SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[Educational Service: SNR Sons Charitable Trust]

[Autonomous Institution, Reaccredited by NAAC with ‘A+’ Grade]
[Approved by AICTE and Permanently Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai]
[ISO 9001:2015 Certified and all eligible programmes Accredited by NBA]
Vattamalaipalayam, N.G.G.O. Colony Post, Coimbatore – 641 022.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

20EE262-Basics of Electrical Engineering

Course Instructors:
Mrs.H.Vidhya, AP(Sr.G/EEE No. of
Credits: 3
20.10.2022 DEPT OF EEE,SREC 1
 Module-III MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
•Basic principles and classification of instruments
•Moving coil and Moving iron instruments
•Measurement of single phase and three phase power
•Energy meter

* 2 DEPT OF EEE, SREC

 COURSE OUTCOMES
On successful completion of the course, the
students will be able to
CO1: Outline the basic principles of Electrical
Engineering
CO2: Explain the concepts of Electromagnetism and
magnetic circuits
CO3: Infer the principles of measuring system
CO4: Summarize the knowledge on semiconductor
devices, features and its application
CO5: Experiment with simple circuits using the
concepts of electrical and electronics engineering
3
* DEPT OF EEE, SREC
 Introduction

What is Measurement?
•Measurement is the act of determining a target's size, length,
weight, capacity, or other aspect.
•Measurement (also called metrology) is the science of
determining values of physical variables.
•A method to obtain information regarding the physical values of
the variable.
•Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of
comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and predetermined or predefined standards.
•Two quantities are compared and the result is expressed in
numerical values.
 Measurement Methods

• Measuring a target can be done through either direct

measurement or indirect measurement.
Direct Measurement
• Direct measurement is measurement done by bringing the
target into contact with the measurement system to read the
length, height, or other aspect directly.
• Although direct measurement allows measurement results to
be known as they are, errors may occur depending on the skill
of the person doing the measurement.
 Measurement Methods

Indirect Measurement
•Indirect measurement is done, for example, by using a dial gauge
to measure the height difference between a measurement target
and a gauge block and using that height to indirectly determine
the target's height.
• Because this type of measurement is based on a reference,
indirect measurement is also referred to as “comparative
measurement.”
 Standards of measurements

Definition: Fundamental SI quantities

•The physical representation of a unit Quantity Unit symbol

of measurement is standard.
•For example, Length Meter M

•The fundamental unit of mass in the

Mass Kilogram Kg
international system is the kilogram
and defined as the mass of a cubic Time Second S
decimeter of water of its temperature
of maximum density of 4°C. Electric Ampere A
circuit
Use:
Luminous Candela Cd
•The standards are used for the
purpose of obtaining the values of the Thermo Deg/ kelvin K
physical properties of other scale

equipments by comparison methods.

* CEE 7
 Classification of Standards

International standards:
• Accepted internationally.
• They represent certain units of measurements which are very
close to the maximum possible accuracy attainable by the
current technology of production and measurement.
• These standards are maintained at the international bureau of
weights and measures at serves near Paris.
• They are not available for the common user of measuring
instruments for the purpose of calibration or comparison

* CEE 8
 Classification of Standards

Primary standards:
• Maintained by national standards laboratory in different parts
of the world.
• In India, National physical laboratory at new Delhi is
responsible for maintaining primary standards for various
fundamental units.
• Primary standards are not available for use outside the
national laboratories.
• One of the main function of this is the verification and
calibration of secondary standards.

* CEE 9
 Primary Standard

• A primary standard quantity will have only one value and it is

fixed.
• An instrument which is used to measure the value of primary
standard quantity is called primary standard instrument.
• It gives the accurate value of the quantity being measured.
• No pre calibration is required for this instrument.
• It is used to calibrate the instruments having less accuracy.
• By comparing the readings of the two instruments, the
accuracy of the second instrument can be determined.
 Classification of Standards

Secondary standards:
• Secondary standards are the basic reference standards
available in different laboratories.
• These standards are maintained by a particular laboratories
and are easily accessible to the measurement engineer

* CEE 11
 Secondary Standards

• The value of the secondary standard quantity is less accurate

than primary standard one.
• It is obtained by comparing with primary standard.
• For measurement of a quantity using secondary standard
instrument, pre-calibration is required.
• Without calibration, the result given by this instrument is
meaningless.
• Calibration of a secondary standard is made by comparing the
results with a primary standard instrument or with an
instrument having high accuracy or with a known input source
 Classification of Standards

