sensors

Review
Communication Technologies for Interoperable Smart
Microgrids in Urban Energy Community: A Broad Review of
the State of the Art, Challenges, and Research Perspectives
Gogulamudi Pradeep Reddy , Yellapragada Venkata Pavan Kumar and Maddikera Kalyan Chakravarthi *

School of Electronics Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati 522237, Andhra Pradesh, India
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +91-8148736577

Abstract: In modern urban energy communities, diverse natured loads (homes, schools, hospitals,
malls, etc.) are situated in the same locality and have self-electricity generation/management
facilities. The power systems of these individual buildings are called smart microgrids. Usually, their
self-electricity generation is based on renewable energy sources, which are uncertain due to their
environmental dependency. So, the consistency of self-energy generation throughout the day is not
guaranteed; thus, the dependency on the central utility grid is continued. To solve this, researchers
have recently started working on interoperable smart microgrids (ISMs) for urban communities. Here,
a central monitoring and control station captures the energy generation/demand information of
each microgrid and analyzes the availability/requirement, thereby executing the energy transactions
among these ISMs. Such local energy exchanges among the ISMs reduce the issues with uncertain
renewable energy and the dependency on the utility grid. To establish such useful ISMs, a well-
established communication mechanism has to be adopted. In this view, this paper first reviews
various state-of-the-art developments related to smart grids and then provides extensive insights into
Citation: Reddy, G.P.; Kumar, Y.V.P.; communication standards and technologies, issues/challenges, and future research perspectives for
Chakravarthi, M.K. Communication ISM implementation. Finally, a discussion is presented on advanced wireless technology, called LoRa
Technologies for Interoperable Smart
(Long Range), and a modern architecture using the LoRa technology to establish a communication
Microgrids in Urban Energy
network for ISMs is proposed.
Community: A Broad Review of the
State of the Art, Challenges, and
Keywords: communication standards; communication technologies; interoperability; interoperable
Research Perspectives. Sensors 2022,
smart microgrids (ISMs); LoRa (Long Range); LPWAN (Low-Power Wide Area Network)
22, 5881. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s22155881

Academic Editor: Javier M. Aguiar

Received: 7 July 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 2 August 2022 Present-day challenges in the energy sector, such as rising electricity generation prices,
Published: 6 August 2022 losses in energy transmission, fossil fuel depletion, environmental concerns, poor efficiency,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
higher installation cost/time, etc., have motivated the search for alternative and local
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
power generation systems. Further, the unrelenting growth of urbanization in the energy
published maps and institutional affil- sector has greatly increased the utility grid burden, which causes frequent grid outages.
iations. All of these factors have laid a path for the deployment of distributed energy systems
to reduce the dependency on the utility grid. So, the traditional central utility grid is
supplemented with renewable energy-based local generating plants [1]. Renewable energy
can be integrated at the substation level (usually large in terms of capacity) or building level
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. (usually with a small capacity) in the power system, as shown in Figure 1 [2]. These kinds
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of micro-level power generation capacities using the renewable energy sources that are
This article is an open access article connected to buildings at the distribution voltage level are called “microgrids” [3]. Further,
distributed under the terms and a steady change in the expectations and comforts of electricity consumers day-by-day
conditions of the Creative Commons demands the system to be more responsive.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Sensors 2022, 22, 5881. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155881 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22,
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881
5881 22of
of 36
39

RE RE
RE

Represents
Renewable Energy
Integration RE

RE

RE

Transmission Substation Distribution Load

RE
RE
Bulk Generation
(Non-Renewable)

RE
RE

RE

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Renewable
Renewable energy integration in
energy integration in the
the present
present power
power system
system scenario.
scenario.

Thus, these microgrids are presently evolving as intelligent local grids, called “smart
electricity consumers,
microgrids”. These provide unique features to the electricity consumers, such such as
as demand-
demand-
side management by peak load curtailment or shaving, deregulated marketing (dynamic
pricing options with real-time trading), forecasting for contingency
contingency readiness, demand
response, outage
response, outagemanagement,
management,energy
energyconservation,
conservation,energy
energyefficiency
efficiencyenhancement,
enhancement, etc.etc.
[4].
To maximize the efficiency and productivity of a smart microgrid, the integration
[4]. To maximize the efficiency and productivity of a smart microgrid, the integration of of various
components
various in and around
components in and aaround
building plays anplays
a building important role [5]. role
an important These include
[5]. These various
include
types of types
various energyofsources, loads and
energy sources, service
loads andequipment, monitoring
service equipment, and safety
monitoring systems,
and and
safety sys-
maintenance
tems, systems, as systems,
and maintenance shown in as
Figure
shown2, where information
in Figure 2, where caninformation
be exchanged canthrough
be ex-
wired
changedor wireless
through communication.
wired or wireless However, the intermittent
communication. However,behavior of renewable
the intermittent energy
behavior
sources lessens the fruitfulness of the microgrids by complicating their responses
of renewable energy sources lessens the fruitfulness of the microgrids by complicating to real-
time loading.
their responses to real-time loading.
1.1. Need and Opportunity for the ISMs
Microgrids are ecologically clean and green, deregulated, and decentralized, and can
reduce the burden on the utility grid if they are operated reliably. However, these systems
possess unsteady generation capacities due to the dependency on uncertain environmental
factors. Due to the unstable nature of the microgrids, central power grid outages have
continued. In such scenarios, the integrated/combined operation of multiple smart micro-
grids in a locality (named ISMs—interoperable smart microgrids) allows well-thought-out
contact between suppliers and customers, which enables their operating approaches to be
both more versatile and sophisticated.
On the other hand, during the early days of urbanization, urban communities were
formed by a group of homogeneous buildings (buildings with similar load profiles), so
they cannot share energy sources among themselves. However, there is a paradigm shift
in the modern urbanization scenario: communities are forming through heterogeneous
buildings (buildings with diverse load profiles), such as those of industries, apartments,
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 3 of 36

hospitals, universities, markets, malls, theatres, etc. As all these buildings may not have
the same load at any one time, these new formations make it possible to share resources.
This is a new opportunity that needs to be adapted by researchers to interoperate various
microgrids to enhance their fruitfulness. However, the major challenge lies in finding an
optimal unit commitment strategy to economically dispatch the generated energy various
microgrids [6].

Figure 2. Constituents of a smart microgrid associated with a building.

Additionally, the modern smart grid initiatives suggest including various features
such as central monitoring and control unit (CMCU) operations, demand response, effective
generation-load balancing (energy management), ICT (information and communication
technology) for continuous data monitoring and effective data processing, forecasting for
contingency readiness, emergency alerting, etc.
Hence, to address the abovementioned issues and to match the requirements of
modern smart grid initiatives, this paper proposes the implementation of ISMs in an
urban energy community. This interoperable or integral operation in a locality can enhance
energy availability and generation capability. This provides a new opportunity to effectively
address the issues of microgrid deployment as the generated energy can be collectively
utilized rather than utilized alone. Further, this local management of available energy can
reduce the dependency on the utility grid energy.

1.2. Problem Statement and Article Structure

There are some review papers published in the literature that discuss various aspects
of smart grids’ development. Table 1 summarizes all such works.
From these works, it is understood that most of the research work focuses on smart
grids; few have addressed microgrids. Additionally, few works have discussed the stan-
dalone communication technologies, which can help us understand the communication
concepts. So, it is evident that ISM-based analysis has not been conducted so far. For
this purpose, this paper presents a comprehensive investigation into the state-of-the-art
developments, insights into communication standards, technologies, and issues/challenges
present in ISM deployment. This paper also discusses key future research perspectives
followed by a proposed ISM architecture using LoRa (Long Range) technology. All of these
are covered in various sections of the paper, as shown in Figure 3.
Reference Discussed Topics Grid Level Year
[7] Current and Future Communication Solutions for Smart Grids. Macrogrid 2022
[8] Communication Technologies for Smart Grid. Macrogrid 2021
[9] Technical features of communication technologies, various standards and applications. Macrogrid 2019
[10]
Sensors 2022, Latest
22, 5881 advances in communication and information technologies. Macrogrid
4 of 36 2018
[11] Communication architectures challenges and future trends. Microgrid 2018
[12] Various elements of power system resilience. Microgrid 2017
Table 1. Summary of review works presented in the literature.
[13] Various technologies and standards in the LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network). Macrogrid 2017
[14]
Reference Telecommunication
Discussed Topics technologies (wired and wireless). Grid Level Macrogrid
Year 2016
[15][7] Electrical layer and communication layers of microgrid.
Current and Future Communication Solutions for Smart Grids. Macrogrid
Microgrid
2022
2015
[16] IEEE-1547, ISA-95, NIST, and IEC-61850. Microgrid 2015
[8] Communication Technologies for Smart Grid. Macrogrid 2021
[17] IEEE 1547.3. Macrogrid 2015
[9] Technical features of communication technologies, various standards and applications. Macrogrid 2019
[18] Power systems, power electronics fields for microgrids, and potential avenues for fur- Microgrid 2011
[10] Latest advances in communication and information technologies. Macrogrid 2018
ther research.
[11] Communication architectures challenges and future trends. Microgrid 2018
[12] Various elements of power
Fromsystem resilience.
these works, Microgrid
it is understood that most of the research 2017
work focuses on smar
[13] grids;
Various technologies few have
and standards addressed
in the LPWAN (Low microgrids.
Power WideAdditionally,
Area Network). few works have2017
Macrogrid discussed th
[14] standalone communication
Telecommunication technologies (wired and wireless). technologies, which can help us understand
Macrogrid the
2016communica
[15] tion
Electrical layer and concepts. So,
communication it isofevident
layers that ISM-based analysis has not
microgrid. been conducted
Microgrid 2015 so far. Fo
[16]
this purpose, this
IEEE-1547, ISA-95, NIST, and IEC-61850.
paper presents a comprehensive investigation into
Microgrid
the state-of-the-ar
2015
developments, insights into communication standards, technologies, and issues/chal
[17] IEEE 1547.3. Macrogrid 2015
lenges present in ISM deployment. This paper also discusses key future research perspec
Power systems, power electronics fields for microgrids, and potential avenues for
[18]
further research.
tives followed by a proposed ISM architecture using LoRa (Long Range) 2011
Microgrid technology. Al
of these are covered in various sections of the paper, as shown in Figure 3.

Section 2 Review of various state-of-the-art developments

Section 3 Insights to communication standards and technologies

Section 4 Issues and challenges in ISMs implementation

Section 5 Research perspectives

Section 6 Proposed ISMs architecture using LoRa technology

Section 7 Conclusions

Figure3.3.Organization
Figure Organizationof the paper.
of the paper.
2. Comprehensive Review of Various State-of-the-Art Developments
This section discusses the worldwide footprint of smart distribution grids and initia-
tives in the Indian power sector, along with a review of research works related to both the
macrogrid and microgrid levels.

2.1. Worldwide Footprint of Smart Distribution Grids

Smart distribution grids are evolving as a potential power system composition in
many countries, created by integrating renewable energy resources into the utility grid.
Some of the recent projects are: CFCL BlueGENs UK grid, Ecogrid Project, ERIGrid, Smart
Power Hamburg Project, Danish Edison Project, Samso, Ei Hierro, GRID4U, and Power
Matching City Projects (in Europe); Toyota city project, Kitakyushu city project, and Hanian
(in Asia); PRICE, STAmi, ISOLVES: PSSA-M, ELECTRA, Smart Grid, Hyllie, Model City,
Manheim, Vendee, Nice Grid, e-GOTHAM, Arrowhead, and NINES [10,14]. Apart from
these, many other countries have also started or deployed smart grid projects. Table 2 gives
a summary of all such worldwide initiatives.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 5 of 36

Table 2. Summary of worldwide initiatives.

Payment Policy/
S. No Name/Title Country Description Characteristics Ref.
Funding
Infrastructure of 40
Project promoters are
Digitalization of the HV/MV modern
Carpathian the DELGAZ GRID,
system with the transformer stations
Modernized Energy Hungary and Romanian DSO, with
1 deployment of in 6 counties in the [19]
Network Romania support of the
communication and IT north-east region of
(CARMEN) Romanian TSO and
facilities Romania, in addition
others
to a few more updates
This project introduces
Construction of
cross-border German DSO
Medium-Voltage
interconnections with Bayernwerk Netz
Czech Republic (MV) and
2 Gabreta SG the goal of the GmbH (BAG) and the [20]
and Germany Low-Voltage (LV)
modernization and Czech DSO EG.D
lines with smart
digitalization of energy (EGD)
elements
infrastructure
Smart network
Connecting several
Accelerating management;
renewable energy Scottish Power
3 Renewable United Kingdom integration of [21]
sources quickly to the Energy Networks
Connections (ARC) large-scale
distribution network
renewables
The energy
Facilitating the management software
CENE-National
integration of CeMOS® is
4 ATENEA Microgrid Spain Renewable Energy [22]
renewable sources at established to control
Centre
the distribution level and operate the
entire system
BMW (Bear 34 ENERCON wind
Owned by Bear
5 Mountain Wind) Canada turbine generators 102 MW capacity [23]
Mountain Wind LP
farm were used
BCIT (British ICE (Innovative Clean
Solar and wind turbines
6 Columbia Institute Canada 8KW of electricity Energy) NSERC CRD [24]
were used
of Technology) Grant
Afghanistan’s
Bamiyan Pre-paid
7 Afghanistan PV is used 1 MW capacity [25]
Renewable Energy pay-as-you-go model
Program (BREP)
2000 hydro-powered
minigrids were installed
Hydro powered Tariffs are not
8 Nepal with the help of AEPC 30 MW capacity [26]
minigrids uniform
(Alternative Energy
Promotion Center)
This project supported
Hydro powered more than 2200 rural Different tariffs
9 electrification Tanzania customers with a total 4 MW capacity available (lifeline, [27]
Project of 21.5 GWh of wholesale)
AC power
Fund from the United
Schneider Electric and States African
A local (onsite)
Rural electrification Havenhill Synergy Development
10 Nigeria minigrid was [28]
in Kigbe, Nigeria collaborated to build Foundation and
established
a minigrid Power Africa
Initiative
55% of the campus USD 15 million funds
This community college
energy requirement is supported by
11 Las Positas college USA is located in Livermore, [29]
managed by the California Energy
California
solar arrays Commission
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 6 of 36

Table 2. Cont.

