Department of First Year

Engineering

Subject-
Engineering Chemistry
By
Dr. Pratibha S. Desai
M.Sc. Ph.D
Books to be referred:
1. Engineering Chemistry- O. G. Palanna, Tata

Magraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.

2. A Text Book of Engg. Chemistry -Dr. Sunita

Rattan, S. K. Kataria& Sons Publisher.

3. A Text Book of Engg. Chemistry -Dr. S. S.

Dara, Dr. S. S. Umare, S. Chand & Company

Ltd.
 Unit-I

Water
Technology
Points:
II Effects of hard water in boilers

1) Priming and foaming

2) Scales and sludges

⮚ Water treatment-
• a) Zeolite process & its numerical

• b) Ion exchange method/Demineralization.

• Purification of water by….

• a) Reverse osmosis
• b) Electrodialysis.

• Modern Technique for atmospheric water

generation
Importance of Water:
• Steam generation - most important use

• Coolant in power and chemical plants

• Production of steel, paper, textile,

chemical industry
• Air Conditioning

• Fire fighting

• Construction
 Natural Sources of Water

• Rain Water:
• Surface water: Sea, Lake and River
• Underground Water: Tubwell, well etc (Free
from organic matter.)
 Types of Impurities in Water
1. Physical Impurities
a) Suspended Impurities:
Impurities are visible,
Size of particles are greater than 1000 A0

e.g. Soil, sand and animal matters etc.

Separated from water by filtration,

sedimentation, settlement.
b) Colloidal Impurities:

⚫Presence of finely divided Organic or Inorganic

colloidal particles/matter, it makes water turbid.

⚫ Size of colloidal particles/matter- 10 to 1000 A0

⚫ finely divided colloidal particles/matter are

uniformly or evenly distributed in water.

⚫They are negatively charged & separated by

coagulation followed by sedimentation or
filtration.
2. Chemical Impurities:

a) Presence of dissolved salts.

b) Presence of dissolved gases.

c) Presence of dissolved organic

compounds
 2a) Presence of dissolved /soluble salts
e.g:
Sulphates, chlorides & nitrates of calcium,
Magnesium, Iron….
(MgSO4, CaSO4, MgCl2, CaCl2,
FeCl2, Fe(NO3)2, Ca(NO3)2)

i.e. Presence of Cations like Na+, K+, Mg2+ , Ca2+,

Fe2+, Mn2+ etc.

and Anions like Cl-, SO42-, NO32- etc.

b) Dissolved gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen ,
oxygen, hydrogen sulphide, Ammonia, Sulphur
dioxide etc.
Dissolved gases removed by warming the water

c) Dissolved organic compounds.

Salts separated from water by chemical reactions.

Organic compound removed by Oxidation

reaction.
3. Bacterial/ Biological Impurities:
Presence of Bacteria, Germs, Pathogens,
Microbes, Viruses, Parasites, algae, fungi in
water.

⚫Removed by Sterilization by using chemicals

like Bleaching powder (CaOCl2), Sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl), Chlorine.
 Water that gives lather / Foam with soap easily and

readily is called as Soft Water

If Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Sulphate, nitrate
and Chloride salts of bivalent cations such as ….
Mg++, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ca2+ are present in water
Then hardness of water is high
& need to remove before its use in industry.
Causes of Hardness

a) Dissolution of Minerals

a) Action of CO2

a) Action of O2
Causes of Hardness

a) Dissolution of Minerals:

⮚ When water is coming in the form of Rain water

percolates through rocks comes in contact with
salts present in the crust and water becomes hard
 Action of CO2
⮚ When this water comes in contact with CaCO3, MgCO3 on
rocks, the insoluble carbonates are slowly converted to into
soluble and hardness causing bicarbonates.
 Action of O2
⮚Dissolved Oxygen in water in water convert some insoluble
minerals to soluble and hardness causing salts.
 Types of Hardness of Water