Working Standards:
• These are major tools for measurements laboratories.
• These standards are used to check and calibrate the
instruments in the laboratory.
• The working standard chosen should be at least 10 times
highly accurate then the instrument to be calibrated.
 Calibration

Definition:
• Calibration is an act of comparing the unknown quantity with a
known quantity of higher accuracy, for the determination of
errors.
• The calibration of all instruments is important since it provides
us with the opportunity to find the errors and accuracy of an
instrument.
• Calibration procedure involves a comparison of particular
instrument with either a primary standard or a secondary
standard with accuracy higher than the instrument to be
calibrated or with an instrument of known accuracy.

* CEE 14
 Calibration [Contd.]

• A general rule for selecting a standard instrument against

which a test instrument is to be calibrated is that, the
standard instrument should be at least ten times more
accurate than the test instrument.

• The calibration of an instrument takes core of full scale,

range, output signal, linearity, resolution, cross axis
sensitivity, thermal, zero shifts, thermal sensitivity shifts,
voltage offsets, hysteresis, repeatability, over range, bias
errors, recording. Record keeping test recordings,
calibration curves and calibration reports.

* CEE 15
 Introduction to Basic Instruments

• Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a

physical means of determining a quantity or variable.

• The instrument serves as an extension of human facilities and

enables the man to determine the value of an unknown
quantity which unaided human facilities cannot measure.

• An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the

value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Introduction to Basic Instruments

• The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the

principles on which these instruments worked are even in
vogue today.

• The earliest scientific instruments used the same three

essential elements as our modern instruments do.

• These elements are

✔ a detector
✔ an intermediate transfer device and
✔ an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
Functional Elements of an Instrument
 Primary sensing element

• The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with

the primary sensing element of a measurement system. i.e., the
measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is
first detected by primary sensor which gives the output in a
different analogous form.
• This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a
transducer - (which converts energy from one form to
another).
• The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector
transducer stage.
 Variable conversion element

• The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical

signal of any form , it may be voltage, a frequency or some
other electrical parameter

• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be

necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form.
 Variable manipulation element

• The function of this element is to manipulate the signal

presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal.

• It is not necessary that a variable manipulation element should

follow the variable conversion element.

• Some non -linear processes like modulation, detection,

sampling , filtering, chopping etc., are performed on the signal
to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next
stage of measurement system.

• This process of conversion is called signal conditioning.

 Data Transmission Element

• When the functional elements of the measuring system are

spatially separated then it becomes necessary to transmit
signals from one element to another.

• This function is performed by data transmission element.

• It is an essential functional element where remote control
operation is desired.
 Data presentation element

• The information about the quantity under measurement has to

be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
• This function is done by data presentation element
• In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed .
• These devices may be analog or digital indicating instruments
like ammeters, voltmeters etc.
• In case data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes,
high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may be used.
• For control & analysis purpose microprocessor or computers
may be used.
• The final stage in a measurement system is known as
terminating stage.
Classification of Instruments
 Mechanical Instruments
• These instruments are very reliable for static and stable
conditions.
• There is a large number of possibilities of mechanical
instruments.
• It could be calipers, micrometers, scales, measuring tapes,
lasers, etc. for measuring distances, a pressure gauge for
measuring pressure, strain gauges for measure how much a
part is stretched or compressed when a load is applied,
tachometer for measuring the rotational speed, multimeter for
measuring electrical voltages and currents.
• However, the mechanical instruments suffer from a
disadvantage that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient conditions.
• These instruments have several moving parts that are rigid,
heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass.
 Mechanical Instruments

• The mass presents inertia problems and hence these

instruments cannot follow the rapid changes which are
involved in dynamic measurements.
• Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that most
of them are a potential source of noise and cause pollution of
silence.
• Mechanical instruments are simple in design and application.
They are more durable and relatively cheaper.
• No external power source is required for the operation of
mechanical instruments.
• They are quite reliable and accurate for measurements under
stable conditions.
 Electrical Instruments

• Electrical methods of indicating and transmitting the output

are faster than the respective mechanical methods.
• However, an electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical pointer movement as an indicating device.
• Thus owing to the inertial of mechanical movements these
instruments have a limited time and frequency response.
• For example, some electrical recorders can give full scale
response in 0.2 seconds; while the majority of industrial
recorders have response time of 0.5 to 24 seconds.
• Some of the galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variations, but as
per present day requirements of fast measurements these are
also considered to be slow.
 Electrical Instruments

• Electrical instruments are light and compact.

