is a pure invention. Es pura invención.
There is nothing more untrue. Nada hay más falso.
I affirm that.... Afirmo que...
I give you my word for it. Doy a V. mi palabra.
Upon my honour. Palabra de honor.
Upon my word of honour. Bajo mi palabra de honor.
Is it really true? ¿Es eso verdad?
I can hardly believe it. Apenas si puedo creerlo.
I heard it said. Lo he oído decir.
Everybody says so. Todo el mundo lo dice.
We must not always give credit to No se debe creer siempre todo lo se
all we hear people say. dice.
Expressions of Surprise. Expresiones de Sorpresa.
What! ¡Cómo!
Truly! ¡En verdad!
Really! ¡De veras!{333}
Is it possible! ¡Es posible!
Could it be possible! ¡Será posible!
Is it really possible! ¡Pero es posible!
How can that be! ¡Cómo puede ser eso!
How is that possible! ¡Cómo es posible eso!
That is impossible! ¡Eso es imposible!
It is not possible! ¡No es posible!
That cannot be! ¡Eso no puede ser!
I cannot think how...! ¡No puedo figurarme cómo...!
I am surprised! ¡Me extraño!
I am quite astonished! ¡Me extraño mucho!
That surprises me! ¡Eso me extraña!
You surprise me! ¡V. me sorprende!
You astonish me! ¡V. me asombra!
This is what surprises me! ¡Esto es lo que me sorprende!
That quite astonishes me! ¡Eso me sorprende mucho!
I wonder at it! ¡Me admiro de ello!
This is quite astonishing! ¡Esto es muy sorprendente!
It is incredible (inconceivable)! ¡Es increíble (inconcebible)!
It is a thing not to be conceived! ¡Es cosa que no se puede concebir!
That is unheard of! ¡Eso es inaudito!
It is a thing unheard of! ¡Es cosa inaudita!{334}
It is strange! ¡Es extraño! ¡Es raro!
That is very strange! ¡Eso es muy extraño!
That is a strange sort of business ¡Es por cierto cosa bastante extraña!
indeed!
How strange! ¡Qué raro!
What a strange (an extraordinary) ¡Qué cosa más rara (tan
thing! extraordinaria)!
Expressions of Probability. Expresiones de Probabilidad.
That is probable. Eso es probable.
That is very likely. Eso es muy verosímil.
It is likely enough. Es bastante verosímil.
That is not unlikely. Eso no es inverosímil.
That is hardly probable. Eso no es muy probable.
That is not probable. Eso no es probable.
That is very probable. Eso es muy probable.
That is more than probable. Eso es más que probable.
It is very possible. Es muy posible.
There is nothing impossible in it. Nada tiene de imposible.
That is not impossible. Eso no es imposible.
I see nothing impossible in it. No veo en ello nada de imposible.
{335}
Perhaps. Tal vez.
Perhaps so. Puede que sí.
That may be. Eso puede ser.
That might be so. Eso podría ser.
I do not wonder at it. No me admiro de ello.
I am not surprised at it. No me causa extrañeza.
That does not astonish me. Eso no me asombra.
That does not surprise me. Eso no me sorprende.
It is not astonishing. No es asombroso.
It is not surprising. No es sorprendente.
There is nothing surprising in it. Nada hay de sorprendente en ello.
You do not surprise me. V. no me sorprende.
I should not wonder at it. No me causaría extrañeza.
That would not surprise me. Eso no me sorprendería.
There would be nothing Nada tendría de particular.
extraordinary about it.
It is quite natural. Es muy natural.
Of course. Naturalmente. Por de contado.
No wonder. No hay que extrañar.
It is a matter of course. Es cosa natural. Es de cajón.
That is understood. Eso se entiende.
Expressions of Sorrow. Expresiones de Sentimiento.
I am sorry for it. Lo siento.
I am very sorry for it. Lo siento mucho.
I am extremely sorry for it. Lo siento muchísimo (infinito).
How sorry I am for it! ¡Cuánto lo siento!
I am inconsolable. Estoy inconsolable.
It makes me quite unhappy. Me causa mucho pesar.
It vexes me beyond expression. Me contraria más de lo podría decir.
It is a pity. Es lástima.
It is a great pity. Es una gran lástima.
It is a real pity. Es una verdadera lástima.
What a pity! ¡Qué lástima!
It is a sad thing. Es cosa triste.
It is a painful case. Es un caso doloroso.
That is very vexing. Eso es muy molesto.
That is very disagreeable. Eso es muy desagradable.
It is very sad. Es muy triste.
It is a cruel case. Es un caso cruel.
That is very hard. Eso es muy duro.
This is shocking. Esto es espantoso.
That is very unfortunate. Eso es muy desgraciado.{337}
It is a great misfortune. Es una gran desgracia.