Payment Policy/
S. No Name/Title Country Description Characteristics Ref.
Funding
Energy from
The 1st phase of an minigrids is being
PV (first phase:
ARC power ambitious scheme to offered on pre-pay,
12 Rwanda 0.12 MW; whole project: [30]
minigrids erect a large set of pay-as-you-go basis
3.5 MW)
minigrids in Rwanda to off-grid
communities
Buffalo Energy Ltd. was
established in 2016 to
Solar PV, biomass, wind
develop small-scale REPP funding
13 Buffalo Energy Ltd. Zambia Estimate of capacity: [31]
projects to provide support
30 MW
renewable, low-cost
power.
As the operator,
PowerGen will be
POWERGEN AND PV installed capacity:
14 Tanzania incentivized to ensure Pay-As-You-Go basis [32]
CBEA 1.2 MW
the efficient operation of
the sites.
22 solar PV power
Hydro, solar, and wind projects with a Government of
15 AEDB Pakistan [33]
power are used cumulative capacity of Pakistan
nearly 890.80 MW
Solar, wind, and hydro A goal was set on 20% The consortium of
Yokohama Smart
16 Japan power and biomass energy reduction by seven Japanese [34]
City Project (YSCP)
are used 4000 homes companies

2.2. Initiatives in the Indian Power Sector

Apart from the projects mentioned above, there are several other projects related to the
smart grid being implemented across India as given in Table 3. Importantly, the Govt. of
India approved 14 Smart Grid pilot projects in India. The Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) is working towards having a solar installed capacity of 100GW by 2030
and 200GW by 2050 [2].

Table 3. Summary of Indian initiatives.

S. No Name/Title Description Characteristics Payment Policy/Funding Ref.

Primarily solar
23 minigrids were
photovoltaic is used along
developed by WBREDA
Island minigrids in West with other renewable Flat fee for a fixed amount
1 (West Bengal Renewable [35]
Bengal technologies. Additionally, of power
Energy Development
the range is between
Agency)
25 kWp and 100 kWp
Decentralized Energy Payment policy depends on
Biomass gasification
Systems of India (DESI) Capacity varies from 30 kW the type of customer:
2 minigrid (primarily in [36]
installs biomass gasification to 150 kW commercial customers or
Bihar)
minigrid systems residential customers
Baikampady mangalore
75 houses were provided 1.2 kV PV panels Charged based on the type
3 microgrid (SELCO) in [37]
with power are used of household
Karnataka)
The system was paid for in
This is a residential music
14 kW PV is used to advance with a percentage
4 Kalkeri Sangeet Vidyalaya school. Grant was awarded [38]
manage the needs paid on commissioning of
to the school
the system
Darewadi grid is
Darewadi solar microgrid, A solar capacity of 9.36 kW Payments depending on
5 maintained by the village [39]
Pune district is available electric usage
committee
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 7 of 36

Table 3. Cont.

S. No Name/Title Description Characteristics Payment Policy/Funding Ref.

Bhamane hybrid (solar+ Bhamane is located in Uttar Solar capacity—3 kW; Monthly payments
6 [40]
micro-hydro) microgrid Karnataka District hydro capacity—5 kW depending on electric usage
BESCOM (Government of The pilot is taken up in Tariff is decided by KERC
7 Surya raitha scheme Karnataka) has taken up a Kanakapura Taluk for (Karnataka Electricity [41]
pilot project energizing 310 IP sets Regulation Commission)

2.3. Review of Research Works—Macrogrid Level

This section presents various key works in the literature related to macrogrid commu-
nications, which are summarized in Table 4. IEEE 802.15.4g is an important standard for
Smart Utility Communications Networks (SUN). This standard helps to establish a com-
mon set of rules over the globe for the interoperability of smart grids. This is a PHY layer
and three modulation techniques MR (multi-rate and multi-regional)-FSK, MR-OQPSK
and MR-OFDM are discussed. Frame formats help us understand IEEE 802.15.4e amend-
ments, which is a MAC layer. There are two types of information elements (IEs) defined
in 802.15.4e, header information elements and payload information elements. To have a
complete Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), completing the design of PHY and
MAC layers is essential. However, this is limited to the outline of standard descriptions
such as PHY 4g and MAC 4e [42].

Table 4. State-of-the-art literature works on macrogrids.

S. No Objectives/Technology Merits/Methods/Metrics Year Ref.

1 IEEE 802.14.4g, IEEE 802.14.4e MR-FSK, MR-OFDM, and MR-OQPSK; Header IE and Payload IE 2012 [42]
Challenges such as ensuring standard interoperability, unlicensed
2 Smart grid communication 2013 [43]
radio spectra, and cybersecurity are discussed.
3 Interoperability Steps: (1) IT layer; (2) electrical layer; (3) communications. 2015 [44]
Information loss rate and peak bandwidth are used as metrics. The
4 D2D communication rules were made around relay nodes and base stations in 2016 [45]
methodology execution.
5 Secured communication A lightweight authenticated communication scheme is proposed. 2016 [46]
6 Telecommunications Wired and wireless technologies are discussed. 2016 [14]
7 Smart meter data collection VANET is used to collect data from wireless automatic meter reading. 2016 [47]
8 Spectrum sharing Priority-based communication strategy is proposed. 2017 [48]
9 AMI for PLN Bali LoRaWAN is proposed to collect data from meters. 2017 [49]
Phasor measurement unit-based smart sensors is developed.
10 Smart sensors for smart grids However, high-accuracy timing and time synchronization 2017 [50]
are constraints.
11 Smart choice for smart grids NB-IoT is discussed. However, its real-time deployment will be costly. 2018 [51]
12 LoRa communication Distance, obstacles, and noise are used as metrics for this study. 2019 [52]
13 Insider threats detection Novel hybrid insider threats model is proposed. 2019 [53]
Future communication and
14 Various standards and applications were discussed. 2019 [9]
information infrastructures

State-of-the-art communications infrastructure, concerns and applications in the smart

grid are described in [43]. A comparison table between the existing grid and the smart
grid is made, demonstrating the importance of the smart grid. Nearly 75 standards are
available for the building infrastructure of smart grids. The ability of WSNs (wireless sensor
networks) to facilitate the realization of the smart grid is also discussed [43]. Three major
challenges are addressed: guaranteeing uniform interoperability, cognitive accessibility to
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 8 of 36

unlicensed radio spectra and cybersecurity. In summary, WSNs, wireless communication

technologies, challenges in interoperability, unlicensed radio spectra, and cybersecurity
are discussed.
The SGIRM (smart grid interoperability reference model) is a conceptual smart grid
architecture model [44] and is described in three aspects: (1) electrical; (2) communications;
and (3) IT. The level of assurance in communication links is also classified as Tier 1 (critical),
Tier 2 (important), and Tier 3 (informative). It highlights the idea of a Unified Key Man-
agement Function (UKMF). Security and key management issues are discussed. However,
there are many standards on interoperability to be covered. Energy management plays a
significant role in the electric distribution network [45]. The data stream of each intelligent
energy management (IEM) can be in any of the three modes, i.e., the direct transmission
mode, traditional relaying mode and D2D-assisted relaying mode. An architecture using
D2D communication along with the relaying techniques is presented in [45]. This mini-
mizes the overall rate of information loss and peak bandwidth demand for latency-sensitive
smart grid communications. However, some assumptions were made around relay nodes
and base stations, which may affect the efficacy of the system.
One of the smart grid’s major advantages is bidirectional communication [46]. Commu-
nication between different deployed smart meters and a gateway is very crucial. Malicious
users could potentially access the data. Thus, a lightweight authenticated communication
(LAC) scheme ensures safe data transmission between smart meters and gateways. The
LAC has lower storage and communication costs and achieves confidentiality, honesty,
authentication in real time, and attack–resistance replay.
Different communication technologies (wired and wireless) (PLC, DSL, optical com-
munication, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, Wi-Max, GSM, Sigfox, Narrowband-Internet of things (NB-IoT),
LoRa, etc.) are discussed [14]. These can be used in the context of smart grids with an
emphasis on smart metering LV applications. Various smart meter projects around Eu-
rope are also discussed. Nevertheless, initiatives based on the MV smart grid have not
been discussed.
The potential of WSNs (wireless sensor networks) is utilized for smart girds [47]. The
presented Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is used to gather smart meter data. The
data flow is from a house with a wireless automatic meter reading (WAMR) to a bus stop
and these data are transmitted to the bus. However, the smart meter should have IEEE
802.11p compatibility and houses should be within 1000 m of the bus stop.
In communications, the spectrum plays a significant role. The utilization and reuse of
the available spectrum are very crucial. A new approach for the sharing of the spectrum
in smart grids is addressed in [48]. Applications are categorized into three types: Class
1, Class 2, and Class 3. The throughput is increased by the suggested application class
(priority-based communication strategy). To explain this concept, a case study of the IEEE
14-bus power grid is also mentioned. However, the distance was not given importance,
which may influence the proposed method.
National power utility company (PLN), Bali, has recently introduced Advanced Meter-
ing Infrastructure (AMI) by replacing traditional meters with smart meters [49]. Different
LPWAN technologies (Sigfox, NB-IoT, and LoRa) were discussed to collect data from smart
meters. The PLN Bali sends a request to the regulator to use Sigfox or NB-IoT as a telecom-
munications provider. LoRaWAN is used as a solution to collect the data from the houses
in the 1000 m radius. PLN could achieve a 100% success rate. However, detailed metrics
for the actual data are not described.
The smart sensor can supply real-time data and the grid status for multiple oper-
ations [50]. The integration of these smart sensors for smart grids plays an important
role in interoperability. The general model of smart sensors for smart grids is discussed.
PMU-based and MU-based smart sensors are also described. Various interfacing standards
such as IEEE 1815, IEC 61850-9-2 and 61869-9, IEEE C37.118, and IEEE 1451 are discussed.
An interoperability test system was developed for PMU-based smart sensors, and testing
was carried out. This requires high-accuracy timing and time synchronization.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 9 of 36

NB-IoT is one of the latest technologies in the area of LPWAN, and works in a licensed
band (country-specific) [51]. With NB-IoT, the desired features, such as being long-range,
low power, and high capacity, can be achieved. A high Quality of service (QoS) can be
achieved with NB-IoT, whereas it is usually difficult to achieve with other technologies.
Qualitative metrics (security, scalability, flexibility, and availability) and quantitative metrics
(latency, frequency range, reliability, and data rate) are also discussed. With these metrics, it
was concluded that NB-IoT is a useful technology, but it is costlier for real-time deployment
as it requires a proprietary license and large infrastructure.
The importance of wireless communication technologies (especially LoRa) in estab-
lishing communication between smart grids is discussed in [52]. Path loss, the shadowing
effect, and multipath fading are also discussed. Further, a formula was derived for calculat-
ing the distance between the transmitter and receiver. Here, the work is two-fold: one is a
theoretical approach and the other is a practical approach. The authors used 4 transmission
parameters, 2 environmental parameters, and 1 parameter for randomness to calculate the
distance. In earlier works, researchers mainly focused on the spreading factor (typically
between 7 and 12) as an important parameter which affects the performance of LoRa.
However, from the results given in [52], it was concluded that distance, obstacles, and
noise are the three most significant factors affecting the performance of LoRa technologies.
However, only a few parameters were considered while designing the wireless channel.
Further, Saleh Valenzuela channel modelling can be applied and optimum node placement
can be focused on.
In smart grid communications, the security threat to data can be from insiders or
outsiders [53]. An investigation was previously conducted on various possible security
insider threats and the possible solutions were summarized. In addition, a novel hybrid
insider threats model was also proposed. However, the construction of rules has to be
more detailed.
ICT (Information and communications technology) is very important for smart grids [9].
The major architectural issues, key technologies and infrastructure requirements in smart
grids are discussed. The importance of the cloud is also detailed. Various standards such
as IEEE, IEC, NIST, ANSI, ITU-T, and SAE are discussed. Future directions using Software-
defined networking (SDN), network virtualization, network coding and 5G networks are
listed along with the discussion on PHY and application layers.

2.4. Review of Research Works—Microgrid Level

The following are the various literature works conducted on microgrid communi-
cations. All the key points are summarized in Table 5. The integration of distributed
generation units to the conventional grids can tremendously increase the performance of
the grids. However, at the same time, this integration may have an impact on the structure
of the grid. The use of microgrids is the better solution in this case. A microgrid is a com-
bination of loads, local generations (typically renewable sources), controllers, protection
and management systems [18]. Various projects in Europe, Japan, Korea, North America
and Australia are detailed. However, there are very few works available on microgrid
protection and energy management systems.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 10 of 36

Table 5. State-of-the-art literature works conducted on the microgrid.

