Rakshith

Power System
Analysis – 2
(21EE62)

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Power System Analysis - 2 2
 Module - 01
1. Explain the following terms in network topology with an example.
i. Oriented graph

The connection of a network topology shown by replacing all physical element by lines is called
a graph. A graph in which a direction is assigned to each branch is called an oriented graph.
ii. Basic loops

when link is added to a tree it forms a loop. A loop containing only one link and remaining twigs
is called a basic loop or fundamental loop.
iii. Tree

Tree is a connected sub graph containing all the nodes of the graph G. but without any closed
loops. The number of tree-branches is given by t = n - 1
iv. Co-tree

The set of branches of the original graph G. not included in the tree is called co-tree.
Power System Analysis - 2 3
 v. Basic cut-sets.

Cut set which contain only one twig and remaining links are called basic cut set or fundamental
cut set or f-cut sets. They are defined for a particular tree and are equal in numbers to the number
of twigs.
2. Define primitive network and explain its two forms with neat representation circuit. Also derive
their respective performance equations.
A primitive network is a fundamental element which in not connected to any other element. A set of
such unconnected elements is defined as a primitive network.
General primitive element

Vk = voltage across branch k

ik = current through branch k
vsk= independent voltage source in branch k
jsk = independent current source in branch k
E = passive element specified by its impedance zk or admittance yk
The above element can be reduced into two simple forms.
Impedance form of primitive element

Can be written as

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 Admittance form of the primitive element

3. With usual notations, prove that YBUS = AT [Y] A using singular transformation.

…(1)

The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by

Premultiplying by AT (transpose of A), we obtain

…(2)
T T
we have A i = 0 Similarly, A j gives the algebraic sum of all source currents incident at each bus and
this is nothing but the total current injected at the bus. Hence,
…(3)
Substituting (3) in (2) we have,
…(4)
Substituting (4) we get,
…(5)
Comparing (5) with (1), we obtain

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4. Consider an oriented graph of the power system network shown below Fig. Choose branches 1,
3 and 5 as twigs. Build a bus incidence matrix A and basic cut-set matrix B for the oriented graph.
Select node 2 as reference.

5. A power system consists of four buses. The generators are connected at buses 1 and 3. The
transmission lines are connected between buses 1-2, 1-4, 2-3 and 3-4 which have reactances of
j0.25, j0.5, j0.4 and j0.1 respectively. Develop a bus admittance matrix by direct inspection
method. Choose bus 1 as reference.

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Power System Analysis - 2 7
6. Build bus incidence matrix A and then bus admittance matrix Ybus using singular transformation
method for the power system network shown below in Fig Q2(a). Choose bus 1 as reference. The
line data of the power system are given in Table Q2(a) below.

7. Consider an oriented graph of the power system shown below in Fig Q2(c). Choose branches 1, 3
and 5 as twigs to form a tree. Build a basic loop incidence matrix C for the given oriented graph.
Select node 2 as reference.

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8. Determine YBUS by singular transformation for the system with data as follows;

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9. For the power system shown in Fig. Q1 (c), select ground as reference and a tree for which link
elements are 1 - 2, 1 – 4, 2 - 3, 3 - 4, Obtain basic cutset and basic loop incidence matrices. Verify
the relation Cb = -Bℓ1.

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10. The orient connected graph of a system is shown in fig. Q2 (a). obtain basic cut-set and basic loop
incidence matrix. Hence verify the relation (i) Bℓ1 = AℓK1 (ii) B1C = 0. Take ground as reference.

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11. For the given power system data, obtain YBUS.

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12. The below FigQ1(c) shows the one-line diagram of a simple four-bus system, Table Q.1(c) gives
the line impedances identified by the buses on which these terminates. The shunt admittances at
all the buses is assumed to be negligible.
i. Find YBus assuming that the line shown dotted is not connected.
ii. What modification need to be carried out in Ybus if the line shown dotted is connected?

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13. The bus incidence matrix A for a network of 8 element and 5 nodes (4-buses) is given in Table
Q2(c). reconstruct the oriented graph. Hence obtain the one-line-diagram of the system
indicating the generator position.