It is very regrettable. Es muy sensible.
It is dreadful. Es horrible.
It is terrible. Es terrible.
Expressions of Joy. Expresiones de Alegría.
I am very pleased. Estoy satisfechísimo (contentísimo).
I am very glad. Me alegro mucho.
I am very happy. Estoy muy contento.
I am delighted. Estoy encantado.
I am extremely happy to hear it. Me alegro mucho de saberlo.
They are very glad of it. Se alegran mucho de ello.
We congratulate you on it. Felicitamos a V. por ello.
Expressions of Blame. Expresiones de Censura.
Shame! ¡Vergüenza!
Are you not ashamed? ¿No tiene V. vergüenza?
Are you not ashamed of yourself? ¿No se avergüenza V.?
You ought to be ashamed. Debiera V. avergonzarse.
I am ashamed of you. Tengo vergüenza de V.{338}
What a shame! ¡Qué vergüenza!
It is shameful. Es vergonzoso.
It is a shameful thing. Es cosa vergonzosa.
It is very bad. Es muy malo.
How naughty that is! ¡Qué feo es eso!
That is very wicked. Eso es muy perverso.
It is abominable. Es abominable.
How can you be so wicked? ¿Cómo puede V. ser tan malvado?
How could you do so? ¿Cómo ha podido V. hacer eso?
How came you to do so? ¿Cómo ha llegado V. a hacerlo?
You are very wicked. V. es muy malo.
Why did you do that? ¿Por qué ha hecho V. eso?
Expressions of Anger. Expresiones de Cólera.
I am very angry. Estoy muy enfadado.
I am not in a good humour. No estoy de buen humor.
He is very cross. Está muy enojado.
I am cross with you. Estoy enfadado con V.
I am offended. Estoy ofendido.
I am exasperated. Estoy exasperado.
I am beside myself. Estoy fuera de mí.
You see me in a terrible passion. V. me ve que estoy muy
encolerizado.{339}
It makes me quite mad. Me pone furioso.
That is very wrong of you. Eso está muy mal en V.
You are very much to blame. V. tiene mucha culpa.
You are quite wrong. V. está muy equivocado.
How did you dare to do so? ¿Cómo se ha atrevido V. a hacerlo?
I am not satisfied with you. No estoy contento con V.
I am quite displeased with you. Estoy muy descontento con V.
I shall be very angry. Estaré muy enfadado.
Be quiet. Estése V. quieto.
Will you soon have done? ¿Acabará V. pronto?
Can you not be quiet? ¿No puede V. estarse quieto?
I tell you beforehand that.... Le prevengo a V. que...
I warn you that.... Le advierto a V. que...
I warn you of it. Se lo advierto a V.
Pay attention to what I say. Atienda V. a lo que le digo.
Mind what I have told you. Tenga V. presente lo que le he
dicho.
I will not have that. No quiero eso.
I will not suffer that. No permitiré eso.{340}
I will have it so. Lo quiero así.
I insist upon it. Insisto en ello.
Mind it does not happen again. Cuidado que no pase otra vez.
Do not do so any more. No vuelva V. a hacerlo más.
Don't be impertinent. No sea V. impertinente.
Silence! hold your tongue. ¡Silencio! cállese V.
Will you hold your tongue? ¿Quiere V. callarse?
No arguing. Nada de razones.
Don't answer. No responda V.
Get out quickly. Váyase V. pronto.
I will see you no more. No quiero verle a V. más.
Your conduct is inexcusable. Su conducta de V. es inexcusable.
This is not the first time you have Esta no es la primera vez que V. me
annoyed me. ha contrariado.
Expressions of Antipathy Expresiones de Antipatía y
and Aversion. Aversión.
I do not like that man. No me gusta aquel hombre.
I detest that man. Detesto a ese hombre.
I cannot bear him. No puedo sufrirle.{341}
His manners are repellent. Sus modales son repugnantes.
He has not a pleasing countenance. No tiene cara agradable.
His looks are not prepossessing. Su semblante no es simpático.
There is something displeasing in Hay algo de repugnante en sus
his manners. modales.
I cannot restrain the aversion I feel No puedo reprimir la aversión que
for him. siento para él.
He has no notion of propriety. No tiene idea de la delicadeza.
He has no regard for anybody. No tiene respeto para nadie.
That makes him hated. Eso le hace odioso.
He is hated by everybody. Todo el mundo le aborrece.
I avoid him as much as I can. Le huyo cuanto puedo.
He bores me much. Me aburre mucho.
His language is offensive. Su lenguaje es ofensivo.
He talks most extravagantly. Habla con mucha extravagancia.
He likes to dictate to everyone. Le gusta mandar a todo el mundo.
What an insupportable being! ¡Qué hombre tan insoportable!{342}
What a tiresome person! ¡Qué sujeto tan molesto!