1. Temporary Hard or Carbonate Hardness

1. Permanent hard or Non-Carbonate Hardness

 1. Temporary Hard or Carbonate Hardness
( Alkaline Hardness)

⮚ Hardness due to presence of dissolved carbonates

of Ca, Mg, and soluble bicarbonate salts of heavy metals
e.g: Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2, MgCO3, FeCO3

⮚Temporary hardness of water easily removed by boiling

of water
⮚When bicarbonates are deposited yielding insoluble
carbonates or hydroxides, which are deposited as crust
at the vessel bottom
Reaction
 2. Permanent or Non-Carbonate Hardness
(Non-alkaline Hardness)

⮚ Hardness is due to presence of Chlorides and sulphates of

calcium and magnesium, iron and other heavy metals.

⮚ Permanent hardness is not removed by boiling

e.g: CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4

⮚ Need to do chemical treatment to make water soft

⮚ e.g: Zeolite method, Ion Exchange method , Demineralization,

Reverse osmosis and Electrodialysis
⮚ Total hardness of water is hardness due to all hardness
causing salts .

Total hardness = Temporary Hardness + Permanent

Hardness
 Units Of Hardness

Hardness is due to presence of …………..

various/different hardness causing salts.

To express them separately is not convenient.

Therefore all of them are conveniently expressed in

terms of 1 chemical CaCO3
Because…..
CaCO3 is practically insoluble in water.

Its Mol. Wt. is 100 & eq. wt is 50 – Which are convenient for
calculation.
Units of the hardness are

1) Parts Per Million (ppm) CaCO3 equivalent :

parts of CaCO3 equivalents present in 1 million

(i.e.106) parts of water.

1 ppm CaCO3 equivalent = 1 part of CaCO3

equivalent in 106 parts of water.
2) Milligrams Per litre (mg/litre) CaCO3
equivalent :

milligrams of CaCO3 equivalents present in 1 litre

water.

1 ppm CaCO3equivalent = 1 mg CaCO3equivalent

/lit.
3) Parts Per Billion (ppb) :

parts of CaCO3 equivalents present in 1

billion (i.e.109) parts of water.
 Example mg of Chemical Eq. wt of
Chemical
MgSO4 34 mg/lit 60
CaSO4 28.2 mg/lit 68

MgCO3 4 mg/lit 42

Ca(HCO3)2 14.2 mg/ 81

Find Temporary, Total Hardness, Permanent

Hardness ?
Numerical:
Calculate temporary and permanent hardness of water sample
containing following salt impurities Ca(HCO3) 2 = 40.5 mg/lit,
CaSO4= 6.8 mg/lit, CaCl2 = 38.85 mg/lit. MgSO4=6 mg/lit,
MgCl2 = 3.8 mg/lit, SiO2=6 mg/lit.
Mol. Wt. Ca(HCO3)2 = 162, CaSO4 =136, CaCl2=111, MgSO 4
=120, MgCl2 = 95
SiO2 do not contribute to hardness.
Determination of Hardness of water by EDTA
method
• Ethylene diamine a Hardness of Water is determined by
titrating water sample with disodium salt of EDTA

Ethylene diamine tetraacetic

acid
• EDTA – Partially / Incompletely soluble in water

Que: Explain EDTA method for the determination of hard water with Procedure, reactions, formulae & draw metal-EDTA complex.
 Disodium salt of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid

• It is completely soluble in water

• Highly sensitive towards heavy metal ions in water
even in very low concentration of salts / Reacts very
quickly with metal ions.
• It is Hexadentate- Six sites/positions to form co-
ordinate bond.
O O

O O

H2C
M CH2
N N

H2C CH2
Reaction
 Experimentation:

Part I-Preparation of Std. 0.01M ZnSO4. 7H2O

• Weigh 0.718 gm of ZnSO4

• Dissolve it in distilled water, dilute it up to 250
ml in volumetric flask.
• Stirr it well , make the solution homogeneous.
 Part II: Standardization of Na2EDTA

10ml ZnSO4 + 10 ml buffer (pH 10) + 2–3 drops EBT

indicator –wine red color –titrated against
Na2EDTA solution.