S. No Objective(s) Merits/Methods/Metrics Year Ref.

Power systems and power electronics fields of microgrids
1 Case studies in various countries 2011 [18]
are discussed.
Energy sharing between neighboring A local grid with a single power generation source is discussed.
2 2013 [54]
households Communication between the households is given importance.
Internet Protocol suite, DNP3, Modbus, and IEC 61850
3 State of the art in microgrid communication 2014 [55]
are discussed.
Frequency synchronization of several
4 LTI system approach with consensus algorithm is used. 2014 [56]
isolated microgrids
Synchronization in microgrids with
5 Distributed secondary control algorithm is used. 2015 [57]
communication latency
6 Zigbee for microgrids Communication delay is taken as a metric. 2015 [58]
7 Security scheme Control loop delay is the metric used for co-simulation. 2015 [59]
8 State of the art in microgrids The electrical layer and communication layer are reviewed. 2015 [15]
Review on IEEE-1547, ISA-95, NISA, Suggestions were given mostly for IEEE-1547 and IEC-61850
9 2015 [16]
IEC-61850 architectures. It requires two copies of diagnostic packets.
10 Distribution system automation Technologies and levels of automation are discussed. 2015 [60]
IoT-based HEMS with a PV system is proposed. A nomadic agent is
11 Home Energy Management System (HEMS) 2015 [61]
used to achieve DHANs.
SunnyBoy Webbox, RedLion data logger, power meters, etc.,
12 Communication and data acquisition 2015 [62]
are used.
Various views of distributed resource system The architectural view, requirements view, conceptual view,
13 2015 [17]
architectures concurrency view, and network view are discussed.
14 Distributed power-sharing Game theory approach is used. 2017 [63]
15 Synchronization of power inverters FM signal is used as a synchronization signal. 2017 [64]
Reconfigurable control and self-organizing
16 Unique operational characteristics of CRMs are discussed. 2017 [65]
communication
17 Networked microgrids Various elements of power system resilience are discussed. 2017 [12]
18 Ethnography of electrification Mutual energy exchanges are discussed. 2017 [66]
Interconnection within microgrid and between microgrids
19 Internet of microgrids 2018 [67]
is discussed.
Sizing and structuring of communication messages for energy
20 Energy management automation 2018 [68]
management automation are discussed.
It focuses on centralized (SCADA), decentralized (MAS), and
21 Communication architectures for microgrids 2018 [11]
distributed dynamic (P2P-Overlays) structures.
SHS and smart meters for the smart grid
22 Packet loss of different messages, ETE delay, etc., are discussed. 2018 [69]
are discussed
Self-consumption, self-sufficiency, and energy cost are considered as
23 P2P energy sharing 2018 [70]
the assessment metrics.
24 Impact of ICT degradation Latency for different wireless technologies was discussed. 2019 [71]
25 Microgrid communication system Various technologies, categories, and metrics are discussed. 2019 [72]
26 LoRa technology in multi-floor buildings K-factor for the Rician model is used for the analysis. 2020 [73]
Intelligent multi-micro-grid energy
27 DNN and a Monte Carlo method are used. 2020 [74]
management

Jordon is a developing country with a very small population of around 97 lakhs, and
96% of the nation’s energy originates from oil and gas imports from other countries [54].
Jordon experiences strong global radiation, 2080 kWh/m2 , with over 300 sunny days in a
year. Jordan can make use of solar energy to produce electricity. The concept of a local area
grid is discussed, which is to have a single source of power generation (PV) and distribute
the energy within the apartments/households that exist in the same building/community.
This system consists of four major components: (1) solar panels, (2) inverter, (3) batteries
(optional) and (4) intelligent power distribution and control unit (IPDC). This solution
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 11 of 36

provides low-income households with the ability to share the cost of installation while
substantially reducing energy bills. Further, various technological advancements in mi-
crogrid communications are discussed in [55]. State-of-the-art and future developments
are summarized as well. Internet Protocol suite, DNP3, Modbus, IEC 61850 and different
wired and wireless physical links are mentioned.
The microgrids operating in a particular environment should operate at the same fre-
quency [56]. If the frequency produced by the grids is different, then there may be a chance
of damaging the load. The establishment of frequency synchronization between the grids is
discussed by representing each grid as a Linear time-invariant (LTI) system. To accomplish
this, a consensus algorithm based on a cooperative control strategy is used. Similarly, the
purpose of the research of [57] is to restore the frequency of hybrid lossy microgrids (using
a distributed secondary control algorithm). The distributed communication network under
consideration has time-varying delays in communication. A stable Lyapunov–Krasovskii
analysis methodology is used for the study.
Communication between various distributed generation units in a microgrid is es-
tablished using Zigbee technology [58]. Each unit has a local controller in addition to
the central controller at the microgrid level. The advantage of Zigbee is its low cost and
low power consumption, but it works at a very low data rate. To reduce the number of
transactions, a data management scheme was proposed. The local (primary) controller,
central controller, and network tertiary controller are also discussed. Communication delay
is considered one of the important metrics to explain this concept. It is expected for a mi-
crogrid to operate in two modes: standalone mode and grid-connected mode [59]. The goal
is to incorporate communication and control to facilitate the transition from the standalone
to grid-connected mode. The authors presented a security scheme for this purpose and
the performance is compared with those of the Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA), Digital
signature algorithm (DSA), and Time Valid Hash to Obtain Random Subsets (TV-HORS).
The primary focus of [15] is to review the state-of-the-art research on the microgrids in
both islanded mode and grid-connected mode. Reliability, resiliency, and power quality
are discussed as the key parameters. Further, various economic issues and other elements
of the microgrids are outlined. Further, a review of different architectures (IEEE-1547,
ISA-95, NISA, and IEC-61850) was presented in [16]. Some of the key challenges such as
the lack of awareness and clarity, technical challenges, etc., are emphasized. Additionally,
various retrofitted architectures and topologies to improve the clarity of presentation and
perception of architecture IEEE-1547 and redundant architecture to improve the network
consistency of the IEC-61850 architecture were discussed.
Distribution system automation using ICT is introduced as a resolution that incor-
porates all of a distribution system’s essential constituents [60]. The evolution of the
automation perspective in needs and technology was discussed. Different sub-systems are
listed as process improvement and decision support systems, process optimization systems,
communication networks, database management and maintenance systems, and process
control and safety systems. The home energy management network (HEMS) plays a major
role in the smart grid [61]. There were several problems with the traditional HEMS, such as
scalability, reusability, etc. Further, a dynamic home area network (DHAN) is proposed
which is an IoT-based HEMS. Unlike traditional gateways, here, a nomadic agent is used
to achieve this dynamic nature. Through the experiments, the suggested method could
achieve energy savings.
The installation of a microgrid in Griffith University’s N44 building is discussed in [62].
The communication architecture and data acquisition mechanism were discussed. The
communication protocols used were Modbus and TCP/IP. Python was used to access the
data and to make them available on the cloud. The use of various hardware components
(SunnyBoy Webbox, RedLion data logger, power meters, etc.) was discussed. Similarly,
various views of distributed resource system architectures (architectural view, requirements
view, conceptual view, concurrency view, and network view) are discussed in [17]. The
analysis and refining process were conducted in compliance with the guidelines of IEEE
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 12 of 36

1547.3TM-2007. Various game theory approaches (cooperative, non-cooperative, one shot,

etc.) were used to establish energy-sharing mechanisms within the households in a selected
microgrid (in Stockholm) [63]. Utility is a key metric to quantify a household’s payoff
from playing a game. The distributed algorithm and Gale–Shapley algorithm are used to
establish power-sharing between households. The benefits of this approach are presented
in terms of cost savings and emission reductions.
The microgrid consists of three types of power converters, namely, grid-feeding, grid-
supporting, and grid-forming power converters. In island mode, these converters should
maintain the voltage and frequency in the desired range [64]. A microgrid central controller
achieves synchronization in grid-forming power converters. Noise and the synchronization
signal delay play a significant role, and can also lead to a quality loss in the grid-forming
power converters. The RS-485 communication protocol is used to implement the system.
Further, to achieve robustness, the FM signal is used as a synchronization signal. During
extreme events (flood, earthquake, hurricane, etc.), the healing time of a microgrid, which is
called resilience, is very important. One should have a thorough knowledge of microgrids
from end to end to help in this situation. So, the management of networked microgrids for
riding through extreme events is essential. In this view, community resilience microgrids
are used to share the energy generated by their sources within a community [12,65]. Though
it can be used in normal operating conditions, it has great impact in emergency situations.
The unique operational characteristics of these microgrids are also presented. Electricity
ethnography (a three-month analysis) was conducted at an off-grid village in rural India
(1 February–30 April 2016)) [66]. This report discussed how social relations and diverse
cultural values influence the exchange of energy between village households. Two types of
energy exchanges (energy-sharing and energy-trading) are discussed. The integration of
four microgrids with the help of the Internet, i.e., cloud-based service (SaaS), is discussed
in [67]. The individual components of the microgrid are connected (IEEE 802.11s-based
mesh network) and all these are connected to a gateway. All four gateways are connected
to the cloud platform with the implementation of IEC61850 GOOSE messages. Further, a
bilevel distributed optimization algorithm was developed using LabVIEW and NS-3.
The design and modelling of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) based on IEC61850
are discussed for various forms of distributed energy resources [68]. The modelling of
IEDs for PV plants, battery systems, diesel plants, wind turbines and controllable loads is
discussed. Additionally, the communication services (GOOSE, SV, etc.) are also presented
through a real-time system-in-the-loop simulation. Additionally, a review on ICT for micro-
grids is given in [11]. An evaluation of microgrids, from natural microgrids to dynamic
microgrids, was conducted and further suggested using a peer-to-peer communication
approach for next-generation microgrids. Similarly, ref. [69] focuses on developing the
communication models of solar home systems and smart meters based on the IEC 61850
standards. Simulations are run with a riverbed modeller to evaluate performance. The
packet loss of different messages, ETE delay, etc., are discussed. Similarly, a comparison
of a P2P (peer-to-peer) energy-sharing mechanism with P2G (peer-to-grid) trading was
discussed in [70]. In P2G trading, when the electricity production is higher than the load,
the excess PV energy is first used to charge the battery, while in P2P, the excess energy is first
used to supply the neighbors in need. The P2P-sharing community contains three types of
players: ESC (energy-sharing coordinator), prosumer and consumer. The suggested system
is implemented in three stages: (i) two-stage aggregated control (CNLP optimization and
control based on rules); (ii) P2P trading; and (iii) assessment. By using assessment metrics
such as self-consumption, self-sufficiency, and energy cost, it was concluded that P2P leads
to better results than P2G.
A microgrid can be one of three types, DC, AC, or hybrid (AC-DC), depending on
the main bus voltage linking [71]. Various schemes, viz., centralized communication-
based control, distributed communication-based control, and voltage droop control, is
discussed. The use of ICT and allowable latency for different wireless technologies is
mentioned. Further, various components of microgrid communication, namely, wired
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 13 of 36

(optical fiber communication, telephone network communication, twisted pair/coaxial

cable, and power-line communication) and wireless (GPRS, LAN, Wi-Max, and Zigbee)
technologies are discussed in [72]. Various types of networks are discussed, such as
consumer premises area networks (CPAN), home area networks (HAN), building area
networks (BAN), industrial area networks (IAN), neighborhood area networks (NAN), and
wide area networks (WAN). Various metrics are also listed (network latency, reliability,
security, and time synchronization). In these networks, a consensus algorithm-based
communication system was employed.
LoRa technology can be used in large outdoor/indoor areas such as offices, residential
buildings, car parks, warehouses, etc., to understand their behavior and performance [73]
in both the LoS (line-of-sight) and NLoS (non-line-of-sight) cases. The concepts of the path
loss model, shadowing effect, and K-factor for the Rician model are presented. Further, in a
multi-micro-grid environment, a deep neural network-based response learning mechanism
for distribution system operators was introduced in [74]. These microgrids are linked to
the main grid and acquire the power to match their local needs. Additionally, the pricing
scheme was accomplished by reinforcement learning using the Monte Carlo method.

3. Insights into Communication Standards and Technologies

As smart microgrids are one of the unique recent developments in the energy sector,
their establishment requires a standard process to be followed. Thus, it is very important
to understand various standards that contribute to the development of smart microgrids.
Various renowned forums or agencies define different standards to be applied globally
for the development of smart grids/microgrids. Further, to implement the architecture
for the smart microgrid, one must have a detailed knowledge of the various technologies
available. In the present-day scenarios, wireless communication technologies are outper-
forming wired-based solutions by offering advantages, such as mobility, convenience, easy
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 14 of 39
installation, and low cost. All these key standards and technologies are noted in Figure 4,
which are explained in the following subsections.

Smart Microgrids

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Key
Key standards
standards and
and technologies
technologies for
for smart
smartmicrogrid
microgridcommunication.
communication.

3.1.
3.1. Standards
Standards and
and Guidelines
Guidelines
Standards
Standards provide procedures/detailed
provide descriptions that
procedures/detailed descriptions that can
can be
be followed
followed universally.
universally.
Governments and industries all around the world have recognized the importance
Governments and industries all around the world have recognized the importance of stand- of
standards
ards in theinenergy
the energy sector.
sector. Standards
Standards help
help to to ensure
ensure quality
quality and safety,
and safety, and facilitate
and facilitate com-
communication. In the absence of standards, it is difficult for manufacturers to design
munication. In the absence of standards, it is difficult for manufacturers to design or imple- or
ment a system which can be utilized globally. The smart grid does not just require a single
standard; rather, its implementation will the use of several standards. Various standards
and guidelines related to smart grid/microgrid communication are given in Figure 5 [75–
82]. Some of the major contributors in this direction are IEC (International Electrotechnical
 Figure 4. Key standards and technologies for smart microgrid communication.