Shall we never be able to get rid of ¿No podremos deshacernos nunca
him? de él?
I wish he would go. Quisiera que se fuese.
At last he has gone. Por fin se ha marchado.
I would rather have the word of an Antes aceptaría la palabra de un
honest man than his oath. hombre honrado que el juramento
de ése.
The hatred of that man is less El odio de ese hombre es menos
dangerous than you think. peligroso de lo que V. piensa.
Expressions of Sympathy Expresiones de Simpatía y
and Friendship. Amistad.
He is my friend. Es mi amigo.
He is a friend of mine. Es amigo mío.
He is my best friend. Es mi mejor amigo.
He is my intimate friend. Es mi amigo íntimo.
We are intimate friends. Somos amigos íntimos.
I am sincerely attached to him. Le quiero sinceramente. {343}
Our friendship is reciprocal. Nuestra amistad es recíproca.
Our dispositions are alike. Somos del mismo carácter.
We are closely united. Somos estrechamente unidos.
We agree perfectly well. Nos entendemos perfectamente.
He has given me many proofs of his Me ha dado muchas pruebas de su
friendship. amistad.
I hope we shall never part. Espero que jamás nos separaremos.
I felt an attachment for him the first He simpatizado con él desde la
time I met him. primera vez que le vi.
We love each other like brothers. Nos queremos como hermanos.
There is no secret between us. No nos ocultamos nada.
We have no secrets from each other. No tenemos secretos el uno para el
otro.
I would do anything for him. Haría cualquier cosa por él.
He is very attentive to me. Es muy obsequioso para conmigo.
Nobody esteems you more than I Nadie le aprecia a V. más que yo.
do.
He is the best of my friends. Es el mejor de mis amigos.
Correspondence. Correspondencia.
Mr. (or Esq.) Sr. (or Sr. D. before a Christian
name or its initial).
Messrs. Sres. (Sres. D. is seldom used).
Mrs. Sra. (or Sra. Da. as above).
Miss Srta. (or Srta. Da.).
Sir, Dear Sir, Muy Sr. mío: Muy Sr. nuestro:
Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Muy Sres. míos: Muy Sres.
nuestros:
Madam, Dear Madam, Muy Sra. mía: Muy Srta. mía:
My dear Sir, Muy Sr. mío y amigo:
Dear father, Querido padre:
Dear mother, Querida madre:
My dear friend, Mi querido amigo: Mi querida
amiga.
To begin a Letter. Principiar una Carta.
I beg to inform you... Tengo el honor de informarle(s)...
We take the liberty of informing Nos tomamos la libertad de
you... informarle(s)...
I hasten to... Me apresuro a...
We beg to acknowledge receipt of Tenemos el honor de acusarle(s)
your letter of... recibo de su carta de...{345}
I regret to... Siento (tener que)...
Your favour of the 15th inst. duly Oportunamente nos favoreció su
reached us. grata 15 de actual.
We enclose herewith... Adjunto remitimos...
Confirming our letter of the 29th Confirmándole(s) nuestra carta de
ult.... 29 del ppdo....
I have just received your letter of Acabo de recibir su carta del 10
the 10th inst. corriente.
I am exceedingly obliged to you Agredezco a V. muchísimo...
for...
I was very sorry to hear... He sentido mucho saber...
I thank you for your kind letter of... Agradezco a V. su amable carta de...
I had the honour of writing to you Tuve el honor de escribirle a V. el
on the 12th ult. 12 del mes ppdo.
The person who will hand you this El dador (portador) de la presente es
letter is Mr. X. who lives in the el Sr. X., quien vive en la misma
same town as I. ciudad que yo.
Dear friend, I cannot make out your Amigo mío: No puedo comprender
silence; what has become of you? su silencio; ¿qué ha sido de V.?
To end a Letter. Concluir una Carta.
I am, dear Sir, yours truly, Soy de V. atento S. S.[28] Q.B.S.M.
[29]
We remain, dear Sirs, Yours Quedamos de Vs. atentos S.S.
faithfully, Q.B.S.M.
Without further, I remain, Yours Sin más, me repito de V. atto. S.S.
truly, etc.
Awaiting your reply, I remain, En espera de su contestación, quedo
Yours faithfully, de V. afmo. S.S.
Always at your service, I remain,... Siempre a las órdenes de V. me
repito suyo afmo. S.S.
Yours very truly, De V. muy atto. y S.S.
Sincerely yours, Suyo afmo. S.S. y amigo
Your sincere friend, Su amigo que le aprecia
Your affectionate son, Su hijo que le ama
We beg to subscribe ourselves, Tenemos el honor de suscribirnos de
Gentlemen, your most obedient Vs. sus más atentos y S.S. Q.B.S.M.
servants,
 English and Spanish Idiomatic Expressions and
Proverbs.