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 Note

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 Note

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 Module – 02
1. Why load flow analysis in power system is necessary? Explain.
➢ It is required for planning and designing the future expansion of power system as well as
determining the best operation of existing system.
➢ The load flow solution gives the nodal voltages and phase angles and hence the power injection
at all the buses and power flows through interconnecting power channels.
➢ It is helpful in determining the best location as well as optimal capacity of proposed generating
station, substation and new lines.
Load flow studies throw high on.
• Violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses.
• Overloading of lines.
• Overloading of generators.
• Stability margin reduction.
• Effect of contingencies like line voltages during emergency shutdown of generators etc.
2. What is the data required to conduct load flow analysis? Discuss the need of acceleration factor
System Data
• This should give information on
• Number of buses, n.
• Number of PV buses.
• Number of loads.
• Number of transmission lines.
• Number of transformers.
• Number of shunt elements.
• The slack bus numbers.
• Voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally taken as 00)
• Tolerance limit.
• Base MVA.
• Maximum permissible number of iterations.
Generator Bus Data
For every PV bus i, the data required is
• Bus number.
• Active power generation PGi
• The specified voltage magnitude |Vi’sp |.
• Minimum reactive power limit Qi,min
• Maximum reactive power limit Qi,max
Load Data
For all loads, the data required is
• The bus numbers.
• Active power demand PDi
• The reactive power demand QDi
Transmission Line Data
For every transmission line connected between buses i and k, data needed is
• Starting bus number i.
• Ending bus number k.
• Resistance of the line.
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 • Reactance of the line.
• Half-line charging admittance.
Transformer Data
For every transformer connected between buses i and k, the data to be given is
• Starting bus number i.
• Ending bus number k.
• Resistance of the transformer.
• Reactance of the transformer.
• Off nominal turns-ratio a.
Shunt Element Data
• The data needed for the shunt element is
• Bus number where element is connected.
• Shunt admittance (Gsh + jBsh).
3. Discuss operating constraints in load flow analysis.
1) Equipment’s are designed to operate at fixed voltages so operating values of voltage magnitude
must lie in certain range.

2) The mechanical power input and the rating of the generator pose a limitation on active power
generation.

3) Limitation of the generator field excitation constrains the reactive power generation.

4) Stability imposes constraints on power angle between two buses.

5) Complex power has to be conserved at all buses.

PL and QL are total system real and reactive power loss.

4. Derive the expressions for power flow equations used in load flow analysis.
At any bus i, the complex power injected is given by
Si = SGi - SDi
Where,
Si = net complex power injected into bus i.
SGi = complex power injected by the generator at bus i.
SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i.
According to conversion of complex power at any ith bus the complex power injected into the bus must
be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the transmission lines.
Hence, Si = ƩSik k = 1,2….n
Where Sik is sum over all the lines connected to the bus.
Bus current injected
Ii = IGi – IDi i = 1,2…..n

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 In bus frame of reference
I = YBus V

Complex power Si given by

……(1)

Substituting in equation (1) we get

……(2)
Separating real and imaginary parts in (2), we obtain

5. What are the different types of buses considered during load flow analysis? Explain briefly

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 1) Load bus – these are non-generator buses. At this bus real power demand PDi and reactive power
demand QDi are specified. At these buses |Vi| and δi are to be calculated. These are also called as
PQ buses.
2) Voltage control buses – any bus where the voltage magnitude can be held constant at a specific
value is called a voltage-controlled bus. |Vi| and PGi will be specified and we need to determine
Qi and δi. these buses are also called as PV buses.
3) Slack bus – at slack bus the voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified and active and
reactive power have to be determined.
6. Explain the algorithm for Gauss Seidel method to obtain load flow solution of a power system
network with i) Absence of PV buses ii) Presence of PV buses.
i) Absence of PV buses
1) Read the given data.
2) Formulate YBus.
3) Assume initial voltage for all the buses except slack bus.
4) Update the voltages. In any (r + 1)th iteration,

5) Continue iteration till,

Ɛ = tolerance value
6) Compute slack bus power.