3.1. Standards and Guidelines

Standards provide procedures/detailed descriptions that can be followed universally.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881
Governments and industries all around the world have recognized the importance of 14 of 36
stand-
ards in the energy sector. Standards help to ensure quality and safety, and facilitate com-
munication. In the absence of standards, it is difficult for manufacturers to design or imple-
implement
ment a systema system
whichwhich
can becan be utilized
utilized globally.globally.
The smartThegridsmart grid
does notdoes
just not just require
require a single
astandard;
single standard;
rather, itsrather, its implementation
implementation will the use willofthe use ofstandards.
several several standards. Various
Various standards
standards and guidelines
and guidelines related
related to smart to smart grid/microgrid
grid/microgrid communication communication are given
are given in Figure 5 [75–in
Figure 5 [75–82]. Some of the major contributors in this direction are IEC
82]. Some of the major contributors in this direction are IEC (International Electrotechnical (International
Electrotechnical
Commission), IEEE Commission), IEEE (Institute
(Institute of Electrical of Electrical
and Electronics and Electronics
Engineers), Engineers),
ISO (International Or-
ISO (International Organization for Standardization), ITU (International
ganization for Standardization), ITU (International Telecommunication Union), TIA (Tele- Telecommunica-
tion Union), TIA Industry
communications (Telecommunications
Association), ANSIIndustry Association),
(American NationalANSI (American
Standards National
Institute), and
Standards
MultiSpeak. Institute), and MultiSpeak.
Usually,
Usually, the
the standard
standard documents
documents are are lengthy.
lengthy. It It is
is therefore
therefore vital
vital to
to organize
organize these
these
standards
standards in a way that readers can quickly understand and select a standard based
in a way that readers can quickly understand and select a standard based on on
their
their needs
needswithout
withoutgoinggoingthrough
through thethe
entire standard
entire standarddocument.
document. In this
In view, Table Table
this view, 6 helps6
the reader
helps to understand
the reader the outline
to understand of these
the outline ofstandards easily. easily.
these standards

Standards & Guidelines

IEC IEEE ISO ITU NIST TIA ANSI MultiSpeak

IEC 60870-6-503 IEEE 2030 ISO/CD 15118-2 ITU-T G.9903 NIST TR-50 M2M ANSI C12.21 Version 1.1
Framework
IEC 61851-24 IEEE 1815 ISO 15118-3 ITU-T G.9960 Release 4.0 TR-51 ANSI C12.22 Version 2.2

IEC 62056-4-7 IEEE 1702 ISO/IEC 14908-2 TR-34 Version 3.0

IEC 61850-8-2 ISO/IEC 14908-4 Version 4.x

IEC TR 61850-90-1 Version 5.0

IEC 62325-503

IEC TR 62357-200

IEC 61850-7-1:2011+AMD1

IEC 61850-7-2:2010+AMD1

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Detailed list of standards
standards and
and guidelines
guidelines for
for smart
smart microgrid
microgrid communication.
communication.

Table 6. Various standards and their scope for smart microgrid communication.

Standard Number Description Details Year

IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
(i) Interface for specifying communications
Communication networks and systems for the power
between client and remote server
utility automation—Part 7-2: Basic information and
IEC 61850-7-2:2010+AMD1 (ii) Event distribution between the application 2020
communication structure—Abstract communication
of a single device and the application of
service interface (ACSI)
several remote devices
The goal of this standard is to help people
understand the basic modelling concepts and
Communication networks and systems for power methods for: (i) information models which are
IEC 61850-7-1:2011+AMD1 utility automation—Part 7-1: Basic communication substation-specific; (ii) device functions for 2020
structure–Principles and models power utility automation; and (iii)
communication systems to achieve
interoperability
Communication networks and systems for power The important aspects in mapping are:
utility automation—Part 8-2: Specific communication (i) End-to-end security,
IEC 61850-8-2 2018
service mapping (SCSM)—Mapping to extensible (ii) describing the XML payloads, and
messaging presence protocol (XMPP) (iii) describing the features of XMPP
Framework for energy market communications—Part
Advanced message queuing protocol (AMQP)
IEC 62325-503 503: Market data exchange guidelines for the IEC 2018
is adopted
62325-351 profile
Power systems management and associated
information exchange—Part 200: Guidelines for This standard addresses the issues concerned
IEC TR 62357-200 2015
migration from Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) to to migration from IPv4 to IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 15 of 36

Table 6. Cont.

Standard Number Description Details Year

Electricity metering data exchange—The
Connectionless and connection-oriented
IEC 62056-4-7 DLMS/COSEM suite—Part 4-7: DLMS/COSEM 2015
transport layers are discussed
transport layer for IP networks
Telecontrol equipment and systems—Part 6-503: Exchange of real-time data, control operations,
Telecontrol protocols compatible with ISO standards scheduling and accounting information,
IEC 60870-6-503 2014
and ITU-T recommendations-TASE.2 Services and remote program control, and event notification
protocol were mentioned
Electric vehicle conductive charging system-Part 24:
Discusses the digital communication part
Digital communication between a d.c. EV charging
IEC 61851-24 between the EV charging station and 2014
station and an electric vehicle for control of d.c.
electrical vehicle
charging
The key points discussed are (i)
Communication networks and systems for power communication requirements, (ii) services and
IEC TR 61850-90-1 utility automation—Part 90-1: Use of IEC 61850 for the architecture, (iii) interoperable prerequisites, 2010
communication between substations and (iv) enhancements to SCL (substation
configuration description language)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
This standard uses distributed network
IEEE Standard for electric power systems
IEEE 1815 protocol (DNP3) which specifies structure, 2012
communications-distributed network protocol (DNP3)
application choices and various functions
IEEE standard for telephone modem communication This standard provides a “plug and play”
IEEE 1702 protocol to complement the utility industry end device environment for the various metering devices 2011
data tables that are currently deployed in the field.
IEEE 2030 gives the roadmap for attaining
IEEE guide for smart grid interoperability of energy smart grid interoperability by a smart grid
technology and information technology operation with interoperability reference model (SGIRM). It
IEEE 2030 2011
the electric power system (EPS), end-use applications, has the info of the electric power system with
and loads emphasis on evaluation criteria,
characteristics, etc.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
This standard provides the details of PHY and
Road vehicles—Vehicle to grid communication
link layer to establish a high-level
ISO/CD 15118-3 interface—Part 3: Physical and data link layer 2015
communication network (wired) between an
requirements
electric vehicle and a charging station
Road vehicles—Vehicle-to-grid communication This standard discusses the communication
ISO/CD 15118-2 interface—Part 2: Network and application protocol establishment between electric vehicles and 2014
requirements electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE)
This standard aims to provide interoperability
Information technology—Control network between different control network protocol
ISO/IEC 14908-4 2012
protocol—Part 4: IP communication (CNP) devices that want to interact over
IP networks
The CNP free-topology twisted-pair channel
Information technology—Control network
ISO/IEC 14908-2 for networked control systems in local area 2012
protocol—Part 2: Twisted pair communication
control networks is defined in this standard
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
This standard recommends PHY layer
functionalities for transceivers in the home
Unified high-speed wireline-based home networking
network designed for communication using
ITU-T G.9960 transceivers—System architecture and physical layer 2018
coaxial cables, PLCs, optical fibers, etc.
specification
Additionally, this standard specifies reference
models and architecture
Narrowband orthogonal frequency division
This standard recommends PHY and link layer
ITU-T G.9903 multiplexing power line communication transceivers 2017
specifications for G3-PLC transceivers
for G3-PLC networks
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 16 of 36

Table 6. Cont.

Standard Number Description Details Year

TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 Smart utility network standards are designed 17 of 39
to deliver better solutions for bidirectional
TR-51 Smart utility networks 2012
communication between devices and the
service provider’s backhaul systems
of spectrum
This standard and orbital
defines resources,
interface canons for (ii)
TR-50 M2M Smart device communications communication between machine-to-machine 2010
spectrum sharing and (iii) interoperability
(M2M) systems and other smart devices
between satellite systems
This standard emphasis is on satellite
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) systems covering both space
communication
and terrestrial. The focus of this standard is
TR-34 Satellite equipment and systems This standard works to improve the in- 2001
mainly on (i) the optimal use of spectrum and
The protocol specification for interfacing teroperability between various meters
orbital resources, (ii) spectrum sharing and (iii) and
ANSI C12.22 interoperability between satellite systems
2012
data communication networks communication units for the data trans-
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
mission
The protocol specification for interfacing data TheThis
norms for works
standard communicating
to improve thebetween a
ANSI C12.22 interoperability between various meters and 2012
The protocol specification
communication networks for telephone C12.21 device and
communication a for
units C12.21 client
the data via a
transmission
ANSI C12.21 2006
modem communication modem connected to a telephone network
The norms for communicating between a
The protocol specification for telephone modem are C12.21
detailed in and
device thisa standard
C12.21 client via a modem
ANSI C12.21 2006
communication MultiSpeak connected to a telephone network are detailed
in this standard
Version 1.1, Version It mainly employs (i) common data se-
MultiSpeak
2.2, Version 3.0, Ver- Standard for fulfilling enterprise applica- mantics, (ii) message structure (syntax)
Version
It mainly employs (i) common data semantics, 2000
sion 4.x1.1,
and Version 2.2,
Version tion for interoperability at full potential
Standard for fulfilling enterprise application for and(ii)(iii) which
message messages
structure areand
(syntax) needed to
(iii) which
Version 3.0, Version 4.x and 2000
5.0
Version 5.0
interoperability at full potential support
messages various processes
are needed in the
to support business
various
processes in the business

3.2. Communication Technologies

3.2. Communication Technologies
To manage complex power systems effectively, information flow across various ele-
ments Toofmanage complex
the network powerThe
is crucial. systems effectively,
typical information
connectivity flow across
scenario between various
various ele-
players
ments of the network is crucial. The typical connectivity scenario between various
involved in the smart grid is shown in Figure 6. Here, the entire network is built based on players
involved
a fronthaulin the smart grid
network, is shown
a backhaul in Figureand
network, 6. Here, the entire
the core network
network. is built based
The fronthaul on a
network
fronthaul network, a backhaul network, and the core network. The fronthaul
connects end-users to the backhaul network. The backhaul network refers to the transmis- network con-
nects
sion ofend-users
a remotetosignal
the backhaul
from thenetwork.
fronthaulThe backhaul
network network
to the refers
central to the
station (in transmission
the core net-
of a remote
work). Thissignal
networkfrom the fronthaul
consists network tochannel,
of a high-capacity the central station
which (in the of
is capable core network).
transmitting
This network consists of a high-capacity channel, which is capable of transmitting
the data at higher data rates. The core network is a global network which interconnects the data
at higher data rates. The core network is a global network which interconnects
the networks of different locations/systems, providing a path for the information ex- the networks
of different
change locations/systems,
among them. providing a path for the information exchange among them.

Core
Network Fronthaul
Network
Residential

Commercial Buildings

Industries

EV Charging Stations

Renewables

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Typical
Typicalconnectivity
connectivityscenario
scenarioin
inthe
thesmart
smartgrid
gridnetwork.
network.

In the past, there was no communication between the generating station and the end-
user. With the advancement of technologies in communication, now, bidirectional com-
munication is possible, and thereby energy can be effectively managed between the gen-
erating station and the end-user. When compared to the traditional grid, the smart grid
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 17 of 36

In the past, there was no communication between the generating station and the
end-user. With the advancement of technologies in communication, now, bidirectional
communication is possible, and thereby energy can be effectively managed between the
generating station and the end-user. When compared to the traditional grid, the smart grid
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 consists of several sensors and actuators. Sensors are used to collect data from 18 various
of 39
pieces of equipment with the help of controllers. The data can be sent to the server/cloud
with the help of communication technologies. The collected data are used to analyze the
performance of the equipment. Additionally, the actuators are used to control the grid
performance of the equipment. Additionally, the actuators are used to control the grid
components
components effectively. Generally, the
effectively. Generally, thesystem
systemnetworks
networkscan canbebe established
established in in various
various
fashions, such as personal area network (PAN), local area network
fashions, such as personal area network (PAN), local area network (LAN), metropolitan (LAN), metropolitan
area
areanetwork
network(MAN),
(MAN), and wide area
and wide areanetwork
network(WAN),(WAN),basedbased onon their
their distance
distance of coverage,
of coverage,
asasshown in Figure 7. The PAN is a region where devices are connected
shown in Figure 7. The PAN is a region where devices are connected within a person’s within a person’s
workspace (shorter distance). The major technologies used in
workspace (shorter distance). The major technologies used in PAN are Bluetooth, Radio-PAN are Bluetooth, Radio-
frequency
frequency identification (RFID),and
identification (RFID), and Near-field
Near-field communication
communication (NFC).(NFC). Bluetooth
Bluetooth was de-was
developed
veloped by byBluetooth
BluetoothSpecial
Special Interest
Interest Group
Group and and uses
uses industrial,
industrial, scientific,
scientific, andand medical
medical
bands
bands(2.4 (2.4GHz).
GHz). TheThelatest Bluetooth
latest Bluetooth Low-Energy
Low-Energy (BLE) technology
(BLE) technology consumes
consumes littlelittle
power
by beingbyinbeing
power range. in This
range.technology is typically
This technology used used
is typically to share files,files,
to share images,
images,videos, audio
videos,
files,
audio etc. The
files, etc.RFID
The RFIDtechnology
technology is used
is usedtotoexchange
exchange information
information between between thethe devices
devices
which
whichare areinin close proximity.
proximity.ThisThisworks
works with
with thethehelphelp
of a of
tagaand
tagreader,
and reader,
wherewhereeach tag each
tag is equipped
is equipped withwith a unique
a unique number.
number. This This
tag cantagbe can be attached
attached to the to the object
object (of desired
(of desired ap-
application),
plication), which which will
will bebe identified
identified byby thethe reader.
reader. Some
Some of ofthethe applications
applications areare FASTag
FASTag
(toll
(tollcollection
collectionsystem
systemininIndia), tracking
India), tracking goods
goods in in
warehouses,
warehouses, etc.etc.
NFC NFC is aissubset
a subsetof RFID,
of
RFID,
but but itsisrange
its range evenismoreevenlimited.
more limited. It is widely
It is widely used used in contactless
in contactless credit credit
cardcard swip-and
swiping
ing and payments
payments via mobile viaapplications.
mobile applications.

100−1000s of kilo Meters

Few kilo Meters
10−100s of Meters
Few Meters

LAN
PAN MAN WAN

Figure7.7.Elucidation
Figure Elucidation of
of PAN,
PAN, LAN,
LAN, MAN,
MAN, and
andWAN.
WAN.

