MODULE 3 Sensors and Instrumentation

Module-3

Principles of Measurement: Static Characteristics, Error in Measurement, Types of Static Error.

(Text 2: 1.2-1.6) Multirange Ammeters, Multirange voltmeter. (Text 2: 3.2, 4.4 )
Digital Voltmeter: Ramp Technique, Dual slope integrating Type DVM, Direct Compensationtype
and Successive Approximations type DVM (Text 2: 5.1-5.3, 5.5, 5.6)

Principles of Measurement:

Performance characteristics:
Two basic characteristic of an instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable instrument
for specific measuring jobs:
1. Static characteristic
2. Dynamic characteristic

Static characteristic:

Static characteristic of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments which are used
to measure an unvarying process condition.
Several terms of static characteristic that have discussed:

1. Instrument – A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a quantity

under observation.
2. Measurement – The process of determining the amount, degree, capacity by comparison
(direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used.
3. Accuracy – The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the
expected (desired) value.
4. Resolution – The smallest change in a measured variable to which instruments will
response. Also known as ‘Threshold’.
5. Precision – A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e. successive
readings do not differ or the consistency of the instrument output for a given value of
input.

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6. Expected value – The design value that is, “most probable value” that calculations
indicate one should expect to measure.

7. Error- Deviation of the true value from the desired value

8. Sensitivity – The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change
of input or measured variable
output
S
input

Error in measurement

Error is defined as the difference between the true value (expected value) of the
measurand and the measured value indicated by the instrument.
Error may be expressed either as absolute error or as a percentage of error.

Absolute errors are defined as the difference between the expected value of the variable and
the measured value of variable.

Absolute error, e = Yn  X n
where, Yn = expected value, Xn = measured value

Absolute Error
% error = X100%
Expected value

Yn  X n
or % error = x100%
Yn

Yn  X n
Relative accuracy, A = 1 

Yn

Percentage relative accuracy, a = 100%  Percentage error

= A x 100%

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Problems:
1. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 90 V. However, the measurement
gives a value of 89 V.
Calculate:
a) Absolute error
b) Percentage error
c) Relative accuracy
d) Percentage of accuracy

Solution
Expected value of voltage across a resistor, Yn = 90 V

Measured value of voltage across a resistor, Xn = 89 V

a) Absolute error, e = Yn - Xn
= 90 – 89
=1V

Yn  X n
b) Percentage error = X100%

90  89
= X100%
90

= 1.1111%

Y Xn
c) Relative accuracy, A = 1 n
Yn
= 1  0.0111
= 0.9889

d) Percentage of accuracy, a = 100 X 0.9889

= 98.8900%
or a= 100% 1.1111
= 98.8889%

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2. The expected value of the current through a resistor is 20mA. However the measurement yields
a current value of 18mA. Calculate: Absolute error, Percentage error, Relative accuracyand
Percentage of accuracy

Solution: Yn = 20mA , Xn = 18mAV

Absolute error, e = Yn - Xn
= 20m –18m
= 2mA

Yn  X n
Percentage error = X100%
Yn
20  18
= X100%
20
= 10%

Y Xn
e) Relative accuracy, A = 1 n
Yn
= 1  0.1
= 0.90

f) Percentage of accuracy, a = 100 X 0.90

= 90%
or a = 100% 1.1111
= 90%

Types of Static error:

The static error is defined as the difference between the true value of the variable and the value
indicated by the instrument. The static error may arise due to number of reasons.

The static errors are classified as:

1) Gross errors.
2) Systematic errors.
3) Random errors

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1) Gross errors:
 These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or
errors in recording observations.
 Errors may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational
mistakes.
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
 The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can minimize them.
Some errors are easily detected while others may be elusive.
 One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper use of an
instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording
the measurement parameter.
In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some extent when connected into a
complete circuit. One should therefore not be completely dependent on one reading only; at least
three separate readings should be taken, preferably under conditions in which instruments are
switched off and on.
2) Systematic errors:
In these types of static error occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn
parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on the instrument.

These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence all measurements of a quantity
alike. A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a systematic
error. There are basically three types of systematic errors
a) Instrumental,
b) Environmental, and
c) Observational.
a) Instrumental errors: these errors are inherent because of their mechanical structure
and moving component. Ex: stretching of springs, irregular tension to spring, overloading
and others.
These errors can be avoided by
 Selecting suitable instrument for measurement
 Correction factors can be applied after determining instrumental errors
 Calibrating the device against standard

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b) Environmental errors: Due to external condition of a measuring device i.e the

surrounding area of the instrument like temperature, humidity, magnetic or electrostatic
fields. These errors can be avoided by
 Air conditioning
 Using magnetic shields
 Hermetically scaling components
 Using heat sinks

C ) Observational errors:
 Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer.
 The most common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter
scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter
scale.
 These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers.
 For example, an observer may always introduce an error by consistently
holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale reading.