Soln in burette: Na2EDTA solution

Soln in Conical: 10ml ZnSO4
Indicator: 2 drops of EBT
End point: wine red to blue
End point of titration (Part II) = ‘V2ml
Calculations : Standardization of EDTA
( Find molarity of EDTA)

Part-II- Standardisation of EDTA :

ZnSO4 = EDTA
M1V1 = M2V2
M2 = M1V1/V2

M1 = Molarity of ZnSO4 solution

V1 = Volume of Sol. Of ZnSO4
V2 = Volume of disodium EDTA ( burette reading)
Part III:Total hardness of sample water

⚫10 ml water Sample + 10 ml buffer (pH 10) +

2–3 drops EBT indicator –wine red color –
titrated against Na2EDTA solution.

Soln in burette: Na2EDTA solution

Soln in Conical: 10 ml water Sample
Indicator : 2 drops of EBT
End point: wine red to blue
End point of titration (Part III) = ‘Y’ml
Part-III- Total hardness of water sample

Y = Volume of disodium EDTA ( burette reading)

M2 = Molarity of disodium EDTA solution
V = Volume of Water Sample titrated
 Advantages of EDTA method

• For accurate reading suitable indicator available.

• Sharp change in color at the end point of titration.
• Even at very low concentration of hardness causing
metal ions, EDTA reacts and gives accurate results.
• Method is convenient, fast and easy.
Numericals :

1) Given : Water Sample=V= 50 ml

ml of EDTA =Y= 11.5ml

Molarity =M2= 0.02 M

Total hardness of water = ??

Numericals :

2) Given : Water Sample=V= 100 ml

ml of EDTA =Y= 12.8 ml
Molarity =M2= 0.01 M

Boiled & filtered Water Sample = 100 ml

ml of EDTA =Y= 10 ml

Calculate Permanent & Temporary hardness of

water sample.= ??
 Alkalinity of Water Sample

• Hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates

• Hydroxides – NH4OH, Ca(OH)2,
• Carbonates – MgCO3, FeCO3
• Bicarbonates – Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2,
Fe(HCO3)2

Strength of the bases is –

Hydroxides > carbonates > bicarbonates
 Theory:

• Fixed volume of alkaline water sample titrated with

strong acid (HCL).

• Hydroxide ions (OH-) completely neutralized

• Then carbonate (CO32-) ions will be half get neutralized

to bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

• After addition of excess of acid, bicarbonate get converted

into water and carbon dioxide

pH of solution decreases to about 8.7
( Pink to Colourless)

Remaining ½ of CO3–2 (now present as HCO3¯)

is neutralized on further titration
- Indicated by methyl orange (M) indicator,

pH of solution decreases to about 4

( Yellow to Orange )
 Procedure- Part -I: Phenolphthalein end
point
burette contains: Acid solution-H2SO4/ HCl
Soln in pipette : Sample water (25ml)
Indicator : 1–2 drops of phenolphthalein
Conical contains Sample water + Indicator (P)
End point : pink to colorless
End point of titration (part I) = ‘V1’ml-Burette Reading

⚫Do not throw the solution. Do not refill the burette.

⚫V1 ml is equivalent to OH⁻ and ½ of CO3–2 alkalinity.
 Part II: Methyl Orange end point
• Part-I Solution + 1-2 drops of methyl orange
indicator
• Then continue the titration till yellow color
changes to Orange/Red (end point)
• End point of titration (part II) = ‘V2’ml-Burette
Reading
• End point indicates complete neutralization of
HCO3– which are already present in water & which
are produced due to half neutralization of
carbonates.
• V2 ml is equivalent to complete neutralization of
sample water.
V1 & V2 = Burette reading,
V= Volume of water sample,
Z = Normality of acid
50 = Equivalent wt of CaCO3
1000 = One lit. Water
Types of Alkalinities :

Possible combinations…
a) Only single ion : OH⁻ or CO3–2 or HCO3¯

b) Any two ions: OH⁻ & CO3–2, CO3–2 & HCO3¯

OH⁻ & HCO3¯ do not coexist.