• Amplification produced is greater than that produced by

mechanical means.

• They provide greater flexibility and are lighter in construction.

• These instruments consume less power and hence cause lesser
load on the system.
 Electronic Instruments

• Majority of the modern scientific and industrial measurements

require very rapid responses.
• The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot
fulfil these requirements.
• There is a requirement of decreasing the response time and
also the detection of dynamic changes in certain parameters.
• The monitoring time could be of the order of milli seconds (ms)
and many a times, micro seconds (us).
• This has led to the design of today’s electronic instruments and
their associated circuitry.
• These instruments involved vacuum tubes or semi-conductor
devices.
• The present day practice is to use semi-conductor devices
owing to their many advantages over their vacuum tube
counterparts.
 Electronic Instruments

• Since in electronic devices the only movement involved is that

of electrons and the inertia of electrons being very small, the
response time of these devices is extremely small.
• For example, a C.R.O. is capable of following dynamic and
transient changes of the order of a few nano seconds (10-9 s).
• Electronically controlled power supplies are used to provide
stable voltages for studies in the field of chemical reactions and
nuclear instrumentation.
• Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more reliable on
account of improvements in design and manufacturing
processes of semi-conductor devices.
• Another advantage of using electronic devices is that very
weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and
amplifiers.
 Electronic Instruments

• The foremost importance of the electronic instruments is the

power amplification provided by the electronic amplifiers.
• Additional power may be fed into the system to provide an
increased power output beyond that of the input.
• Electronic instruments make it possible to build analogue and
digital computers without which the modern developments in
science and technological are virtually impossible.
• Computers require a very fast time response and it is only
possible with use of electronic instruments.
• The mathematical processing of signal, such as, summation,
differentiating and integrating is possible with electronic
measurements.
 Absolute(primary) and Secondary Instruments

• Electrical measurements of different parameters like current,

voltage, power, energy, etc. are most essential in any industry.

• These are among the oldest of all measurements.

• The various electrical instruments may be broadly divided into
two categories:

1) Absolute instruments
2) Secondary instruments
 Absolute(primary) and Secondary Instruments

Absolute/primary instruments
•Absolute/primary instruments are those which give the value of
electrical quantity to be measured in terms of the constants of
the instruments and their deflection only.

e.g. tangent galvanometer.

• These instruments are rarely used except in standard
laboratories, especially for calibration of secondary instruments.
 Secondary instruments
• Secondary instruments are those in which the values of
electrical quantity to be measured can be determined from the
deflection of the instruments only when they have been
pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument.
• Without calibration, the deflection of such instruments is
meaningless.
• Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time
consuming since every time a measurement is made, it takes a
lot of time to compute the magnitude of the quantity under
measurement.
• It is the secondary instruments which are most generally used
in everyday work, the use of the absolute instruments being
merely confined within laboratories as standardizing
instruments.
• A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge are
typical examples of secondary instruments.
 Analog and Digital instrument

Analog instrument

•The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as

the analog instrument.
•The analog instrument has the pointer which shows the
magnitude of the measurable quantities.
•The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can
take on an infinite number of values in a given range.
•Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, wristwatch, speedometer
fall in this category.
 Analog and Digital instrument

Digital instrument

•The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form.

• The instrument is more accurate as compared to the analogue
instrument because no human error occurs in the reading.
•Signals that vary in discrete steps and that take a finite number of
different values in a given range are digital signals and the
corresponding instruments are of digital type.
•Digital instruments have some advantages over analog meters, in
that they have high accuracy and high speed of operation.
•Digital multimeter is an example for the digital instrument.
 Null Type Instrument

• In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the

magnitude of the measured quantity.
• The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity.
• In null deflection instrument, the one known and one unknown
quantity use.
• When the value of the known and the unknown measuring
quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null
deflection.
• The null deflection instrument is used in the potentiometer and
in galvanometer for obtaining the null point.
 Deflection Type Instrument

• The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is

determined through the deflection of the pointer is known as
the deflection type instrument.
• The measuring quantity deflects the pointer of the moving
system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated scale.
• Thus, the magnitude of the measured quantity is known.
• The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into
three types.
✔ Indicating Instrument
✔ Integrating Instrument
✔ Recording Instrument
 Indicating Instrument

• The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the measured

quantity is known as the indicating instrument.