LANisisa agroup
LAN groupofofinterconnected
interconnecteddevices
devicesthat
thatshare
share informationinin
information a limited
a limited area
area such
assuch as an office,
an office, building,
building, school,
school, university
university campus,
campus, etc. The
etc. The major
major technologies
technologies usedused in
in LAN
LAN
are are Zigbee
Zigbee and Wireless
and Wireless FidelityFidelity
(Wi-Fi).(Wi-Fi).
ZigbeeZigbee is a low-cost,
is a low-cost, low-power
low-power wireless
wireless network
network
that that was as
was designed designed
an openasworldwide
an open worldwide standard
standard that works that works
at low at low
data data
rates. rates. on
It works
It IEEE
the works802.15.4
on the standard
IEEE 802.15.4 standardatand
and operates operates
2.4 GHz. It is at 2.4 GHz.
widely usedItinisapplications
widely used in as
such
applications such as wireless sensor networks, home automation, etc. On
wireless sensor networks, home automation, etc. On the other hand, Wi-Fi provides higher the other hand,
Wi-Fi
data provides
rates higher data
and coverage when rates and coverage
compared when
to Zigbee butcompared
consumestomore
Zigbee but consumes
power. It works on
more power. It works on the IEEE 802.11 standard and operates at 2.4/5 GHz. One of the
the IEEE 802.11 standard and operates at 2.4/5 GHz. One of the popular applications of
popular applications of Wi-Fi is for accessing the internet. Users can establish a connection
Wi-Fi is for accessing the internet. Users can establish a connection with access points, and
with access points, and these access points are connected to the Internet service provider
these access points are connected to the Internet service provider (ISP) in the backend with
(ISP) in the backend with the help of routers. The MAN is designed to connect the users
the help of routers. The MAN is designed to connect the users that are spread across the
that are spread across the metropolitan area; here, the coverage is higher. Worldwide
metropolitan area; here, the coverage is higher. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) technology is used in MANs. This is a
Access (WiMAX) technology is used in MANs. This is a wireless broadband technology
wireless broadband technology that works on the IEEE 802.16 standard. It is used in the
that works on the IEEE 802.16 standard. It is used in the applications of smart cities, i.e., to
applications of smart cities, i.e., to connect various offices, buildings, etc., that are located
connect various
at multiple offices,
locations buildings, etc., that are located at multiple locations wirelessly.
wirelessly.
The WAN is a communication network that extends the coverage over a large
geographic area. The fifth generation of mobile networks, or 5G, is the latest version of the
cellular technology that can perform at higher speeds than past generations, 1G, 2G, 3G,
and 4G. The first generation, i.e., 1G, was in introduced in 1980s, where basic analog voice
services are provided. In 2G, digital technology was used for voice calls (1990s). In 3G,
mobile broadband was introduced (2000s), with the aim of providing good internet access,
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 18 of 36

The WAN is a communication network that extends the coverage over a large ge-
ographic area. The fifth generation of mobile networks, or 5G, is the latest version of
the cellular technology that can perform at higher speeds than past generations, 1G, 2G,
3G, and 4G. The first generation, i.e., 1G, was in introduced in 1980s, where basic analog
voice services are provided. In 2G, digital technology was used for voice calls (1990s). In
3G, mobile broadband was introduced (2000s), with the aim of providing good internet
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 access, and in 4G, IP-based protocols were used (2010s). Now, 5G has been 19 ofintroduced,
39
the main advantages of which are high speed, high bandwidth, and low latency [83]. This
network splits the entire area into small regions known as cells. The cell is covered with the
antenna
and in 4G,with which
IP-based all thewere
protocols 5G devices can be
used (2010s). connected.
Now, 5G has been Theintroduced,
quality of theInternet
main services
advantages of which are high speed, high bandwidth, and low latency [83]. This network and has
in busy places can be improved by 5G since it is quicker than current networks
a greater
splits bandwidth.
the entire Further,
area into small 5G known
regions relies on network
as cells. The cellslicing, which
is covered withmeans that multiple
the antenna
independent
with which all networks
the 5G devicescan canusebetheconnected.
same physical infrastructure.
The quality As this in
of Internet services it is
busyin the early
places can be improved by 5G since it is quicker than current networks
stages of development, researchers and companies are working on various prototypes and and has a greater
bandwidth. Further,
real-time testing 5G relies
[84]. on network
Additionally, inslicing, which means
a few countries, that
it is multiple
already inindependent
use.
networks can use the same physical infrastructure. As this
Mobile-edge computing (MEC) offers execution resources such as storage, it is in the early stages ofcomputa-
development, researchers and companies are working on various
tions, etc., close to the users (in a network), that can be utilized to deliver services, prototypes and real- as well
time testing [84]. Additionally, in a few countries, it is already in use.
as store and process the content. Artificial intelligence techniques help to further improve
Mobile-edge computing (MEC) offers execution resources such as storage,
the performance of MEC [85,86]. Fifth-generation and MEC technologies together have
computations, etc., close to the users (in a network), that can be utilized to deliver services,
the potential to greatly enhance performance and allow the real-time processing of large
as well as store and process the content. Artificial intelligence techniques help to further
volumes
improve the of data. MEC lowers
performance of MEC latency
[85,86]. byFifth-generation
bringing the processing and MEC capabilities
technologies closer to
the user,have
together while the5Gpotential
improves to speeds. Fifth-generation
greatly enhance performance technology
and allowwith the MEC
real-time has created
a new opportunity
processing for industries
of large volumes of data. to MECexpand
lowerstheir business.
latency Thesethe
by bringing cellular
processingtechnologies
provide higher
capabilities closerdata rates
to the butwhile
user, consume more power.
5G improves LPWAN
speeds. is a type oftechnology
Fifth-generation WAN designed to
with
coverMEClargerhasareas
created a new
with lowopportunity
data rates and for industries
operates to at expand
low power. their The
business.
major These
technologies
cellular
competing technologies
in the LPWANprovide space
higherare data rates but
Sigfox, consume
NB-IoT, andmore LoRa. power.
SigfoxLPWAN
is a globalis a network
type of WAN
operator thatdesigned
connectstovarious
cover larger
low-powerareas with low data
devices, and rates
here theand downlinks
operates at are low very lim-
power. The major
ited. NB-IoT technologies
is developed bycompeting in the LPWAN
the 3rd Generation space areProject
Partnership Sigfox, (3GPP)
NB-IoT,standard
and and
LoRa. Sigfox is a global network operator that connects various low-power devices, and
operates in licensed bands. It uses a Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standard by limiting the
here the downlinks are very limited. NB-IoT is developed by the 3rd Generation
bandwidth, whereas LoRa enables the devices to connect with bidirectional communication
Partnership Project (3GPP) standard and operates in licensed bands. It uses a Long-Term
and operates at the unlicensed band. An individual can build a LoRa network without
Evolution (LTE) standard by limiting the bandwidth, whereas LoRa enables the devices
depending
to connect with on the network operator.
bidirectional communication This means that theatLoRa
and operates concept isband.
the unlicensed adopted An for most
of the applications in LPWANs.
individual can build a LoRa network without depending on the network operator. This
meansAllthatthese technologies
the LoRa concept iscan be arranged
adopted for mostas ofshown in Figurein8LPWANs.
the applications with respect to the range
of their coverage and data rate support. Thus, based on the
All these technologies can be arranged as shown in Figure 8 with respect to the range application requirements,
suitable communication technology has to be selected.
of their coverage and data rate support. Thus, based on the application requirements,
suitable communication technology has to be selected.
Cellular
UWB
Wi-Fi
WiMax

Bluetooth
Data Rate

NFC
Zigbee

NB-IoT

LoRa

Sigfox

Range of Coverage
Figure 8. Comparison of various wireless communication technologies.
Figure 8. Comparison of various wireless communication technologies.
The spectrum plays an important role in wireless communications as it is expensive
The spectrum plays an important role in wireless communications as it is expensive
and should be utilized effectively. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is
and should be utilized
the major player effectively.
in allocating the bands The International
globally. Out of allTelecommunication
the frequency bands,Union
some (ITU) is
the major
bands player
are left open,inwhich
allocating
meansthethe bands globally.
user need Out
not take anyofapproval
all the frequency bands, some
to utilize these
bands These
bands. are leftare
open, which
called meansscientific
“industrial, the userandneed not takebands.
medical” any approval to utilize
These bands these bands.
are given
by ITU radio regulations, as given in Table 7. Additionally, users must follow the
regulations set by the national/local government bodies (some bands may differ from the
global perspective).
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 19 of 36

These are called “industrial, scientific and medical” bands. These bands are given by ITU
radio regulations, as given in Table 7. Additionally, users must follow the regulations set by
the national/local government bodies (some bands may differ from the global perspective).
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 20 of 39
Table 7. Various industrial, scientific and medical bands.

S. No Frequency Range Acceptability

Table 7. Various industrial, scientific and medical bands.
1 6.765–6.795 MHz Subjected to local body regulations
S. No 2Frequency Range13.553–13.567 MHz Globally
Acceptability
1 36.765–6.795 MHz26.957–27.283 MHz SubjectedGlobally
to local body regulations
2 413.553–13.567 MHz
40.66–40.7 MHz Globally Globally
3 526.957–27.283 MHz
433.05–434.79 MHz Globally Subjected to local body regulations
4 640.66–40.7 MHz902–928 MHz Globally With few exceptions
5 7433.05–434.79 MHz
2.4–2.5 GHz SubjectedGlobally
to local body regulations
6 8902–928 MHz 5.725–5.875 GHz With few Globally
exceptions
7 92.4–2.5 GHz 24–24.25 GHz Globally Globally
8 105.725–5.875 GHz61–61.5 GHz Globally Subjected to local body regulations
9 1124–24.25 GHz 122–123 GHz Globally Subjected to local body regulations
10 1261–61.5 GHz 244–246 GHz SubjectedSubjected to regulations
to local body local body regulations
11 122–123 GHz Subjected to local body regulations
12 244–246 GHz Subjected to local body regulations
4. Issues and Challenges in the Implementation of ISMs
Electrical
4. Issues energy is ainmost
and Challenges demanded commodity
the Implementation of ISMs across the globe which can cater for
the needs of allenergy
Electrical sections
is a of
mosteconomical,
demandedindustrial,
commodityand domestic
across the globesectors.
which So,
can itcater
is expected
to
forbethe
easily
needs accessible and readily
of all sections available
of economical, as per the
industrial, andrequirements. However,
domestic sectors. So, it is many
ex- parts
of the world
pected to be still
easily doaccessible
not haveand the readily
access to the grid.
available as Further, the grid outages
per the requirements. and uncertain
However,
many parts energy
renewable of the world still enhance
sources do not havethethe access
issue to the grid.
of energy Further, the
availability. Asgrid outages to these
a solution
and uncertain
issues, ISMs are renewable
evolvingenergy sources enhance the issue of energy availability. As a
worldwide.
solution
These to these
systemsissues,
are ISMs
expectedare evolving
to have worldwide.
functionalities/features such as effective generation-
load These systems
balancing, are expected
economic loadtodispatch
have functionalities/features
and unit commitment, such as robust
effectivecommunication
genera-
tion-load balancing, economic load dispatch and unit commitment, robust communica-
infrastructure for parameter sensing and transmission, CMCU with data analytics and
tion infrastructure for parameter sensing and transmission, CMCU with data analytics
contingency estimations, decision and control operations for economic resource manage-
and contingency estimations, decision and control operations for economic resource man-
ment, demand response, and advanced information technology solutions for effective data
agement, demand response, and advanced information technology solutions for effective
processing.
data processing.However,
However,many many parameters
parameters have
havetotobe
beconsidered andissues/challenges
considered and issues/challenges need
to be addressed for fruitful ISM deployment [8,87,88]. All these
need to be addressed for fruitful ISM deployment [8,87,88]. All these are depicted are depicted in Figure 9
in Fig-
and are summarized in Table
ure 9 and are summarized in Table 8. 8.

Standards Applicability

Alerts & Alarms Channel Analysis

Technology Access Bandwidth

Lack of Awareness Data Rate

Data Privacy / Security Scalability

System Migration Distance Coverage

Issues
and
Typical Framework Throughput
Challenges

Node Placement Data Fluctuations

System Cost Link Failures

Spectrum Usage Link Budget

Latency Energy Efficiency

Receiver Sensitivity Power Consumption

Network Topology

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Key
Keyissues
issuesand
andchallenges in ISM
challenges deployment.
in ISM deployment.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 20 of 36

Table 8. Various key issues and challenges for ISM implementation.

Issue/Challenge Description
System Knowledge
- Standards applicability - People should endeavor to understand available communication technologies and their
- Lack of awareness usage. Additionally, as the new wireless technologies are emerging day by day, it is
- Technology access always recommended to adopt standards defined by the statutory bodies so that new
- Typical framework devices can be easily integrated into the existing infrastructure. Some cost-effective and
simple technologies have been developed worldwide, but may not be available in many
developing and underdeveloped countries.
- Further, regulatory bodies such as IEEE, ISA, NIST, and IEC have defined various
architectures for ISMs. It is very important to understand these architectures before the
deployment of ISMs and select a suitable architecture for the location or application;
thereby, various components can be interfaced effectively.

System Characteristics
- System migration - Every few years, new technologies will be evolving in the market. So, transferring the
- Scalability business process resources to a newer hardware/software platform is essential. To move
- System cost the current application to the new technology to ensure better business value, system
- Alerts and alarms migration is required. Additionally, the systems shall be scalable to enhance the business
- Power consumption as per the new requirements.
- Energy efficiency - On the other side, interoperability of new–old communication systems in an industrial
- Receiver sensitivity scenario must be considered, where the existing systems may use one type of
- Node placement communication protocol and the newly installed one works on a different protocol. So,
the integration and interoperation of these two will be difficult. Protocol converters can be
used as a solution, but still there may exist an issue with data misinterpretation in the
process of protocol conversion.
- However, the investment costs for the system deployment with currently available
advanced technologies is high. So, this became a constraint for many countries to
implement smart distribution power networks.
- Apart from the automated alerts and alarms, the networks will have to be facilitated with
some manual configurations. So, to cater for this requirement, the communication
technology shall be easy and understandable to the operators to program the manual
alerts when necessary.
- The quantity of energy utilized per unit of time is referred to as power consumption. It is
always desired to establish a communication mechanism with low power consumption
for data transmission. Thus, while designing the network components for ISM
implementation, power consumption is an important aspect to be considered. As the
nodes in the network are powered by batteries, energy efficiency is critical. In particular,
when the number of mobile devices increases in the network, energy management will
become a major concern. To overcome this issue, solar-powered systems and optimum
scheduling algorithms can be used.
- Receiver sensitivity is the lowest signal level from which the receiver can sense the signal.
The receiver with the highest receiver sensitivity will have the capability to receive the
weak signals. If the received signal strength is lower than the receiver sensitivity, then the
receiver will not receive the data. Some of the key factors that influence sensitivity are
thermal noise, signal to noise ratio, and noise figure.
- In wireless environments, the reception of the signal from the microgrid also depends on
the receiver’s location. To receive the best signal, optimum node placement is an
important aspect to be considered while implementing the ISMs.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 21 of 36

Table 8. Cont.