Because they react & form H2O + CO3–2
c) All three ions :
OH⁻, CO3–2 & HCO3¯ do not exist together.
 Amount of alkalinities
• Alkalinities due to the OH⁻, CO3–2 and HCO3¯
• From the relationship between the value of P and M or
• V1 and V2 , types and amounts of alkaline present for respective
water samples can be calculated using a reference table.

End point
(Relationship between P & Alkalinity in ppm
M or V1 & V2)
P&M V1 & V2 OH¯ CO3–2 HCO3¯

P=0 V1= 0 - - M

P=M V1= V2 M - -
P=½ M V1 = ½ V2 - 2P -

P>½M V1 > ½ V2 2P-M 2(M-P) -

P < 1/ 2M V1 < ½ V2 _ 2P M-2P

 Numericals:
Given :

1) Water sample= V= 50 ml
2) P end point burette reading = V1 = 3.6 ml of acid.
3) Normality =Z= 0.025 N
4) For methyl orange end point further required 4.7 ml of
acid from burette.

Find types & amount of alkalinities ????

Ans: P=90, M= 207.5
Relationship = P < ½ M
Types - Carbonates (CO3–2 ) & Bicarbonates (HCO3¯ )
Amount of alkalinities = CO3–2 = 2P=180 ppm , HCO3¯ = M-2P=27.5 ppm
Given : Numericals

1) Water sample= V= 100 ml

2) P end point burette reading = V1 = 0.0 ml
of acid.
3) Normality =Z= 1/50 N
4) For methyl orange end point required
16.4 ml of acid from burette.

Find types & amount of alkalinities ????

 Numerical:

100 ml of an alkaline water sample requires 5.8 ml of

0.02 M HCl up to phenolphthalein end point and 15.4
ml for methyl orange end point. Find the types and
amount of alkalinity in water sample.
 Boiler Feed Water
Important use of water in industries for Steam
generation and coolant

Objective : Treatment of boiler feed water

thoroughly to avoid troubles in boiler

External and internal treatments are available

Steam is required for thermal power stations, for
uniform and continuous heating of reaction.
III Effects of hard water on boiler
Water with minimum hardness and maximum
purity is good for boiler feed

1) Priming & Foaming

2) Scales & Sludges

 Priming and Foaming

Priming :

When boiler produces steam rapidly, some water

droplets are carried with steam,

the process of wet steam formation is called priming

Que: Define Priming & foaming. Give the causes, disadvantages & prevention of Priming &
foaming in boiler?
⮚Causes of Priming
1) Presence of large amount of dissolved Salts
2) High rate/speed of Steam generation.

3) Sudden boiling increase in steam-production

rate.
4) Improper boiler design

5) High water level in boiler.

⚫Disadvantages of Priming

1) Dissolved salt in boiler water are carried out by

the wet steam to turbine blades which reduces their
efficiency.

2) Dissolved salts may enter the parts of other

machinery may decrease the life of the machinery.
⚫Prevention of Priming

1) By improving boiler design.

2) By maintaining low water level in boilers

3) By using soft water.

4) By decreasing the amount of dissolved salts

5) Maintain proper temperature for boiling
⚫B) FOAMING :
⚫The production of continuous foam or
bubbles on the surface of water in boiler.

Causes of foaming :
1) Presence of oily substances in water.

2) Presence of high conc. of dissolved salts in water.

3) Presence of fine suspended materials.

4) Rapid flow of inside the boiler

⮚Disadvantages of foaming :
1) Actual height of the water column cannot be judged
properly.
2) It disturbs the working of boiler

⮚Prevention of Foaming
:
1) By the addition of anti-foaming chemicals
like castor oil, alcohol, Gallic acid, tannic acid etc.