• The indicating instrument has the dial which moves on the

graduated dial.

• The voltmeter, ammeter, power factor meter are the examples

of the indicating instrument.
 Integrating Instrument

• The instrument which measures the total energy supplied at a

particular interval of time is known as the integrating
instrument.

• The total energy measured by the instrument is the product of

the time and the measures electrical quantities.

• The energy meter, and the watt-hour meter are the examples of
integrating instrument.
 Recording Instrument

• The instrument records the circuit condition at a particular

interval of time is known as the recording instrument.

• The moving system of the recording instrument carries a pen

which lightly touches on the paper sheet.

• The movement of the coil is traced on the paper sheet.

• The curve drawn on the paper shows the variation in the
measurement of the electrical quantities.
 Continued…

• Electrical instruments can also classified as:

1. A.C. instruments
2. D.C. instruments
3. A.C./D.C. instruments
Some electrical instruments can measure only A.C. quantity, e.g.
induction type instruments, some can measure only D.C.
quantity, e.g. P.M.M.C. instruments.
Some can work on both a.c. and d.c. e.g. moving iron
instruments, dynamometer instruments etc.
 Basic Electrical Instruments

• A meter is a measuring instrument.

• A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two
points (Voltage-V).
• An ammeter measures current (Ampere-A).
• An ohmmeter measures resistance (R-Ω).
• A multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some
additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
• A Wattmeter measures Power (P-Watts)
• An energy meter measures Energy (W-Watthour).
 Continued…

• Various instruments used in practice:

Following instruments used in day to day life in order to measure
different quantity.
Sr. No. Name of the instruments Quantity measured

1. Voltmeter AC or DC voltage

2. Ammeter AC or DC current

3. Wattmeter AC power (Watt)

4. Energy meter Energy (Watt hour)

 Voltmeter
• A voltmeter can measure the change in voltage by two points
in an electrical circuit and they are connected in parallel with
the portion of the circuit on which the measurement is made.
• Voltmeters must have high resistance so that it won’t have any
effect on the current or voltage associated with the circuit.
Types of voltmeter:
1. Digital voltmeter
2. Electrostatic voltmeter
3. Potentiometer

CEE
 Contd…
Digital voltmeter:
•Digital voltmeters can measure the AC and DC voltages and it
displays the result in converted digital form with decimal point
and polarity.
•It can provide accurate details about the current draw and
current continuity and this will help the users to troubleshoot
erratic loads.
Advantages:-
•Outputs are accurate without any error
•Readings are taken quickly
•Versatile and accurate
•Less power consumption
•Portable instrument
CEE
 Contd…

Electrostatic voltmeter:
•These voltmeters are instruments that can accurately
measure the voltage without any charge transfer.
•Whereas conventional voltmeter needs charge transfer to
the voltmeter and it will lead to loading and adjustment of
the source voltage.
•The main advantage of an electrostatic voltmeter is that it
can do the surface potential measurement on any type of
material without any physical contact.

CEE
 Contd…
Potentiometer:
•Potentiometers are instruments that can be used to measure the
unknown voltage.
•The known voltage will be supplied from a standard cell or any
other known voltage reference source.
•Potentiometer measurement has high accuracy because the
measurement is done by the comparison method and the
obtained result is not by the deflection of the pointer.
•Potentiometers can be used to compare the E.M.F of the two cells,
it can be used to determine the E.M.F of a cell, it can be used to
determine the internal resistance of a cell and to calibrate the
voltmeter and ammeter.

CEE
Contd…
 Connection diagram of a voltmeter

A voltmeter is used for the

measurement of voltage
(potential difference).
So, it is connected across the
points between which the
potential difference is to be
measured.
A voltmeter has a high
resistance, so it draws very
small current.
 Ammeter

* CEE 51
 Types of Ammeter

1.Moving Iron Ammeter

2.Zero center ammeter
3.Galvanometer
4.Clamp meter

CEE
 Contd…
Moving Iron Ammeter:
•In a moving iron, ammeter can measure the AC and DC, it has an
iron piece instead of the spring and pointer system of the
galvanometer. The iron will act by the magnetic field created in
the coil.

CEE
 Contd…

Zero Center Ammeter:

•Zero center ammeters are used where the voltage needs to be
monitored in two directions and they are used along with a
battery.
•In this, the charging of battery deflects the needle in one
direction and discharging of the battery deflects the battery in
the other.