7) Compute all line flows.

ii) Presence of PV buses.
1) Read the given data.
2) Formulate YBus.
3) Assume initial voltage at PQ buses and voltage angle at PV buses.
4) At PV bus calculate Qi

5) Check for Q limit violations.

If Qi < Qi, min then Qi = Qi, min
If Qi < Qi, max then Qi = Qi, max
and treet bus as PQ bus. and calculate Vi and δi.
if Q limit is not violated only update δi.
6) At PQ buses calculate Vi and δi.
7) Continue the above till convergence.
8) Compute slack bus power.
9) Compute all line flows.

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7. Explain the flow chat for Gauss Seidel (GS) method

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8. Obtain the load flow solution using Gauss-Seidal method at the end of one iteration of the power
system shown in Fig Q.3(c). The data is given in Table Q.3(c)-1 and Table Q.3(c)-2.

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9. For the three-bus system shown in Fig.Q4(c), use Gauss-Seidel method and determine the
voltages at bus 2 and bus 3 at the end of first iteration. Line impedances marked on the diagram
are in p.u. The information relating to bus data is given in Table Q.4(c).

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Power System Analysis - 2 26
10. In the power system network shown in Fig. Q3 (a), the slack bus voltage is 1.04 ∟00. Bus 2 is PQ
bus with S2 = 6 – jl.5pu and bus 3 is PV bus with voltage magnitude 1.02 pu and real power 0.8
pu. Z12 = 0.04 + j0.6pu; Z23 =0.02+j0.03pu. Find the voltage at bus 2 at the end of first iteration
using G-S method.

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11. For the 3 bus system shown in Fig. Q4 (a), the elements of YBUS are as follows:
Y11 = Y22 = Y33 = 5.868 - j23.514 pu and Y12= Y13 = Y23 = Y31 = Y32 = - 2.934 + j11.767pu.
Reactive power limits at bus 3 are 0 <= Q3 <= 1.5pu Determine whether bus 3 continues as PV
bus and thereafter determine new estimate of voltage at bus 3 using GS method.

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12. For a 4 bus power system network shown below in Fig Q3(b), the generators are connected at all
four buses, while loads are at buses 2 and 3. The real and reactive powers are listed below in table
3(b). Assuming a flat voltage start compute the unknown variables in all the buses other than the
slack at the end of first GS iteration. Take acceleration factor as 1.4

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Power System Analysis - 2 30
13. For the power system network shown below in Fig Q4(b), the line impedance are marked in pu.
The bus data of the power system are shown below Table Q4(b). Compute the voltage in all buses
other than slack at the end of first iteration using Gauss Seidel method. Take 0 < Q2 < 0.35pu.

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 Note

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 Note

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 Module – 03
1. Explain with flow chart and equation how the load flow analysis is carried out using Newton
Raphson method.

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Power System Analysis - 2 37
2. Discuss the algorithm procedure for load flow analysis using Newton-Raphson's method in polar
coordinates.
1) Read the data.
2) Formulate YBus.
3) Assume initial voltages (flat start)
4) At (r + 1)th iteration. Calculate Pir+1 at all the PV and PQ buses and Qir+1 at all the PV and voltages
from previous iteration Vi(r)
5) Calculate the power mismatches

6) Calculate the Jacobian matrix using Vi(r)

7) Compute

8) Update the variables as follows.

9) Go to step 4 and iterate till the power mismatches are less than tolerance value.
3. Stating all assumptions, deduce fast Decoupled load flow (FDLF) model. Explain the step-by-step
procedure for load flow solution using FDLF method.
From decoupled load flow we got

Assumption based on observation of practical power system are.

01. Bij >>Gij
02. δi – δj is very small so cos(δi – δj) ~_ 1 and sin(δi – δj) ~_ 0
03. Qi << Bii |Vi|2
So we can write

The matrix reduced to

where, Bij’ and Bij’’ are negative of the susceptance’s of respective elements of the bus admittance
matrix. Divide by |Vi| and assume |Vj| ~_ 1pu, we get

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 Step by step procedure
1) Read the data
2) Formulate YBus.
3) Assumed initial voltages (flat start)
4) Calculate Pi at all PV and PQ buses and Qi at all PQ buses.
5) Calculate power residues.
6)

7) Update δi and Vi
8) Go to step 4 and iterate power residue is less than tolerance value.
4. Draw a flow chart for Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) method.