2) Removing oil from boiler water by adding compounds

like sodium Aluminates or blow down operation.
2) SCALES AND SLUDGES FORMATION

A) SLUDGES –

The slimy & loose deposition of precipitated

salts inside the boiler.

Que: Define scale & Sludge. Give the causes, disadvantages, prevention & removal of
scale & Sludge in boiler?
Que : Distinguish between scales & Sludge’s in boiler.
Causes of Sludges formation :

Water evaporates continuously …….

Concentration of dissolved Salts left behind,

goes on increasing …..

Precipitation of salt take place to form

sludge.
Removal of Sludges :

Formation take place at bends, valves

where flow rate of water is slow .

1. By using brushes
2. By adding detergent solution
3. Blow down operation.
⚫Disadvantages of sludge formation :

1) Sludge's are poor conductor of heat, so they

tend to waste a portion of heat generated.

2) Excessive sludge formation disturbs the

working of boiler & reduces flow rate of
water.

3) It causes choking of pipes.

Prevention of sludge formation :

1. By using soft water

2. By frequently blow-down operation.

blow-down operation
Means................

Replacing salts rich water with fresh water.

B) Scales :

“The Hard & Strong coating formed

inside the boiler tube by chemical
reactions.”
Causes of scales formation:
i) Decomposition of bicarbonates :

⚫Ca(HCO3 )2 → CaCO3 ↓ + CO2 + H2O

⚫Mg(HCO3 )2 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CO2 + H2O

Produce insoluble products & gets

precipitated to form scale.
ii ) Hydrolysis of Mg Salt :

MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + 2HCl

iii) Presence of Silica :

Silica present in the form of colloidal

particles & produce Calcium or magnesium
Silicates, silicates are strongly adhering material.
iv) Decreased solubility of CaSO4

As temp. increases solubility of

CaSO4 decreases.

Insoluble CaSO4 produce precipitate as hard

Scale.
Scale Forming Material :

Bicarbonates { Ca(HCO3)2 , Mg(HCO3)2 }

Salts ( MgCl2)

Silica

CaSO4
Scales are Composed of / Contains :

CaCO3 ,

Mg(OH)2,

Silicates,

Insoluble CaSO4
⚫Disadvantages of scale :

1) Wastage of Fuel

1) Over heating of boiler

1) Boiler safety

1) Danger of Explosion
Removal of Scales :
Use of scraper / wire brush

Hammer

Thermal shocks

By the addition of suitable chemicals like

EDTA solution, Sodium phosphate, Calgon.

Prevention of scale formation
Use of soft water

Use of sodium phosphate

Frequent blow down operation

Adding sodium aluminate- It trap the scale

forming particles

Adding Tannin, Lignin- It form a coating on scale forming

particles & then removed by blow down.
 Difference between Sludge and Scales
Sr. No Sludge Scales

1 It is soft, loose and slimy deposits It is hard and strong coating

formed within the boiler. formed within the boiler.

2 It can be easily removed by detergent. Difficult to remove.

3 Heat transfer to boiler water is Heat transfer to boiler water is

affected slightly affected largely

4 Formed due to increase in conc. of Due to CuSO4,CaCO3, Mg(OH)2

salts in boiler etc.

5 Sludge formed at cooler parts and Scale is formed at hotter parts .

where flow rate is low.

6 Sludge may lead to chocking. Scales may lead to bulging of metal

tube, its bursting or explosion.
 External Water Treatments and
Numericals
Treatment of water are of two types.

A) Internal Treatment: With Chemicals

B) External Treatment
1) Zeolite Method/Process ( Cation Exchange )

2) Ions Exchange method

( Demineralisation / Deionisation )
1) Zeolite Method/Process ( Cation Exchange )
(External Process)
- Zeolite is also known as Permutit process.
Sodium
- Zeolites are occurring naturally in porous
rocks.
Zeolite is a complex mixture of Metal
aluminosilicates.