In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static
errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its
behavior. Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow
the changes in a measured variable
Random errors:

 These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially
reduced or at least accounted for.
 Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and
may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy.
 Such errors can be analyzed statistically.
 These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of
making measurements.
 Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors can
thus be treated mathematically.

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For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at 15 minutes
intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions and is accurately
calibrated before measurement, it still gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation.
This variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or any other known method of
control.

Source of Error:
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a true measurement,
are as follows:
 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
 Poor design
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
 Poor maintenance
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment
 Certain design limitations

Problem: A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1KΩ/V is connected across an unknown resistance in

series with a multimeter reading 8V on 150V scale. When the multimeter reads 10mA, calculate the
(i) Apparent resistance of the unknown resistance (ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistance
and (iii)Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

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Basic Meter:
A basic d.c. meter uses a motoring principle for its operation. It states that any current carrying
coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a force, which is proportional to the magnitude of
current passing through the coil. This movement of coil is called D'Arsonval movement and
basic meter is called D'Arsonval galvanometer.

AMMETERS
DC Ammeter – The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a dc ammeter.
Since the coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small
currents. When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part of the
current through a resistance called a shunt, as shown in Fig.1. The resistance of shunt can be
calculated using conventional circuit analysis.. The value of shunt can be determined as follows:

Rsh = resistance of the shunt

Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movements (movable coil)
Ish = shunt current
Im = full scale deflection current of the meter
movement
I = full-scale deflection current for the
ammeter

Fig. 1 Basic Ammeter

As shunt is parallel with the basic meter, the drop across shunt and basic meter will be same
and it is given by,
Vm = Im Rm and Vsh = Ish Rsh
Vsh =Vm
Ish Rsh = Im Rm
Im Rm
𝑅𝑠ℎ = Ω
Ish
But I= Ish + Im and Ish= I-Im
Therefore,
Im Rm
Rsh= Ω
I−Im

This determines the value of shunt resistance for full scale meter current.

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Multirange Ammeter:
 The range of the basic d.c. ammeter can be extended by using number of shunts and a
selector switch. Such ammeter is called multirange ammeter as shown in the Fig below
 R1, R2, R3 and R4 are four shunts. When connected in parallel with the meter, they can
give four different ranges I1 ,I2 , I3 and I4.

 The selector switch S is multiposition switch, having low contact resistance and high
current carrying capacity.
 This uses a make before break type switch for the range changing.
 If the ordinary switch is used, while range changing the switch remains open and full
current passes through the meter damaging the meter due to high current. So make before
break switch is used.
 The switch is so designed that when the switch position is changed, it makes contact with
the next terminal (range) before breaking contact with the previous terminal.Therefore
the meter movement is never left unprotected
 Multirange ammeters are used for ranges up to 50A
 While using the multirange ammeter, highest range should be used first and the current
range should be decreased till good upscale reading is obtained.
 All the shunts are very precise resistance and hence cost of such multirange ammeter is
high.

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Problems:
1. A 1mA meter movement having an internal resistance of 100Ω is used to convert into a
multirange ammeter having the range 0-10mA, 0-20mA and 0-50mA. Determine te value of
the shunt resistance required.
Solution: Given Im=1mA, Rm=100 Ω

2. Design a multirange ammeter with range 0-1A, 5A and 10A employing individual shunt in
each A D’Arsonval movement with an internal resistance of 500 Ω and full scale deflection
of 10mA is available.
Solution:

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DC-Voltmeters and Multimeters:

Voltmeter is used measure potential difference between two points of an electric circuit. The analog
voltmeters gives indication by moving pointer across the scale proportional to the voltage in the
circuit.
With basic meter and by adding various elements different instruments can be formed.
Basic meter as dc voltmeter:

A basic D’ Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series resistor known
as multiplier, as shown in Fig. The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the
movement so that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection value. A dc voltmeter measures
the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component.
To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component, a dc
voltmeter is always connected across them with the proper polarity.

The multiplier resistance can be calculated as:

Rm = Internal resistance of coil i.e. meter
Rs = series multiplier resistance
Im = full scale deflection current (can also be
represented as Ifsd)
V = full range voltage to be measured
From the Fig. using KVL,

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Multirange Voltmeter:
As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts are connected
across the movement with a multi-position switch. Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted into a
multirange voltmeter by connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) along with a range switch to
provide a greater number of workable ranges.

Figure 1 shows a multirange voltmeter using a three position switch and three multipliers R1, R2,
and R3 for voltage values V1, V2, and V3. Figure 1 can be further modified to Fig. 2, which is a
more practical arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.