Issue/Challenge Description
Network Characteristics
- Channel analysis - Channel is a part of the medium which is used for the establishment of communication
- Network topology between the transmitter and the receiver. Before the connection establishment, it is very
- Latency important to understand and analyze the channel characteristics, so that modifications
- Distance coverage can be made to the transmitting signal to ensure minimal losses during the transmission.
- Link failures Suitable channel modelling and selection will have to be conducted in consideration of the
- Link budget distance of coverage.
- Spectrum usage - Network topology assists us in better comprehending networking principles. Small-scale
network deployments that can adapt to varying levels of traffic have proved to save
energy while maintaining great service quality. The network topology should also handle
the expansion while responding to areas with varying traffic demands. So, the network
topology has a significant impact on performance.
- High fidelity for emergency operations and islanding while giving instructions to operate
control systems appropriately in emergencies (e.g., occurrence of faults, severe
disturbances, etc.), the communication medium should be very fast and robust to quickly
perform islanding operations. The same has to be ensured when performing operations
such as load balancing, demand-/source-side management, demand response, etc.
Further, while tracking second-by-second data in the proposed scenarios, such as urban
community ISMs, the data available will be huge, and have to be transmitted to central
control rooms to take necessary decisions for power exchange. So, handling these big data
with effective communication is required.
- Sometimes, link failures can be observed during the communication; these may occur
because of misconfiguration, system vulnerabilities, issues in the channel, etc. A backup
mechanism must be taken into consideration during the link failures so that the data can
be sent to the destination without any loss.
- Link budgeting is an accounting of all the power gains and losses that a communication
signal encounters. While designing the system, the link budgeting calculations should be
carried out properly to receive the signal with a good signal-to-noise ratio. Some of the
factors that influence the link budget are antenna losses, terrestrial interferences, etc.
- The term “spectrum” refers to a range of electromagnetic radio frequencies that are
utilized to transmit voice, data, and images. Spectrum is a highly precious resource in
wireless communications. Though electromagnetic waves are invisible, their role is crucial.
Therefore, spectrum management should be carried out effectively.

Data Capturing and Analysis

- Bandwidth - While designing an ISM network, the parameter calculations such as bandwidth, data rate
- Data rate and throughput play an important role. These metrics should be managed carefully to
- Throughput maximize the performance of the network.
- Data fluctuations - The data would fluctuate greatly due to the unpredictable nature of renewable energy
- Data privacy/security sources. So, sensors have to be well adapted to those changes, which has a great impact
on communicating correct information. Additionally, the communication link failures
create data loss, which can give wrong or improper data analytics.
- Data privacy and security should be a part of ISMs’ architecture. The service
provider/central coordinator will have the personal information of all the stakeholders of
the ISM. It is essential for the service provider to protect the stakeholder’s data. A
unauthorized person should never be given control over. Legal frameworks should
be maintained.

5. Research Perspectives
Though various works have been carried out on the implementation of ISMs, there is
still much scope to increase the performance of these networks [9–11,89,90]. In this view,
this section presents various possible research directions. All the possibilities are broken up
into eight directions, as shown in Figure 10. These are outlined as general perspectives and
emphasize LPWAN.
Sensors 2022, 22,
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881
5881 22 of
23 of 36
39

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Future research directions
Future research directions for
for ISMs.
ISMs.

5.1. General Perspectives

As the ISMs are an emerging consideration for modern smart grids, it is required to
adopt various advanced and highly efficient technologies and engineering concepts for
their betterment. In this view, this section outlines the general perspective of using various
technologies/concepts
technologies/concepts as asfollows:
follows:
▪ Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
(P2P) Networks:
Networks: Peer-to-peer
Peer-to-peer networks
networks arearestillstill in the
in the basic basic stages
stages of
of de-
development for use in microgrids, and further research is
velopment for use in microgrids, and further research is required. To establish the elec- required. To establish
the electrical
trical exchange exchange
between peers between peers
in the in the community,
community, robust communication
robust communication is essential.is
essential. In case of central monitoring station failures, peers
In case of central monitoring station failures, peers can connect with each other without can connect with each
other without
depending depending
on a separate on aThe
server. separate
studyserver. The study
of microgrid of microgrid
dynamics is becoming dynamics
more
is becoming more sophisticated as electrical systems
sophisticated as electrical systems become more complex and unpredictable, posing become more complex and
unpredictable, posing new
new challenges that must be addressed. challenges that must be addressed.
▪ Data
Data Analytics:
Analytics: DataData analytics
analytics is aispowerful
a powerful tool tool
that that
helpshelps
to take to the
takeeffective
the effective
deci-
decisions in the operations. Having data alone cannot
sions in the operations. Having data alone cannot solve the purpose unless solve the purpose unless its
its ana-
analyzed. Users can benefit from data analytics due to the
lyzed. Users can benefit from data analytics due to the increased significance and theincreased significance and
the vast amounts of knowledge it generates. With the analysis of data, ISMs can find
vast amounts of knowledge it generates. With the analysis of data, ISMs can find new
new opportunities. This results in wiser decisions, more effective operations, and
opportunities. This results in wiser decisions, more effective operations, and more
more profits, which in turn helps in reducing the overall cost.
profits, which in turn helps in reducing the overall cost.
 Data Compatibility: Compatibility refers to the ability of systems to work together
▪ Data Compatibility:
without requiring any Compatibility
modifications.refersAn to increasing
the ability number
of systems to work together
of renewable energy
without
sources, loads and their integration to the microgrid generates varieties of dataenergy
requiring any modifications. An increasing number of renewable which
sources,
requires loads and their
advances integration to thecomputing
in high-performance microgridfor generates varieties
computations. Asofa data which
result, data
requires advances
compatibility in high-performance
is anticipated computing
to be an important for computations.
aspect in the deployment As aofresult,
ISMs.dataAd-
compatibility is anticipated
ditionally, another researchtoaspect
be anisimportant
defining the aspect in thecompatible
globally deployment of ISMs. Ad-
communication
ditionally,
protocolsanother
that canresearch aspect isdata
handle various defining
formats.the globally compatible communication
 protocols that can handle various data formats.
LPWAN Technologies: These technologies are modern and advanced wireless com-
▪ LPWAN
municationTechnologies:
technologies Thesewhichtechnologies are modern
provide wide-area and advanced
coverage with massive wireless com-
volumes
munication
and offer low technologies
data rates.whichTheseprovide
technologieswide-area coverage
are emerging andwith
offer massive
solutions volumes
to the
and offer low
problems in data rates. These technologies
IoT applications. Typically, these are emerging
networks and consumeoffer low
solutions
power toand
the
problems in IoTthey
in most cases applications. Typically, these
are battery-powered. Some networks consume
of the popular low powerused
technologies and in
most
LPWAN casesare they are NB-IoT,
Sigfox, battery-powered.
and LoRa. Some As these of are
thenewpopular technologies
technologies, the usageusedand in
LPWAN are Sigfox, NB-IoT, and LoRa. As these are new technologies,
applicability of these technologies for the establishment of ISMs have to be explored the usage and
applicability of these technologies for the establishment of ISMs have to be explored in
in greater detail.
 greater
AI and detail.
ML Applications: Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)
▪ AIconcepts
and MLcan assist ISMsArtificial
Applications: in building a robust (AI)
intelligence communication
and machinenetwork learningby(ML) learning
con-
fromcan
cepts their previous
assist ISMs actions and making
in building a robustbetter decisions. The
communication algorithms
network influence
by learning the
from
parameters
their previoussuch as channel
actions and makingbandwidth,
betterantenna
decisions.sensitivity, and spectrum
The algorithms influencemonitoring.
the pa-
The backhaul
rameters such asnetwork
channelperformance can also sensitivity,
bandwidth, antenna be further improved
and spectrum withmonitoring.
the help of
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 23 of 36

novel algorithms. Further, AI and ML concepts can be used for renewable energy
resource forecasting, loading uncertainty estimation, cyber-attack prediction, the
predictive maintenance of the ISMs, predicting channel behavior, predicting packet
losses and network collisions, etc. Some of the latest and key applications of AI and
ML in power grids are mentioned in Table 9.
 Spectrum Sharing: To make the overall communication system effective, the spectrum
is one of the important aspects that needs to be managed carefully. If the system is not
able to utilize the available spectrum (or part of the spectrum is not utilized), it is a
huge loss. In such scenarios, spectrum sharing helps to enable the efficient utilization
of the entire frequency spectrum so its full potential can be achieved. With the help of
spectrum sharing, the operational cost for the telecom operators will go down, and
thereby users can experience better quality and high speeds at a reasonable cost. The
advancement in deep reinforcement learning algorithms helps to ensure intelligent
spectrum access for users [101,102].
 Gateway placement: A judicious deployment of gateways helps to obtain the max-
imum data at CMCU from several motes in ISMs. The reception of the signals
is different in cluttered environments compared to normal scenarios. LOS and
NLOS paths play an important role in the reception of signals. Various new al-
gorithms/metrics/methods have to be adopted for determining the best gateway
placement in different environments, and thereby the data from the motes can be
received at CMCU without any interruptions.
 Network Security: The data transfers among the motes and CMCU must take place
in a secure environment. Network security safeguards the network infrastructure
by preventing a wide range of potential threats from entering or spreading within a
network. There is a possibility for the attacker to enter into network/network device
(ex: switch) and create a malfunction in the network; thereby, it may lead to an entire
network crash. Though there is a lot of research work carried out in the direction of
security, attackers are coming with up new methods of attack. So, there is a necessity
for researchers to propose new methods/approaches to prevent these new attacks.
Furthermore, when developing information-exchange algorithms and protocols, users’
privacy should be prioritised.

Table 9. Key applications of AI and ML in power grids.

Objectives Technique Used Key Points Year Ref.

Accuracy, mean square error, false-negative
Power system state classification Supervised learning using AdaBoost 2011 [91]
rate, false-positive rate, computational time
Future smart grids AI Two-layer simulation framework was proposed 2014 [92]
Social network concept to Humidity, rainfall, atmospheric pressure,
Support vector machine (SVM) 2014 [93]
smart grids sun time
Energy generation, consumer demand, energy
Energy management system
Batch Reinforcement Learning prices, characteristics of storage systems were 2015 [94]
(RLbEMS)
mentioned
MAS (Multi-agent system) for power REQUEST, SUBSCRIBE, CONFIRM, INFORM,
AI 2016 [95]
grid communication and CFP are used
Convergence of machine learning
Machine Learning Communications, security, privacy 2017 [96]
and communications
Cyber deception assaults FS-based SVM scheme Accuracy and F1 score are used 2018 [97]
SVM, Descriptive Discriminant
ML techniques for smart Precession, accuracy, linearity, training time,
Analysis, Decision Trees and Neural 2018 [98]
grid applications frequency of use, etc.
Networks
Various attacks such as spoofing, tampering,
Various security concerns Big data and ML techniques 2019 [99]
information disclosure, etc.
Feature extraction and handling a huge amount
Deep learning in smart grids Deep learning 2019 [100]
of data
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 24 of 36

5.2. Emphasis on LPWAN

Of the various points mentioned in Section 5.1, LPWAN is an advanced communication
network that can meet various communication requirements. In recent years, there has
been a huge shift in the market for LPWAN applications. This was proposed to meet
the diverse needs of low-power and long-range IoT applications. These applications
include smart metering (gas, water, etc.), smart cities, geolocation, asset tracking, etc.
Battery-operated devices are used to gather data from different locations. There were
several wireless technologies discussed in Section 2 of this paper, in which Zigbee was one
of the most widely used conventional technologies for low-data-rate and long-distance
communications. However, it cannot achieve coverage in the order of kilometers. To
address this, in recent years, many new technologies have been invented for LPWAN.
In view of all these points, smart grid researchers need to understand how these new
technologies can help in achieving their goals. With this objective, this subsection describes
all such important technologies of LPWAN, viz., Sigfox, NB-IoT and LoRa. These advanced
technologies are to be used to develop effective communication in ISMs which operates on
different bandwidths and distances. The description of these suggested technologies and
their features are given as follows.
Sigfox is a cellular-type network operator founded in 2010, with the objective of
connecting devices in the physical world to the digital realm [103]. Currently, Sigfox is
providing services in 75 countries. With the recent advancements in technology, people will
depend on 5G, which provides very high speeds and bandwidth. The Sigfox 0G network
will serve as a safety net and ensure that the devices are always in contact. This was created
as a global IoT network, based on low power, long range, and small amounts of data, that
provides end-to-end communication. With the help of the lightweight protocols, these
devices consume very little power, and thereby devices can operate on battery power for
long periods of time. As shown in Figure 11, the devices (sensor nodes) send the data from
the remote locations to the Sigfox base stations, and the base stations will forward the data
received to the Sigfox cloud. From the cloud, the data can be accessed by the user via the
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 26 of 39
applications. The volume of the data that can be sent to the network (uplink) is 12 bytes
(max), whereas the downlink data are restricted to 8 bytes (max).

End Nodes Sigfox Base Stations Sigfox Cloud Application

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Sigfox
Sigfox network
network architecture.
architecture.