Nax+ [ (AlO2)x (SiO2)y zH2O]

Simplified as – Na2Ze
( Hydrated sodium alumino silicates)
Zeolite are of two types:

1. Natural are non porous,amorphous and

durable.
e.g Natrolite Na2O.Al2O3 4(SiO2)2H2O

1. Synthetic: It can be prepared synthetically by

fusion of silica, soda and alumina.
 Principle :
Sodium Zeolite has property of
capturing heavy metal ions like Ca2+, Mg2+
from water & in exchange release of Na+
ions.
• Due to removal of heavy metals ions from water,
the hard water is converted to soft water by zeolite .
• The porous nature of zeolites permits free movement
of water molecules and specific ions.
Process
Reaction during treatment :

Ca2+ + Na2Ze → CaZe + 2Na+

Mg2+ + Na2Ze → MgZe + 2Na+

Heavy metal Salts like CaCl2, MgSO4,

Ca(HCO3)2, Mg (HCO3)2 etc...
When Sodium Zeolite bed is completely converted
into calcium / magnesium Zeolite bed.

Then it is called as exhausted Zeolite bed.

Then supply of hard water is stopped....

Then exhausted Zeolite bed is regenerated by

treating the bed with 10 % of NaCl solution (Brine)

Regeneration Reaction-

CaZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + CaCl2

MgZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + MgCl2

Advantages
1. Hardness can be completely removed
2. Clean process
3. Requires less time, Easy operation and
low cost
4. Small area requires
5. No need to analyze water sample before
softening.
Disadvantages
1. Not used for warm water – warm water
decomposes zeolite bed.
2. Mn2+, Fe2+ ions gets permanently captured
by zeolite bed.
3. Obtained water–zero hardness but contains
equivalent amount of Na+
4. Used only for small scale treatment.
Application :

1. Used to get soft water

1. Use to remove toxic metal ions from polluted

water

1. Used to recover valuable metals from industrial

waste e.g. Ni, Cr, Lead copper, silver etc.
 Hardness of Water completely removed = Zeolite completely
exhausted = NaCl solution consumed in regeneration

NaCl amount in mg = gm of NaCl X Lit of NaCl X 1000

1. A water sample having hardness 250 ppm was softened by
zeolite process. The exhausted zeolite bed required 50 lit. of
15% NaCl solution for generation. Calculate the quantity of
water softened using the zeolite bed
Solution : 100 ml of solution contains 15 gm of NaCl =
15%
1000 ml of solution contains 150 gm of NaCl
50 liters solution contains 7500 gm of NaCl
Zeolite bed removed 6410256 mg equiv. CaCO3 hardness

250 ppm of hardness = 1 liter of water

6410256 ppm of hardness = ?

25641 lit of water softened by Zeolite

2. Zeolite softener was completely exhausted and was
regenerated by passing 90 lit of NaCl solution containing 1200
mg/lit NaCl. How many liters of sample water of hardness 150
ppm can be softened by this softener?

3.Total hardness of 1000 lit of water was completely removed

by a zeolite softener. The zeolite softener required 30 lit of NaCl
solution containing 15 gm/lit of NaCl for regeneration.
Calculate hardness of water.
 2) Ions Exchange method
( Demineralisation / Deionisation )
Principal-

“When water containing Cations & anions , is first

passed through cation exchanger resin where all
cations are captured ( H+ release in water) and then
passed through anion exchanger resin where all anions
are captured ( OH- release in water), the resulting
water is pure and free from all ions.”
• There are two synthetic resins used for ion exchange
Cation Exchange resin:
1. This is a polymer having sulphonated /
carboxylated
aromatic ring attached to the chain
2. The H+ ions loosely held on – SO3 – or - COO- groups
are easily exchanged with cations from water.

Short Formula RH2

 2. Anion Exchange Resin:

1. This is a polymer having aromatic rings linked to the polymer

chain and are with quaternary ammonium group.
2. The –OH ions are loosely held and are easily exchangeable with all
the negative ions from water

Short Formula = R’ (OH)2

Process
 Reactions during Softening
First water enters in cation exchanger
resin

Then water enters anion exchanger

• When both resins get fully exhausted
then they are regenerated.