Expresiones Idiomáticas
y Refranes Ingleses y Españoles.
ENGLISH. SPANISH.
He was caught in the very act. Fué cogido infraganti (en flagrante
delito).
Much ado about nothing. Mucho ruído y pocas nueces.
Without more ado. Sin más ni más.
To be on the alert. Estar alerta. Estar sobre aviso.
After all. Al fin y al cabo.
Grasp all, lose all. Quien mucho abarca, poco aprieta.
La codicia rompe el saco.
Once for all. De una vez para siempre.
When all comes to all. Con todo eso.
I have an appointment with him. Tengo cita con él.
Make an appointment with me. Deme V. hora para verle.{348}
Arm in arm. Del brazo. De bracete.
On good authority. De buena tinta.
Be it as it may. Sea como fuere.
As you make your bed so you must Quien mala cama hace, en ella se
lie on it. yace.
Early to bed, and early to rise, makes Si quieres buena fama, no te dé el
a man healthy, wealthy and wise. sol en la cama.
The beginning is the difficulty. El primer paso es el que cuesta.
Well begun is half done. Obra empezada, medio acabada.
He betrayed himself. Se vendió.
Between you and me. Para entre los dos.
Birds of a feather flock together. Dios los cría y ellos se juntan.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the Más vale pájaro en mano que
bush. buitre volando.
To kill two birds with one stone. Matar dos pájaros de un tiro.
A little bird told me. Me lo ha dicho un pajarito.
To come to blows. Venir a las manos.
Without striking a blow. Sin dar un golpe. {349}
We are in the same boat. Nos hallamos en el mismo trance.
To blow out one's brains. Levantarse la tapa de los sesos.
A bone of contention. Una manzana de discordia.
What is bred in the bone will never La cabra tira al monte. Genio y
come out of the flesh. figura hasta la sepultura.
To bribe someone. Untarle a alguno las manos.
New brooms sweep clean. Escoba nueva barre bien.
He does not beat about the bush. No se anda por las ramas.
To put the cart before fore the horse. Tomar el rábano por las hojas.
They lead a cat and dog life. Viven como perros y gatos.
Changes are pleasant. En la variedad está el gusto.
Charity begins at home. La caridad bien ordenada empieza
por sí (por uno propio).
A burnt child dreads fire. El gato escaldado del agua fría
huye.
Spare the rod and spoil the child. Ese te quiere bien que te hace
llorar.{350}
He is a chip off the old block. De tal palo, tal astilla.
To carry coals to Newcastle. Llevar hierro a Vizcaya.
Cut your coat according to your Cual el año tal el jarro.
cloth.
It is not the coat that makes the man. El hábito no hace al monje.
First come, first served. Primer venido, primer servido.
Tell me your company, and I will tell Dime con quien andas, y te diré
you your character. quien eres.
Too many cooks spoil the broth. Barco que mandan muchos
pilotos, pronto se va a pique.
To pluck up courage. Hacer de tripas corazón.
Much cry and little wool. Mucho ruido y pocas nueces.
There is many a slip 'twixt the cup De la mano a la boca, se pierde la
and the lip. sopa.
To be at daggers drawn. Comerse unos a otros.
To look daggers. Comerse a uno con la vista (con
los ojos).{351}
The better the day, the better the En buen día, buenas obras.
deed.
None so deaf as those who won't No hay peor sordo que el que no
hear. quiere oír.
To make ducks and drakes with one's Derrochar el dinero.
money.
To put all one's eggs in one basket. Poner toda la carne en el asador.
He is out of his element. Está fuera de su centro.
They find it very hard to make both Encuentran mucha dificultad en
ends meet. redondear sus rentas.
He had a narrow escape. De buena se ha librado.
Even or odd. Pares o nones.
At all events. En todo caso.
Coming events cast their shadows Por las vísperas se conocen los
before. santos.
Don't get excited. No se altere V. No se sofoque V.
Like father, like son. De tal padre, tal hijo.
Fine feathers make fine birds. Una buena capa todo lo tapa.
It makes my flesh creep. Me pone carne de gallina.{352}
To take French leave. Despedirse a la francesa.
Out of the frying-pan into the fire. Saltar de la sartén y dar en las
brasas.
She has the gift of the gab. Ella tiene mucho pico.
Ill-gotten gain never prospers. Lo ajeno no hace heredero.
The game is not worth the candle. Gastamos la pólvora en salvos.
To make game of someone. Mofarse de alguno.
God helps those who help A quien madruga, Dios le ayuda.
themselves.
All is not gold that glitters. No es oro todo lo que reluce.
To kill the goose that lays the golden Matar la gallina que pone el huevo
eggs. de oro.
To bring grist to the mill. Llevar el agua a su molino.
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