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 Algorithm for fast decoupled load flow method.
1) Read the given data.
2) Formulate YBus.
3) Assume initial voltages.
4) From B’ and B’’ matrixes.
5) Calculate ∆Pi for all PV and PQ buses
6) Solve for ∆δi and update δi
7) Calculate ∆Qi for all PQ buses.
8) Solve for ∆|Vi| and update Vi
9) Go to step 5 and repeate till ∆Pi and ∆Qi is within tolerance value
5. Derive expression for all elements of Jacobian matrices in polar form.
We have

Elements of J1
Diagonal element

Off diagonal element

Elements of J3
Diagonal element

Off diagonal element

Elements of J2
Diagonal element

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 Off diagonal element

Elements of J4
Diagonal element

Off diagonal element

6. Derive the expressions for diagonal elements of Jacobian matrices in NR method of load flow
analysis.
Refer q no. 5
7. Compare Gauss - Seidal, Newton Raphson and Fast decoupled load flow method of load flow
solution with respect to various parameters.
Sl.no G.S method N.R method FDLF method
1. Require large number of Require a smaller number of Require a greater number of
iterations to reach iterations to reach iterations than N.R method
convergence convergence.
2. Computation time per Computation time per iteration Computation time per
iteration is less is more iteration is less
3. It has linear convergence It has quadratic convergence It has geometric convergence
characteristics characteristics characteristic
4. It has quadratic convergence The number of iterations is The number of iterations is
characteristics independent of the size of the does not dependent of the size
system of the system
5. Less memory requirements More memory requirements. Less memory requirements
than N.R.method.
6. Works well with rectangular Polar co-ordinates are Polar co-ordinates.
co-ordinates preferred
7. Less accurate More accurate Moderate

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8. Obtain the voltages at all buses for three bus system shown in Fig.Q.5(b) at the end of first
iteration by N-R method. The data is given in Table Q.5(b) - 1 and Table Q.5(b) -2.

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9. For a 3 bus system, the elements of YBus are as follows:
Y11= Y22 = Y33 = 24.23 ∟75.95 pu; Y12 Y13 = Y21 = Y23 = Y31 Y32 = 12.13 ∟104.04 pu. The bus
voltage are V₁ =1.04+j0 pu (slack), V₂ =1+j0 pu (PQ bus), V3 = 1.04+ j0 pu (PV bus). Determine
the elements of sub matrix J₁ and J4 of Jacobian matrix in NR load flow method

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10. In a two-bus power system network shown below in Fig Q6(a), the bus 1 is a slack bus with V₁
=1∟0°pu and bus 2 is a load bus with P2 = 100MW, Q2 = 50MVAR. The line impedance is (0.12
+ j0.16) pu on a base of 100MVA. Using NR method of load flow solution, compute the voltage at
bus 2 at the end of first iteration.

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 Note

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 Note

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 Module – 04
1. Explain the following:
i) Input-output curve ii) Hear rate curve iii) Incremental cost curve related to thermal plants.
iv) Incremental cost curve.
i) Input-output curve

This is the fundamental curve for a thermal plant and it is a plot of the input in British thermal units/hr
v/s power output plant in MW.
ii) Hear rate curve

The heat rate is the ratio of fuel input in Btu/hr to corresponding

output in kW. It is the slope of the input-output curve at any point.
The reciprocal of heat rate is called fuel-efficiency. The heat rate
curve is a plot of heat rate versus output in MW.

iii) Incremental cost curve related to thermal plants.

Incremental cost is the produced of incremental fuel rate and fuel cost Rs/Rtu. Unit of the incremental
fuel cost is Rs/Mwh.
iv) Incremental cost curve.

The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel rate and

fuel cost (Rs/Btu or $/Btu). The curve is shown in Fig. The unit of
the incremental fuel cost is Rs/MWh or $/MWh.