NB-IoT is
NB-IoT is a cellular
cellular device
device service
service technology
technology that
that is
is established
established by
by the
the 3GPP
3GPP for
for
LPWAN. It works in a licensed band and can be developed on top of the existing
LPWAN. existing cellular
cellular
network infrastructure.
network infrastructure. ItIt takes
takes the
the advantage
advantage ofof mobile
mobile networks’
networks’ security
security and
and privacy
privacy
characteristics. Today’s cellular networks provide high data rates but consume
characteristics. Today’s cellular networks provide high data rates but consume lots lots of
of
power. On the other hand, NB-IoT allows the transmission of a smaller amount of data at
aa low data rate. When
When compared
compared to general
general cellular
cellular networks,
networks, NB-IoT
NB-IoT offers
offers lower
lower costs
and a longer battery life. The three deployment modes for NB-IoT are in-band, guard-
band, and standalone [104]. In in-band operation, it uses the frequency of the LTE channel,
in guard-band operation it uses the unused guard bands, and in standalone mode, it oc-
cupies the GSM channels. The architecture of the NB-IoT network is shown in Figure 12.
 Figure 11. Sigfox network architecture.

NB-IoT is a cellular device service technology that is established by the 3GPP for
LPWAN. It works in a licensed band and can be developed on top of the existing cellular
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 network infrastructure. It takes the advantage of mobile networks’ security and privacy 25 of 36
characteristics. Today’s cellular networks provide high data rates but consume lots of
power. On the other hand, NB-IoT allows the transmission of a smaller amount of data at
a low
and data battery
a longer rate. Whenlife.compared
The threeto general cellular
deployment modesnetworks, NB-IoT
for NB-IoT offers lower
are in-band, costs
guard-band,
and a longer battery life. The three deployment modes for NB-IoT are in-band, guard-
and standalone [104]. In in-band operation, it uses the frequency of the LTE channel, in
band, and standalone [104]. In in-band operation, it uses the frequency of the LTE channel,
guard-band operation it uses the unused guard bands, and in standalone mode, it occupies
in guard-band operation it uses the unused guard bands, and in standalone mode, it oc-
the GSM channels. The architecture of the NB-IoT network is shown in Figure 12. The
cupies the GSM channels. The architecture of the NB-IoT network is shown in Figure 12.
function of the NB-IoT network is to send the end node data to the application server. The
The function of the NB-IoT network is to send the end node data to the application server.
application serverserver
The application further processes
further the data
processes and,and,
the data based on the
based on requirement
the requirementcommands,
com-
these can these
mands, be sentcantobe
the end
sent to nodes
the endfrom thefrom
nodes application.
the application.

Figure 12. NB-IoT network architecture.

Figure 12. NB-IoT network architecture.

LoRaisisa aproprietary
LoRa proprietary radio
radio modulation
modulationtechnology
technologybased
basedonon
thethe
Chirp Spread
Chirp Spec-
Spread Spec-
trum (CSS), owned by Semtech [105]. It is a PHY layer of the stack. LoRa
trum (CSS), owned by Semtech [105]. It is a PHY layer of the stack. LoRa providesprovides a high
a high
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 link budget, allowing the receiver to receive signal levels below the noise floor. 27Higher
ofHigher
39
link budget, allowing the receiver to receive signal levels below the noise floor.
Spreading Factor (SF) values spread the signal over more time, putting more energy and
Spreading Factor (SF) values spread the signal over more time, putting more energy and
enabling fruitful reception over longer distances. The LoRa Alliance developed LoRaWAN,
anenabling fruitful standard
open protocol reception built
over onlonger distances.
top of The LoRa
LoRa [106]. Alliance developed
A star-of-stars topology Lo-
is used
to implement the LoRaWAN network architecture. The end nodes send topology
RaWAN, an open protocol standard built on top of LoRa [106]. A star-of-stars the data is
to the
used to
nearby implement
gateways the LoRaWAN
(LoRa packets), andnetwork architecture.
the gateways The end
further sendnodes send to
the data thethe
data to
network
the nearby gateways (LoRa packets), and the gateways further send the data to the net-
server via regular IP connections (IP packets), as shown in Figure 13. Further, the data from
work server via regular IP connections (IP packets), as shown in Figure 13. Further, the
the network server are sent to the application server, where the user can access the data.
data from the network server are sent to the application server, where the user can access
All these three LPWAN technologies are compared considering various key aspects, as
the data. All these three LPWAN technologies are compared considering various key as-
shown in Table 10 [13,107–109]. The range mentioned in Table 10 is ideal, and in real-time
pects, as shown in Table 10 [13,107–109]. The range mentioned in Table 10 is ideal, and in
scenarios
real-timethe range will
scenarios be affected
the range will beby several
affected byfactors.
several factors.

Fronthaul Backhaul

LoRa Wireless links

LoRa Packets IP Packets

End Nodes Gateways Network Server Application

Figure
Figure 13.13. LoRanetwork
LoRa networkarchitecture.
architecture.

Table 10. Comparison of key parameters of Sigfox, NB-IoT, and LoRa technologies.

Feature Sigfox NB-IoT LoRaWAN

868 to 869 MHz and 902 to 928 LTE Frequency IN865-867, US902-928, EU433 and
Operating Frequency
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 26 of 36

Table 10. Comparison of key parameters of Sigfox, NB-IoT, and LoRa technologies.

Feature Sigfox NB-IoT LoRaWAN

868 to 869 MHz and 902 to IN865-867, US902-928, EU433 and
Operating Frequency LTE Frequency Bands
928 MHz (depending on region) EU863-870 (depends on region)
Licensed/Unlicensed band Unlicensed band Licensed Band Unlicensed band
Type of modulation BPSK QPSK CSS
Bandwidth 100 Hz 200 kHz 125 kHz, 200 kHz
3–10 km (Urban) 1–5 km (Urban) 2–5 km (Urban)
Coverage
30–50 km (Rural) 10–15 km (Rural) 15–20 km (Rural)
Standard developed by Sigfox in collaboration with ETSI 3GPP LoRa Alliance (Network)
Data rate 100 bps 200 kbps 50 kbps (adaptive)
Sensitivity to interference High Low High
Individual can setup their own
Network setup By operator By operator
networks

6. Proposed ISM Architecture Using LoRa Technology

From Section 5.2, among all the discussed LPWAN technologies, LoRa possesses cer-
tain unique characteristics for building standalone networks, where an individual can build
their network without depending on the third-party service provider. Due to this unique
advantage, LoRa finds usage in many present-day advanced communication networks-
based applications. With this motivation, the following subsections provide more insights
into the usage of LoRa technology with a proposed architecture for ISM development.

6.1. Dissecting LoRa

LoRa technology is invented by Cycleo; Semtech later acquired Cycleo. Now Semtech
has the intellectual property rights for LoRa. LoRa is available for two layers, namely
the PHY layer (LoRa Radio) and MAC Layer (LoRaWAN). LoRa modulation is a unique
spread spectrum technique, which uses wideband linear frequency-modulated pulses
whose frequency changes over time. This makes LoRa immune to multipath fading and
the Doppler effect. To represent data, LoRa uses up-chirps (increase frequency) and down-
chirps (decrease frequency). It follows a packet format that is shown in Figure 14. To ensure
security, an “advanced encryption standard” is used. The spreading factor, bandwidth,
and coding rate are the key physical layer parameters that influence LoRa’s coverage and
power consumption, which are described in the following [110,111].
The number of bits used to represent each symbol is determined by the spreading
factor. It is in the range of 7 to 12 depending on the application. According to the regional
specifications document (for India), the bandwidth offered is 125 kHz and the data rate
is 0.3 to 50 kbps. To achieve different data rates, “adaptive data rates” can be used as per
the considered application. The forward error correction helps to recover the data during
the interferences. This is achieved by adding the redundant bits. The coding rate is the
portion of transmitted bits that carries the actual data. The code rates that are used by LoRa
are 4/5, 4/6, 4/7, or 4/8. A greater code rate provides more protection; thereby, recovery
becomes easy, but it also increases the Time on Air (ToA). When the transmitter antenna
sends a signal, it takes a certain amount of time in air to reach the receiver antenna, which
is called ToA and can be understood in Figure 15.
 considered application. The forward
0.3 to 50kbps. To achieveerror correction
different datahelps
rates, to recover data
“adaptive the data
rates”during
can bethe
used as per the
interferences. This is achieved
considered by adding
application. theforward
The redundanterrorbits. The coding
correction helpsrate is the portion
to recover the data during the
of transmitted bits that carries
interferences. theisactual
This data.
achieved by The
addingcode
therates that are
redundant used
bits. Theby LoRarate
coding are is the portion
4/5, 4/6, 4/7, or of
4/8. A greater bits
transmitted codethatratecarries
provides more protection;
the actual thereby,
data. The code rates recovery be- by LoRa are
that are used
comes easy, but4/5, it also increases
4/6, 4/7, or 4/8.the Time on
A greater Airrate
code (ToA). Whenmore
provides the transmitter
protection; antenna
thereby, recovery be-
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 27 of 36
sends a signal, itcomes
takes easy, but amount
a certain it also increases
of time intheairTime on Air
to reach the (ToA).
receiverWhen the transmitter
antenna, which antenna
is called ToA and sends
canabe signal, it takes in
understood a certain
Figureamount
15. of time in air to reach the receiver antenna, which
is called ToA and can be understood in Figure 15.
Header Payload
Preamble Payload Payload
Preamble
(Optional) Header Payload CRC
(Optional) CRC

Code rate

Check (CRC)
Redundancy
Cyclic
Length

Code rate

Check (CRC)
Redundancy
Cyclic
Length
Figure 14. LoRa Figure
packet 14.
format.
LoRa packet format.
Figure 14. LoRa packet format.
Transmitter Receiver (+) Gain
Antenna Time on Air (ToA)
Transmitter Receiver (+) Gain
Antenna Time on Air Antenna
(ToA) Antenna (-) Loss
(-) Loss

nsmitter Cable Connector Cable Connector Receiver

Transmitter Cable Connector Cable Connector Receiver

(-) (+) (-) (+) (-)

(-) (+) (-) (+) (-)
ansmitted Cable Loss Transmitter Path Loss Receiver Antenna Cable Loss Received
Transmitted Cable Loss Transmitter Path Loss Receiver Antenna Cable Loss Received
Power Power Antenna Gain Antenna Gain Gain Gain Power Power

Transmission Transmission Channel Channel Reception Reception

Figure 15. ToA representation
Figure15.
Figure 15. ToA
ToAinrepresentation
a transmitter–receiver
representation communicationcommunication
transmitter–receiver
in a transmitter–receiver system.
communicationsystem.
system.

Any MAC layer AnycanMAC

Any be used
MAC layer
layer with
canbe
can the LoRawith
beused
used physical
with the layer;
theLoRa
LoRa however,
physical
physical LoRaWAN
layer;
layer; isLoRaWANis is
however,LoRaWAN
however, the
the currently proposed
currently MAC
the currently that uses
proposed
proposed MAC a that
MAC star-of-stars
that
usesuses atopology.
star-of-stars
a star-of-stars Ittopology.
describes
topology. Ithow end de-
It describes
describes how how
endend de-
devices
vices should communicate
vices should
should with
communicate the gateway.
communicate withwith theThe
thegateways
gateway.
gateway. Theare
The then
gateways
gateways connected
are then
are to network
then connected
connectedtotonetwork
network
and applicationand
servers.
and Communication
application
application servers. between the end
servers.Communication
Communication node and
between
between thethe theend
end gateway
node andmay
node not
the gateway
and may not
the gateway may
be required at regular
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 not intervals
be required
be required inregular
at regular
at most real-time
intervals
intervals scenarios,
in most real-time
in most so LoRaWAN
scenarios,
real-time considers
so
scenarios,LoRaWAN three
considers
so LoRaWAN 29three
considers
of 39
different categories
three of
different end devices,
categories
different ofasend
categories shown endin devices,
ofdevices, Figure
as shown 16,
as namely
in Figure
shown Class
in 16, A, Class
namely
Figure B, and
Class
16, namely A, Class
Class A,
B, and
Class
Class
andC.
Class C. The transmission
B, Thecan
Class transmission
C. be
Thestarted canthe
by
transmission be end
startedbeby
cannode theany
at
started end
by node
time atClass
theinend any
node time
at in Class
A devices.
any timeAindevices.
Class A
devices.
It opens It opens
two receivetwoslots
receive
(Rx1,slots
Rx2)(Rx1,
afterRx2)
each after each transmission
transmission slot (Tx).transmis-
slot (Tx). Downlink Downlink
transmissions
sions can be accepted by Class B devices during scheduled receive slots. In Class In
can be accepted by Class B devices during scheduled receive slots. C, Class
the
C, the receiver slots will always be open, except during the uplink
receiver slots will always be open, except during the uplink period. Devices will be listen- period. Devices will be
listening
ing to thetogateway
the gatewayall thealltimethe[112–114].
time [112–114].
Some of Some of theand
the latest latest
keyand
workskeythat
works that are
are devel-
developed using LoRa are mentioned
oped using LoRa are mentioned in Table 11. in Table 11.

Transmit Window 1st Receive Window 2nd Receive Window

Class A Tx Rx1 Rx2
Delay 1

Delay 2

Class B Beacon Ping Ping Ping Beacon

Beacon Period

Class C Tx Rx1 Rx2 Rx Continues

Delay 1

Delay 2

Figure16.
Figure 16.Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx windows
windowsfor
forClass
ClassA,
A,Class
ClassB,B,and
andClass
ClassCCdevices.
devices.

Table 11. Key works developed using LoRa technology.

Objectives/Technology Key Points Year Reference

Forwarding scheme based on broadcast
Relay network based on LoRa 2020 [115]
scheduling is discussed
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 28 of 36

Table 11. Key works developed using LoRa technology.