• Acidic resin is regenerated by passing

dilute HCl.
• Basic resin is regenerated by passing
dilute NaOH

• Finally washing with water.

 Resins get fully exhausted Means….

RH2 Completely Converted in to Rca / RMg

Rʹ(OH)2 Completely Converted in to RʹCl2 /RʹSO4

 Regeneration reactions
• Cation exchanger Regeneration

• Anion Exchanger Regeneration

Advantages:

1. It gives water with zero hardness.

2. Easy to operate, required small space.

Limitations

1. High initial investment/ equipment used is costly.

2. Used only for small scale purification
Desalination Of Brackish Water
Purification of water

1. Electrodialysis

1. Reverse Osmosis
Purification of water

1. Electrodialysis :

“ The process of removing dissolved ionic

impurities from water by using
membranes & Electric field”

Que: Define Electrodialysis and explain the process of electrodialysis with neat
labeled diagram
Membranes:

C- Cation Selective Membrane – Allow only

cations to pass. & repel anions- due to
presence of –vely charged groups like –COO-,
SO3- etc.

A- Anion Selective membrane - Allow only

anions to pass. & repel cations- due to presence
of +vely charged groups like -NR3+ etc.
Construction & Process

Fig. Electrodialysis Cell

Advantages :
• Removal of ionic pollutants ( toxic salts, ionic dyes)
from treated industrial waste
• Used to get salt free pure water
• Used to recover salts
• Removal of limited quantity of salts from sea water
to get dirking ( mineral) water.

Limitation :
• Does not remove colloidal impurities
• Does not remove dissolved organic matter
• Membranes replacement required frequently,
adds to cost.
Purification of water

2. Reverse Osmosis :

“The reversal of solvent flow, from higher conc.

solution to lower conc. solution through a
semipermeable membrane, by applying an
external pressure slightly higher than the osmotic
pressure of higher-conc. solution”
SPM- Polymeric Material- like Polyamides, aramids etc.

SPM has such porosity that it allows only small

molecules of water to pass through it.

Advantages :

• Gives pure water

• It remove all ionic, non-ionic, colloidal impurities.

• Simple to operate, low operating cost.

 Modern Technique for
water Generation
● Atmospheric water Generators (AWGs)
are innovative devices designed to
extract water from humid ambient air,
producing potable water.
● The process involves various
techniques, including condensation,
dessication and pressure based
method
 Modern Technique for water
Generation

1. Cooling condensation
2. Hygroscopic technique
3. Fuel Cells : Hydrogen Fuel cell
4. Solar Powered Systems
solar panel
Atmospheric water generator:

1. Dew Point:

● The most common method for harvesting

moisture from the air is using the dew point
● Dew point plays an important role, in
collection of drop
● Dew point is temperature at which air
containing certain amount of humidity
become saturated with moisture
● At dew point moisture in air condensess
out on to a collecting surface.
 Td = T ( 100 - RH) / 5

Td = Dew point Temp. in degree celsius

T = Observed Temperature
RH = Relative Humidity
 2. Heat Exchanger Technology

-It is electrically driven heat exchanger technique

These techniques are designed at relative
humidity of 30 % or more
 3.Brine Based solution:
- Trap the water from hygroscopic salts
- Hygroscopic salts : Calcium chloride
- Calcium chloride, capture the water
molecule passively through the hydration
process, which involves chemical and
physical reactions.
- They form highly concentrated solution
that attract more more moisture from the
environment.
 Metal Organic Frameworks

- Metal organic frameworks collect water

molecules at their open metal sites in
the form of layer or clusters.
- Desorption can be influenced by
customizing the hydrophilicity of the
functional group.
Challenges to Air Water Extraction
System
1. Air water extraction unit may not
work in dry and cold climates.
2. The device requires relative humidity
of more than 25-30 percent.
3. Device gives water without soluble
minerals and salts but human body
requires water with soluble minerals.
Thank
You