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2. Define unit commitment. Explain dynamic programming method of unit commitment solution.
(or)
Draw the flow chart of dynamic forward DP approach for unit commitment.
To determine the unit of a plant that should operate for a particular load is the problem of unit
commitment.
Flow chart for dynamic programming method of unit commitment solution.

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3. Explain priority list method of unit commitment solution with a flow chat.

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4. Discuss the algorithm procedure for priority list method of unit commitment solution.
1) Determine the hourly load forecast for next 24h.
2) Prioritize the units based on their production cost and prepare a table based on unit combination
to meet required load.
3) For the first hours determine the minimum number of unites necessary to carry the maximum
predicted load and the spinning reserve.
4) Compare the number of units running in the present hour with the minimum number required for
the next hour.
5) If the number required in the next hour is greater than the number of units in the present hour.
Startup the units according to the priority list.
6) If the minimum no, of unit required in the next hour is lesser than those running in the present
hour. Then determine when there dropping the unit with highest priority number (least efficiency)
in the precent group will leave sufficient generation to supply the load + spimming reserve. If not
do not shutdown the unit.
7) Else, determine the number of ‘H’ hours, before which the unit would be needed again.
8) If ‘H’ is less than the minimum down time of the unit, continue with the present commitment.
9) Else, calculate two costs.
a) Sum of the hourly production cost for the next ‘H’ hours with unit up.
b) Hourly production costs with unit shutdown + the start-up cost of the unit (which is the
minimum of cooling or banking cost)
If there is significant saving from shunting down the unit, shut it down.
10) Repeat the procedure hour by hour for next 24 hours.
5. Explain various constrains involved in unit commitment solution.
Constraints in unit commitment
1) Spinning reserve
In any power system, some amount of active power generation capacity has to be kept in reserve
to reestablish the balance between load and generation at all times, even under the eventuality of
a unit failing.
Spinning reserve = (sum of the capacities of all units synchronized at a time) - (load + losses in
the system at that time)
Spinning reserve is necessary so that the loss of a generating unit does not lead to a drop in system
frequency.
2) Thermal unit constraints
a. Minimum uptime – this is the minim time for which a unit once committed should run. It
should not be turned off immediately
b. Minimum downtime – a unit which has been shutdown can not be started up before a
minimum time has elapsed.
c. Start-up cost – start-up costs are the costs in curried in starting a thermal unit.
3) Network constraints
Transmission network may have an effect on the commitment of the units.

Generation of G3 may be more than G1 and G3. The transfer of power from G1 and G2 to load is
limited by the transmission network. Hence G3 even it is more expensive is committed.

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 4) Emission constraints
As per the emission norms there is a limit on greenhouse gas emission. It sets a limit on plant
usage.
5) Capacity of generator
The limits of the generators may vary over the period of the day. This has to be considered while
committing the unit.
6) Fule constraints
Some unit may have a limit on the fule consumption.
7) Hydel plant constraints
Hydel plant do not have operating cost, but we need to maintain water level in the dams.
6. Explain the Dynamic program algorithm with the recursive relation and also explain forward DP
approach with a neat flow chart.
The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour k with combination C is

Where,
Fcost (K,I) = least total cost to arrive at state (K,I)
Pcost (K,I) = Production cost for state (K,I)
Scost (K-1, L : K,I) = Transition cost from state (K-1,L) to state (K,I)
State (K,I) is the Cth combination in hour k. For the forward DP approach, we define a strategy as the
transition or path, from one state at a given hour to a state at the next hour.
For flow chart q no. 2
7. Derive an expression for transmission loss as a function of plant generation for a two-plant
system.
(or)
Deduce the condition for optimal load dispatch considering transmission losses in a system.
When transmission distances are large, the transmission losses are a significant part of the generation
and have to be considered in the generation schedule for economic operation. The mathematical
formulation is now stated as

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8. With usual notation, derive the generalized-transmission loss formula and B-coefficient.
Consider two generating plants connected to an arbitrary number of loads through a transmission
network as shown below.

Assume that the total load is supplied by only generator 1. As shown below.

Let current through Kth branch in the network be Ik1. Let us define current distribution factor

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 Now assume that ID is given by only generator 2

By principle of superposition

Total transmission loss in the system is given by,

for all branches of the network.