In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string, and the range selector selects
the appropriate amount of resistance required in series with the movement.

Figure 1: Multirange Voltmeter

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all multiplier resistances
except the first have the standard resistance value and are also easily available in precision
tolerances:

The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which has to be specially
manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.

Figure 2: Multiplier connected in series

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1. A D’Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection of 50µA and internal resistance of
500 Ω is converted into a multirange voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier required
for 0-20V, 0-50V and 0-100V.

Introduction:
The digital voltmeters referred as DVM, convert the analog signals into digital and display the voltages
to be measured as discrete numerals rather than pointer deflection, on the digitaldisplays.
DVMs can be used to measure a.c. and d.c. voltages and with proper transducer and signal conditioning
circuit it can also measure parameters like pressure, temperature, stress etc.
The output voltage is displayed on the digital display on the front panel.
These DVMs reduces the human reading and interpretation errors and parallax errors. The DVMs have
various features and the advantages, over the conventional analog voltmeters havingpointer deflection
on the continuous scale.
There are different types of DVM which differ in number of digits, accuracy and speed of reading, size,
power requirements and cost.
The important performance characteristics of DVM are as follows:

 The input ranges from 1v to 1000v with provision for range selection and also
indicates the overload condition.
 Accuracy is high as ±0.005% of reading
 Resolution is 1ppm i.e. the meter can read 1µv on a 1V range
 Input impedance is around 10MΩ which helps in reducing loading effect.
 Output is in BCD form and for other forms of output digital processing modulescan
be included.

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Ramp Technique:

The basic principle is based on measuring the time taken by linear ramp change input level to
ground level or vice-versa. This time is measured with the help of electronic time interval counter and the
count is displayed in the numeric form with the help of a digital display. This measured value is
proportional to the input. Block diagram and operation principle is shown in the below figures.

 At the start of the measurement a ramp voltage is initiated (counter is reset to 0 and sampled
rate multivibrator gives a pulse which initiates the ramp genera-tor).
 The ramp voltage is continuously compared with the voltage that’s being measured. At the
instant these two voltages become equal, a coincidence circuit generates a pulse which opens
a gate, i.e. the input comparator generates a start pulse.
 The ramp continues until the second comparator circuit senses that the ramp has reached zero
value.
 The ground comparator compares the ramp with ground. When the ramp voltage equals zero
or reaches ground potential, the ground comparator generates a stop pulse.
 The output pulse from this comparator closes the gate. The time duration of the gate opening
is proportional to the input voltage value.
 In the time interval between the start and stop pulses, the gate opens and the oscillator circuit
drives the counter.

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 The magnitude of the count indicates the magnitude of the input voltage, which is displayed
by the readout.
Therefore, the voltage is converted into time and the time count represents the magnitude of the
voltage. The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate of cycle of measurement. A typical
value is 5 measuring cycles per second, with an accuracy of ± 0.005% of the reading. The sample
rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At
the same time a reset pulse is generated, which resets the counter to the zero state.

Any DVM has a fundamental cycle sequence which involves sampling, displaying and reset
sequences.

Advantages:

 Easy to design
 Low cost
 Output pulses can be transmitted over longer feeder lines
Disadvantages:
 Ramp generator requires excellent characteristics related to linearity
 Large errors are possible when noise is super imposed on the input
signal.

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Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM: (Voltage to Time conversion)

Operating Principle:

The basic principle of this method is that the input signal is integrated for a fixed interval of
time. And then the same integrator is used to integrate the reference voltage with reverse slope.
Hence which is constant and proportional to the magnitude of the input. Thus the name given to
the technique is dual slope integration technique. This is shown in the figure below.

The block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in the Fig.

 At the start, a pulse resets the counter and the flip-flop and this makes the switch Si to close
and switch Sr to open.
 The input ei appears at the integrator and the capacitor C begins to charge. As the output of
the integrator exceeds 0, the comparator output is changed to 1 and this enables the gate. This
causes the clock pulses to feed the counter.
 The counter starts counting until it reaches it maximum count i.e 9999. The time taken for
this is denoted as t1. During this time the capacitor is charged to the input ei.
 Upon max count value at the counter and for the next clock pulse the counter value will be
0000 with a carry which is fed to the flip-flop. This drives the switch Sr to close and Si is
now open.

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 With this now –er (-ve reference) is given to the integrator. Now the capacitor begins to
discharge causing output of integrator to decrease. At some time instant t2, the integrator
output reaches 0 and this cause the comparator to change its state to 0. This disables the gate.
 During time t2, the capacitor discharges with a constant slope and this is proportional to the
input voltage.
 When the counter stops counting the pulses, the value has a direct relation with the input
voltage and it is given by,
 During charging of capacitor, i.e during time t1, the output of integrator is given by,

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From eqn (1) and (2), it is clear that accuracy of measured value does not depend on
the integrator time constant.
From eqn (2) it indicates that the accuracy is independent of the oscillatory frequency.