CEE
 Contd…
Galvanometer:
•Galvanometer was the first type of ammeter, it is used to detect
and measure electric current.
•It is an analog electromechanical transducer which makes a
rotary deflection in response to the electric current flowing
through the coil.
•A galvanometer can read direct current flow, the magnetic field
created as current flows through a coil acts on a spring, which
will move the needle indicator.

CEE
 Contd…

Galvanometer:

* CEE 56
 Contd…

Clamp meter:
•Clamp meters are used to
measure the current flowing
through a conductor, AC clamp
meters have a current
transformer in it.
•With the help of the current
transformer the reading will be
taken.
•There are two types of clamp
meters AC clamp meter which is
used to measure the AC and the
DC clamp meter which is used to
measure the DC.

* CEE 57
 Connection diagram of an Ammeter

Ammeter is used for the

measurement of current.
An ammeter is always connected in
series with the load.
Since the resistance offered by an
ammeter is very small, its
introduction in series with load does
not alter the circuit conditions.

* JOBY JOHN 58
 MULTIMETER

• A multimeter or a multitester is an
electronic measuring instrument that
combines several functions in one unit.
• The most basic instruments include an
ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter.
• Analog multimeters are sometimes
referred to as "volt-ohm-meters",
abbreviated VOM.
• Digital multimeters are usually referred
to as "digital-multi-meters", abbreviated
DMM.
• A multimeter can be a handheld device
useful for basic fault finding and field
service work or a bench instrument
• Such an instrument will commonly be
found in a calibration lab and can be used
to characterize resistance and voltage
standards or adjust and verify the
* CEE 59
performance of multi-function
calibrators.
 ANALOGUE MULTIMETER

• An analogue meter moves a needle along

a scale. Switched range analogue
multimeters are very cheap. The meter
movement is delicate and dropping the
meter is likely to damage it.
• Each type of meter has its advantages.
Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is
usually better because its resistance is
much higher, 1 M ohm or 10 M ohm ,
compared to 200 ohm for a analogue
multimeter on a similar range.
• On the other hand, it is easier to follow a
slowly changing voltage by watching the
needle on an analogue display.
• Used as an ammeter, an analogue
multimeter has a very low resistance and
is very sensitive, with scales down to
50 µA. More expensive digital
multimeters can equal or better than this
performance.
• Most modern multimeters are digital and
traditional analogue types are destined
to become obsolete.
* CEE 60
 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

• Multimeters are designed and mass

produced for electronics engineers.
• Digital meters give an output in numbers,
usually on a liquid crystal display.
• The central knob has lots of positions.
• We must choose which one is
appropriate for the measurement you
want to make.
• If the meter is switched to 20 V DC, for
example, then 20 V is the maximum
voltage which can be measured.
• This is sometimes called 20 V fsd, where
fsd is short for full scale deflection.
• For circuits with power supplies of up to
20 V, which includes all the circuits you
are likely to build, the 20 V DC voltage
range is the most useful. DC ranges are
indicated by on the meter.
• Sometimes, we will want to measure
smaller voltages, and in this case, the 2 V
or 200 mV ranges are used.

* CEE 61
 Wattmeter
• Watt-meters are used to measure power, these instruments
are similar in design and construction of an ammeter.
• It can be used to measure the average electric power in watts.
• Wattmeter has two coils they are current and pressure coil.
• Wattmeter can be used to measure the gain in amplifiers,
bandwidth in filters.

CEE
 Energymeter

• The meter which is used

for measuring the energy utiliz
ed by the electric load is known
as the energy meter.
• The energy is the total power
consumed and utilized by the
load at a particular
interval of time.
• It is used
in domestic and industrial AC
circuit for measuring the power
consumption.
• The meter is
less expensive and accurate.
 Contd…

• Fig.(1) shows the construction of energy meter.

• The two exciting coils act as current coil and voltage coil and the
disc acts as a time counting device.
• The disc is kept free to rotate continuously.
• Speed of the disc depends on the power supplied to the load.
• More the load, higher is the disc speed.
• In this instrument, a gear train is provided to count the revolution
of the disc.
• Number of revolution of the disc are directly recorded in terms of
the energy consumed.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): construction of energy meter

 Measurement of Single Phase Power

• Wattmeter is generally used to measure power in the circuits.