Rk is branch resistance

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9. A two-bus system is shown in fig. Q7(b). if 75 MW of power is imported to bus 1, a loss of 5 MW
is incurred. Find the required generation for each plant and the power received by load when the
plant incremented cost is 20rs./Mwh. The incremental fuel cost of two plants are given by dF2/dP1
= 0.03P1 + 15; dF2/dP2 = 0.05P2 + 18

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10. The operation cost of F1 and F2 in Rs./h of two generating units each of 100 MW are F1 = 0.2P21
+ 40PG1 + 120; F2 = 0.25PG22 + 30PG2 + 150. Find (i) the optimal generation of 2 units for total
demand of 180 MW and the corresponding total cost (ii) saving in Rs./h in this case, as compered
to equal sharing between the two generations.

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11. The fuel input per hour of plant 1 and 2 are given as F1 = 0.2P12 + 40P1 + 120 Rs/hr; F2 = 0.25P22
+ 30P2 + 150Rs/hr. Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of
generation is the maximum and minimum loading unit is 100MV and 25MV, the demand is
180MV and transmission line losses are neglected. If the load is equally shared by both units,
determine the saving obtained by loading the unit as per equal incremental production cost.

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12. A system consists of two plants connected to a transmission line; the load is located at plant-2.
The power transfer of 100MW from station 1 to the load results in a loss of 8MW. Find the
required generation at each station and the power received by the load, when the system, is
operating with ʎ = RS 100/MWh. The incremental fuel cost of two plants are dc1/dp1 = 0.12P1 +
65PS/MWh and dc2/dp2 = 0.25P2 + 75RS/MWh.

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13. A constant load of 300mW is supplied by two 200MW generators 1 and 2 for which the respective
incremental fuel costs are, dC1/dPG1 = 0.1PG1+20 and dC2/dPG2 = 0.12PG2+15, where PG's in MW
and costs C₁ and C2 are in Rs/hr. Determine: i) the most economical division of load between the
generators and ii) the saving in Rs./day there by obtained compared to equal load sharing
between generators.

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14. Two units are connected at two buses through a transmission line. If 100MW is transmitted from
unit 1 at bus 1 to the load at bus 2, a line loss of 10MW is incurred. The incremental cost curve
of the two units are,
IC₁ = 16 + 0.02 P₁ Rs./MWhr and
IC2 = 20 + 0.04 P2 Rs./MWhr
If the system incremental cost is Rs.26/MWhrs no load fuel costs are Rs. 250 and Rs. 350 per hour
for units 1 and 2 respectively, then determine the following:
i) Power generations from both units and the power received by the load if the losses are
included and also coordinated
ii) Power generating from both units for the power received by the load as calculated above, if
the losses are included but not coordinated
iii) Net saving in fuel cost by coordinating the losses.

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 Note

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 Note

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 Module – 05
1. Explain the algorithm for short circuit studies to be carried out in large power systems.
Algorithm for short circuit studies.
Consider an n-bus system shown in fig. below operating at steady load.

Step 1: obtain prefault voltage at all buses and current in all lines through a load flow study.
Let prefault bus voltage vector be

Assume that rth bus is faulted through a fault impedance zth. The post fault bus voltage vector will be
given by

Where ∆V is the vector of changes in bus voltage caused by the fault.

Step 2: Draw the passive Thevenin network of the system with generators replaced by transient or sub
transient reactance with their emf’s shorted.
Step 3: Excite the passive Thevenin network with -ve in series with Zf as shown below.

The vector ∆V comprises the bus voltage of this network.

Now ∆V = 2 bus Jf
ZBus = bus impedance matrix of Thevenin network
Jf = bus current injection vector.

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 Step 4 : voltage at the rth bus fault is

Post fault current in lines

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2. Obtain the generalized algorithm expression for bus impedance matrix elements when a link is
added to the partial network. Also discuss the special cases.
The link is an element added between two existing buses. The element is modeled as an element P-L
in series with a source shown below.