Objectives/Technology Key Points Year Reference

Relay network based on LoRa Forwarding scheme based on broadcast scheduling is discussed 2020 [115]
Packet delivery rate is significantly improved with the help of
Multi-hop relay and Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) 2020 [116]
multi-hop
Coverage test for LoRa Range is tested, on road (15 km) and on water (close to 30 km) 2015 [117]
Data Extraction Rate (DER)and Network Energy Consumption
Investigation on capacity limits of LoRa 2016 [118]
(NEC) are used
Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) BER, range and coexistence are discussed 2016 [119]
Review on LPWAN All the technologies and standards in the LPWAN are discussed 2017 [13]
Bidirectional traffic Duty cycle limitations, energy consumption, and reliability
2017 [120]
in LoRaWAN tradeoffs are discussed
Performance of the network with respect to scalability
LoRa scalability 2017 [121]
is discussed
Mathematical model of LoRaWAN Packet error rate (PER) dependency with load is discussed 2017 [122]
Evaluating the sub-gigahertz wireless technologies Improvement of LoRa message delivery ratio over Wi-Fi 2017 [123]
A general model is developed which can be used to evaluate
LoRaWAN channel modelling 2017 [124]
the performance of LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN based AMI LoRa WAN BTS location measures RSSI 2017 [49]
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), an enhancement to
Improving LoRa performance with CSMA 2018 [125]
LoRaWAN that lowers the collision ratio is discussed
LoRaWAN module is developed in NS-3 Class A type and LoRaWAN 1.0 are considered 2018 [126]
Measurement tests of three different scenarios for both LOS
Channel modelling on the IIUM campus 2018 [127]
and NLOS links conducted
Performance evaluation of LoRa for different scenarios Several scenarios for urban, suburban, and rural are considered 2018 [128]
Scalability concerns of CSS Collisions and packet error rates are used to describe the effect 2019 [129]
A smart water distribution system is implemented where each
E-Metering with LoRa 2019 [130]
meter is connected to a mote
Radio propagation models The path loss model was considered 2019 [131]
S-Aloha on LoRaWAN Network throughput is improved 2019 [132]
To check the feasibility of the APP, experiments were
Bridge between IoT and smart grid 2019 [52]
performed in 81 locations, from the PER values, APP is tested
Energy consumption, characteristics, and coverage
Modelling, characterization and measurement of LoRa 2020 [73]
are discussed

6.2. Proposed LoRa Based Architecture

To achieve the fruitful establishment of ISMs, an integrated architecture is proposed,
as shown in Figure 17. To represent the concept of the proposed ISMs, four microgrids
are interconnected with each other using a common electrical bus and communication
network (through a gateway). Each building has its own local generation and load. This
interconnected operation enables energy sharing among the microgrids. Further, the
CMCU captures the energy generation and consumption data of each microgrid based on
a predefined time interval and maintains this database for further actions. These actions
involve energy management operations to optimally share the energy between the loads of
various microgrids, performing various data analytics to study various data quality issues
as well as a future estimate for contingency readiness, etc.
From an operation point of view, the entire ISM architecture shown in Figure 17 can
be represented as a three-layer structure, as shown in Figure 18. It involves the electrical
layer, communication layer, and IT layer.
The typical duties of the electrical layer are: facilitating energy management operations
and power quality control. This layer has all the electrical equipment, viz., generating
the sources and loads of each microgrid, electrical connectivity among microgrids and
utility grid through circuit breakers (CBs). These CBs are operated based on the control
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 29 of 36

commands sent by the CMCU. Further, it has metering devices (smart meters—SMs) to
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 31 of to
read the generation (PES1 . . . n) and load (PL1 . . . n). All the microgrids are connected 39
the utility grid at a node called the “point of common coupling (PCC)”.

Microgrid-1

Source Load

Utility Grid
Microgrid-2
University

Source Load
Gateway

Microgrid-3 CMCU

Electrical connection Source Load

Electrical bus

Communication from
Microgrid to Gateway
Microgrid-4

Communication from Gateway

to Microgrid / Utility Grid
Source Load
Circuit Breaker

Figure 17.
Figure 17. High-level
High-level view
view of
of ISM
ISM architecture.
architecture.

The typical
typical duties
dutiesof ofthe
thecommunication
communicationlayer layerarearefacilitating
facilitating continuous
continuous data
data sens-
sensing
ing and data transfer from LoRa end nodes (ENs) to CMCU,
and data transfer from LoRa end nodes (ENs) to CMCU, control signals from CMCU to control signals from CMCU
to CBs
CBs andandPCC,PCC,andand providing
providing securesecure transmissions
transmissions between
between the electrical
the electrical layer layer
and ITand IT
layer.
layer.
The ENsTheare
ENs are connected
connected to all
to all the the(of
SMs SMs (of sources
sources and loads
and loads of eachof microgrid)
each microgrid) and
and CBs.
CBs. From
From thesethese end nodes,
end nodes, the collected
the collected data data
will will be transferred
be transferred to theto CMCU
the CMCU through
through the
the LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN gateway.
gateway. DataData security
security algorithms
algorithms can can be implemented
be implemented to ensure
to ensure security
security for
for the
the datadata transmission
transmission in both
in both directions.
directions.
The IT layer has CMCU and LoRaWAN gateway. gateway. The CMCU operations are divided
into three subunits, viz., central monitoring unit (CMU), analytics unit (AU), and central
control
control unit
unit(CCU).
(CCU).CMU CMUhas hastotomonitor
monitor data continuously
data continuously andandprovide a human–machine
provide a human–ma-
interface to supply
chine interface user inputs.
to supply It also
user inputs. It has
alsoto provide
has a database
to provide for storing
a database the the
for storing analysis
anal-
results in future.
ysis results AU has
in future. AUtohas
perform all the all
to perform computations
the computationsand suggest optimal optimal
and suggest unit commit-
unit
ment for energy transfer between microgrids. It also has to perform
commitment for energy transfer between microgrids. It also has to perform forecasting for forecasting for future
contingency analysisanalysis
future contingency and readiness and fault
and readiness studies.
and fault studies.
Additionally, the AU has to perform
Additionally, the AU has to perform various various datadata
analytics operations
analytics using using
operations advancedad-
machine learning learning
vanced machine algorithms to ensure to
algorithms a better
ensure visibility
a betterofvisibility
the capturedof thedata, which helps
captured data,
to effectively
which helps to operate the entire
effectively operate system. CCU system.
the entire has to provide
CCU has thetocontrol
provide signals to operate
the control sig-
CBs
nals to operate CBs or PCC for power exchange based on the optimal strategy derivedhas
or PCC for power exchange based on the optimal strategy derived by AU. It also by
to
AU.provide
It also alerts
has towhenever any emergency
provide alerts whenever any or abnormality
emergency is ordetected.
abnormality is detected.
Sensors 2022, 22,
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881
5881 30 of
32 of 36
39

Central Monitoring and Control Unit (CMCU)

Analysis Tools & Display
Control Philosophies

IT Layer
AI Techniques

Server Operator
Central Control Unit Analytics Unit Central Monitoring Unit
CB’s control Deriving optimal unit cost Parameter monitoring

Emergency control Deriving energy transfer strategy Providing database

PCC control Forecasting and analytics Human-machine interface

LoRaWAN Gateway
Control Data sensing
r

Transfer
fe

Communication Layer
 r
ns

fe

r
Data transfer

fe

fe
a

ns
Tr

ns

ns
a
Tr

a
a

Tr

Tr
at

Control transfer

a
D

at

a
at

at
D

D
Secure transmission

LoRa EN-9
to EN-18

LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa

EN-1 EN-2 EN-3 EN-4 EN-5 EN-6 EN-7 EN-8

SM-1 SM-2 SM-3 SM-4 SM-5 SM-6 SM-7 SM-8

Microgrid-1 Microgrid-2 Microgrid-3 Microgrid-4

PES1 PL1 PES2 PL2 PES3 PL3 PES4 PL4

Electrical Layer
CB CB
CB
MG1 – MG2 MG2 – MG3 MG3 – MG4
M

CBs
MG

G
3

CB CB
2

and CB
–

MG1 – MG3
–U

MG2 – MG4 CB
UG

PCC
G

CB

CB
CB

Control
MG1 – MG4
Signals

MG1 – UG UG – MG4
Energy Management PCC
Power quality control 3-Ph 440V Utility Grid Distribution Feeder Lines
R
Power exchange Y
B

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Three-layer representation of
Three-layer representation of ISM
ISM architecture.
architecture.

The low-level view of a LoRa-based communication network for the interoperability

(interconnection) of various microgrids in a locality is shown in Figure Figure 19.
19. As shown in
this figure, each of these buildings has a LoRa end node, which acts as a communicationcommunication
facility module for the corresponding building. As discussed above, the SMs capture the
generation and load at the associated
associated microgrid and communicate
communicate this information (via
their respective
respectiveLoRa
LoRaend
endnode)
node)to to
thethe
CMCUCMCU (through LoRaLoRa
(through Gateway). According
Gateway). to these
According to
captured values,values,
these captured the CMCU computes
the CMCU the requirement
computes of power of
the requirement export
poweror power
exportimport for
or power
each
importof for
these microgrids
each based on the
of these microgrids predefined
based energy management
on the predefined strategy. Based
energy management on
strategy.
these computations, the CMCU operates the corresponding CBs (via their
Based on these computations, the CMCU operates the corresponding CBs (via their re- respective LoRa
end nodes)
spective thatend
LoRa arenodes)
connected
that between the microgrids,
are connected between the to microgrids,
enable theirto interconnectivity.
enable their in-
This interconnectivity
terconnectivity. through CBs facilitates
This interconnectivity through theCBs
power import/export
facilitates the powerbetween any two
import/export
microgrids,
between anyastwo dictated by the CMCU
microgrids, through
as dictated by therespective control commands.
CMCU through respective control com-
mands.As shown in Figure 19, the CMCU has to be equipped with a backup computation (or
storage) unit along
As shown with the
in Figure 19,master unit. This
the CMCU has backup computation
to be equipped withunit is a redundant
a backup unit,
computation
which ensures the protection of data under any failures of the master unit.
(or storage) unit along with the master unit. This backup computation unit is a redundant
unit, which ensures the protection of data under any failures of the master unit.
Sensors
Sensors 2022, 22,
22, 5881
5881 31of
33 of 36
39

Microgrid-1 Microgrid-2 Microgrid-3 Microgrid-4 Smart Meters

(SM 1-8)
Source Load Source Load Source Load Source Load
SM-1 SM-2 SM-3 SM-4 SM-5 SM-6 SM-7 SM-8

LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa

EN-1 EN-2 EN-3 EN-4 EN-5 EN-6 EN-7 EN-8 End Nodes
(EN 1-8)

Master Backup
Unit LoRaWAN Unit LoRaWAN
Gateway
CENTRAL MONITORING AND CONTROL UNIT
Server
End Nodes
(EN 9-18)
LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa LoRa
EN-9 EN-10 EN-11 EN-12 EN-13 EN-14 EN-15 EN-16 EN-17 EN-18

CB CB CB CB CB CB CB CB CB CB
MG1-MG2 MG1-MG3 MG1-MG4 MG2-MG3 MG2-MG4 MG3-MG4 MG1-UG MG2-UG MG3-UG MG4-UG

Circuit Breakers (CBs) for Energy Transaction Among the Microgrids and Utility Grid in ISMs

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Low-level
Low-level view
view of
of LoRa-based communication network
LoRa-based communication network for
for ISMs.
ISMs.

7. Summary and
7. Summary and Outlook
Outlook
The
The increasing
increasing importance
importance ofof utility-grid
utility-grid independent systems in
independent systems in the
the present-day
present-day
global energy sector encourages the study of various technologies
global energy sector encourages the study of various technologies on which these on which these sys-
systems
tems are relying. Keeping this in view, a systemic and technical assessment
are relying. Keeping this in view, a systemic and technical assessment of various commu- of various
communication technologies
nication technologies that can that can for
be used be the
used for the development
development of ISMs is of ISMs is
detailed indetailed
this pa-
in this
per. paper.
This paperThis paper
started started
with withofavarious
a review review state-of-the-art
of various state-of-the-art
developments,developments,
where var-
where various worldwide
ious worldwide footprints footprints
and Indianand Indian are
initiatives initiatives
discussedare along
discussed
withalong withcon-
the work the
work conducted at the macrogrid and microgrid levels. Then, it progressed
ducted at the macrogrid and microgrid levels. Then, it progressed to a discussion on var- to a discussion
on
iousvarious standards
standards and communication
and communication technologies
technologies that are that areinuseful
useful in deploying
deploying the ISMs.theA
ISMs. A discussion on numerous issues and challenges in the implementation
discussion on numerous issues and challenges in the implementation of ISMs is provided. of ISMs
is provided.
Further, it is expected that this field of research will continue to expand, and with
Further, it is expected that this field of research will continue to expand, and with this
this theme, this paper suggests a number of possible research directions that could serve
theme, this paper suggests a number of possible research directions that could serve as a
as a guide for researchers. A new communication strategy is needed to facilitate the tran-
guide for researchers. A new communication strategy is needed to facilitate the transition
sition from traditional centralized systems to decentralized systems. With the goal of im-
from traditional centralized systems to decentralized systems. With the goal of improving
proving the performance of communication networks for their use in microgrids, various
the performance of communication networks for their use in microgrids, various advanced
advanced wireless technologies in LPWANs, such as Sigfox, NB-IoT and LoRaWAN, are
wireless technologies in LPWANs, such as Sigfox, NB-IoT and LoRaWAN, are detailed. At
detailed. At last, all these technologies are compared with respect to various features, and
last, all these technologies are compared with respect to various features, and finally, this
finally, this paper suggested a LoRa-based architecture for the ISMs with all necessary
paper suggested a LoRa-based architecture for the ISMs with all necessary functionalities
functionalities to establish effective ISMs.
to establish effective ISMs.
Limitations
Limitations
We present
We presenthere
herea few
a few challenges
challenges thatthat should
should be taken
be taken into consideration
into consideration while
while imple-
implementing the proposed architecture:
menting the proposed architecture:
▪ LoRa technology is limited in terms of its data rate. So, it may affect communication
 LoRa technology is limited in terms of its data rate. So, it may affect communication
during emergencies, where fast data communication is normally desired.
during emergencies, where fast data communication is normally desired.
Sensors 2022, 22, 5881 32 of 36

 Grid connection and control in the microgrid network need to be developed in a

robust manner as they may affect the entire power network.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank VIT-AP University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh,
India, for funding the open access publication fee for this research work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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