Advantages:
 It has excellent noise rejection and the noise is averaged out by the
positive and negative ramps using the process of integration.
 Accuracy is ±0.005%
Disadvantage:
 The only disadvantage seen in this type DVM is that the process is slow
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Most commonly used principal of ADC (Analog to Digital Conversion)

Principles of ADC – The input signal is compared with an internally generated voltage which is
increased in steps starting from zero. The number of steps needed to reach the full compensation
is counted. A simple compensation type is the staircase ramp.

Staircase Ramp Technique:

In this method the input signal is compared with an internally generated voltage which increases
in steps from 0. The number of steps required to match both the inputs is counted.
Operation Principle:
 The basic principle is that the input signal Vi is compared with an internal staircase voltage,
Vc generated by a series circuit consisting of a pulse generator (clock), a counter counting the
pulses and a digital to analog converter, converting the counter output into a dc signal.
 As soon as Vc is equal to Vi, the input comparator closes a gate between the clock and the
counter, the counter stops and its output is shown on the display.
 The basic block diagram is shown in Fig.
Operation of the Circuit
The clock generates pulses continuously.

 At the start of a measurement, the counter is reset to 0 at time t1 so that the output of the digital
to analog converter (DAC) is also 0.
 If Vi is not equal to zero, the input comparator applies an output voltage that opens the gate so
that clock pulses are passed on to the counter through the gate.
 The counter starts counting and the DAC starts to produce an output voltage increasing by
one small step at each count of the counter.
 The result is a staircase voltage applied to the second input of the comparator, as shown in
Fig.
 This process continues until the staircase voltage is equal to or slightly greater than the input
voltage Vi.
 At that instant t2, the output voltage of the input comparator changes state or polarity, so that
the gate closes and the counter is stopped.
 The display unit shows the result of the count. As each count corresponds to a constant dc
step in the DAC output voltage, the number of counts is directly proportional to Vc and hence
to Vi.
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 By appropriate choice of reference voltage, the step height of the staircase voltage can be
determined.

Advantages:
 Input impedance of the DAC is high when the compensation (Vi=Vc) is reached.
 The accuracy depends only on the stability and accuracy of the voltage and DAC.
The clock has no effect on the accuracy.

Disadvantages:
 The system measures the instantaneous value of the input signal at the moment
compensation is reached. This means the reading is rather unstable, i.e. the input
signal is not a pure dc voltage.
 Until the full compensation is reached, the input impedance is low, which can
influence the accuracy.
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Successive Approximation Technique

The successive approximations principle can be easily understood using a simple example; the
determination of the weight of an object. By using a balance and placing the object on one side
and an approximate weight on the other side, the weight of the object is determined.

If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the weight is removed and another weight
of smaller value is placed and again the measurement is performed. Now if it is found that the
weight placed is less than that of the object, another weight of smaller value is added to the weight
already present, and the measurement is performed. If it is found to be greater than the unknown
weight the added weight is removed and another weight of smaller value is added. In this manner
by adding and removing the appropriate weight, the weight of the unknown object is determined.

The successive approximation DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block diagram is shown
in Fig below.
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 When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the successive approximation register
(SAR) is cleared.
 The output of the SAR is 00000000. Vout of the D/A converter is 0. Now, if Vin > Vout the
comparator output is positive.
 During the first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vout jumps to the half
reference voltage. The SAR output is 10000000.
 If Vout is greater than Vin the comparator output is negative and the control circuit resets D7.
However, if Vin is greater than Vout the comparator output is positive and the control circuits
keep D7 set.
 Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore, the
measurement is completed in 8 clock pulses.
 At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-stop
multivibrator. This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits (assuming an
8-bit control) its reading would be 10000000.
 This initial setting of the register causes the output of the D/A converter to be half the reference
voltage, i.e. 1/2 V.
 This converter output is compared to the unknown input by the comparator. If the input voltage
is greater than the converter reference voltage, the comparator output produces an output that
causes the control register to retain the 1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to
supply its reference output voltage of 1/2 Vref.
 The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control register
and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its reference
output by 1 increment to 1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V + 1/4 V, and again it is compared withthe unknown
input.
 If in this case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the comparator
produces an output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to 0.
 The converter output then returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits another input
from the SAR.
 When the ring counter advances by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and the converter output rises
by the next increment of 1/2 V + 1/8 V.
 The measurement cycle thus proceeds through a series of successive approximations. Finally,
when the ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle stops and the digital
output of the control register represents the final approximation of the unknown input voltage.
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