A fictitious node ‘լ’ is introduced the source eլ is between buses լ and q. eլ is so chosen that the current
ipq = 0, so that the element P – լ can be treated as a branch. The performance equation given by.

eլ is voltage between node լ with reference to q

so eլ = Eլ – Eq = Ep - Vpլ – Eq ……….(1)
Zլi can be determined by injecting a current at the ith bus and q with all other current injections set to
zero.
Ek = Zki Ii k = 1,2….m
eլ = Zլi Ii
if Ii = 1.0 pu
eլ = Z լi
since ipq = 0, ipq = 0

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 To calculate Zլլ, inject a current Iլ of 1pu at the լth bus with bus q as reference and calculate the voltage
of bus լ with respect to bus q. since all other current injections are zero we can write

Case 1: If there is no mutual coupling between the added element and elements of the partial network.

Case 2: If there is no mutual coupling and P is the reference node Zpi = Zpl = 0.

3. Build an algorithm for numerical solution of swing equation by Runge - Kutta method.
In Runge-Kutta method, the changes in dependent variables are calculated from a given s formulae,
derived by using an approximation, to replace a truncated Taylor's series expansion formulae for the
Runge-Kutta fourth order approximation, for solution of two simultaneous d ential equations are given
below:

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 The two first order differential equations to be solved to obtain solution for the swing equation are

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4. Explain clearly the point-by-point method of solving swing equation. Mention the assumptions
made.

The solution of δ(t) is obtained in discrete intervals of time, with a uniform interval of At. Discretization
is done as follows:
1) The acceleration calculated at the beginning of an interval is assumed to remain constant from the
middle of the preceding interval to the middle of the interval being considered. This assumption
also implies that the accelerating power Pa computed at the beginning of an interval is assumed
constant from the middle of the preceding interval to the middle of the interval being considered.
2) The speed derivation Ꙍ=dδ/dt is assumed constant over the entire interval computed at the middle
of the interval. Note that here w is the speed above the synchronous speed, Ꙍs.

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 Consider the nth interval, beginning at t = = (n - 1)∆t. The angular position is δn-1. The acceleration
α(n-1) as calculated at this interval is assumed constant from t = (n – 3/2) ∆t to (n – 1/2) = ∆t

Where,

The speed at the end of this interval is

From our assumption, the speed is constant throughout the nth interval. The change in angular
position during the nth interval is,

The process is repeated to obtain Pa(n), δn-1 and δn+1. Greater accuracy can be obtained by
considering smaller time intervals.
5. A 20MVA, 50Hz generator delivers 18MW over a double circuit line to an infinite bus. The
generator has kinetic energy of 2.52MJ/MVA at rated speed. The generator has a transient
reactance of 0.35pu. Each transmission line has a reactance of 0.2pu on a 20MVA base. The
generator excitation voltage |E'| = 1.1pu and infinite bus voltage V = 1∟0° pu. A three-phase
short circuit occurs at the midpoint of one of the lines. Plot the swing curve with the fault cleared
by simultaneous opening of breakers at both ends of the line at 2.5 cycles after the occurrence of
fault. Take a step size of time as 0.05sec. Also, calculate the critical clearing angle. Use point by
point method.

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6. For a three-bus power system network show below in Fig Q10(a), the pu impedances are shown
therein. Build bus impendence matrix Zbus using step by step building algorithm. Add the
elements in the order specified.

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Power System Analysis - 2 77
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7. Obtain Zbus by building algorithm for the system shown in Fig.Q.10(a) All values are in p.u.
(impedance). Take bus ‘0’ as reference bus. Add the elements in the order of ref. bus to bus1, ref.
bus to bus2 and finally bus 1 to bus 2.

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8. Form Zbus using Building algorithm of the system shown in Fig. Q9 (a). Self-impedances of the
elements are marked on the diagram.

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9. The swing equation of a synchronous generator is dδ/dt = Ꙍ - 377 r/s; dꙌ/dt = 23[1-0.4sin δ]. At
t=0 s; ω=377 r/s and δ=0.523 r. Determine the values of Ꙍ and δ at 0.1 s using modified Euler
method. Assume ∆t = 0.05 s.

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10. Obtain Zbus for the power system shown in Fig. Q10 (a)

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 Note

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 Note

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