• A wattmeter principally consists of two coils, one coil is called
the current coil, and the other the pressure or voltage coil.
• A diagrammatic representation of a wattmeter connected to
measure power in a single phase circuit is shown in Figure.
 Contd…

• The coil represented with less number of turns between M and

L is the current coil, which carries the current in the load and
has very low impedance.
• The coil with more number of turns between the common
terminal (common) and V is the pressure coil, which is
connected across the load and has high impedance.
• The load voltage is impressed across the pressure coil.
• The terminal M denotes the mains side, L denotes load of
current coil ,C denotes the common point, and V denotes the
second terminal of the pressure coil, usually selected as per the
range of the load voltage in the circuit.
 Contd…
• From the figure, it is clear that a wattmeter has four terminals, two for
current coil and two for potential coil.
• When the current flow through the two coils, they set up magnetic fields in
space.
• An electromagnetic torque is produced by the interaction of the two
magnetic fields.
• Under the influence of the torque, one of the coils (which is movable) moves
on a calibrated scale against the action of a spring.
• The instantaneous torque produced by electromagnetic action is
proportional to the product of the instantaneous values of the currents in
the two coils.
• The small current in the pressure coil is equal to the input voltage divided
by the impedance of the pressure coil.
• The inertia of the moving system does not permit it to follow the
instantaneous fluctuations in torque.
 Contd…

• The wattmeter deflection is therefore, proportional to the

average power (VI cos Φ) delivered to the circuit.
• Sometimes, a wattmeter connected in the circuit to measure
power gives downscale reading or backward deflection.
• This is due to improper connection of the current coil and
pressure coil.
Experimental Setup
Calculation
 Measurement of Three Phase Power

• In AC circuits, power is measured with the help of wattmeter.

• A wattmeter is an instrument, which consists of two coils
called the potential coil (PC) and the current coil (CC).
• The potential coil having high resistance is connected across
the load and carries the current proportional to the potential
difference across the load.
• The current coil having low resistance is connected in series
with the load.
• The three phase power measurement can be carried out
using the following methods:
• One wattmeter method
• Two wattmeter method
• Three wattmeter method.
 One Wattmeter Method

• In a balanced 3-wire, 3-phase load circuit the power in each

phase is equal and, therefore, the total power of the circuit can
be determined by multiplying the power measured in any one
phase.
• Hence, the power measurement in three-phase, three-wire
circuits can be carried out by using the one wattmeter only.
• But this method has a disadvantage.
• Even a slight degree of unbalance in the loading produces
a significant error in the measurement.
Two Wattmeter Method
Contd…
 Contd…

• The two wattmeter method of power measurement in

three-phase circuits is suitable for every type of
three-phase circuit whether circuit is balanced or
unbalanced and star connectedstar connected or delta
connected.
• The current coils of two wattmeters are inserted in
any two lines, and the potential coil is connected from
its own current coil to the line without the current
coil.
 Contd…

• It can be proved that the sum of the power measured by two

wattmeter W1 and W2 is equal to the total instantaneous power
absorbed by the load.
• But in actual practice, wattmeters read the average power
because of the inertia of their moving system.
Three Wattmeter Method
Contd…
 Contd…

• The power measurement in three-phase, three-wire circuit is

carried out by this method.
• As the neutral wire is common to the three phases,
each wattmeter reads power in its own phase, and the total
power is given by the sum of the readings of three wattmeters.
• Total power of load circuit, P3-φ = W1 + W2 + W3
• In the case of delta connected circuits, power measurement by
three wattmeter method is very difficult because phase coils of
load are required to be broken for inserting the current coils of
wattmeter.
 Moving Coil Instruments

• Moving coil instruments (ammeter and voltmeter) are of two

types:
1. Permanent Magnet Moving coil type (PMMC) used only for DC.
2. Dynamometer type can be used for AC as well DC.
 Continued…

1. PMMC Instruments:
They are also known as d’Arsonval instruments.
These instruments works on the electromagnetic effect of
current.
A permanent magnet used to produce magnetic flux and coil, that
carries the current to be measured moves in this field.
 Continued…
• Working principle:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force. It is given by expression,
F = BIL
Where, F = Force in Newton,
B = Flux density is tesla,
I = Current is ampere,
L = Length of conductor in meter.
The current I which is to be measured is passed through the
moving coil and experiences a force which is directly proportional
to this current.
Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer attached to it will
also move.
The angle through which the pointer moves is proportional to
current I.
 Continued…

• Construction of PMMC instrument:

A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminium frame (spindle)
positioned between the poles of a U shaped permanent magnet
which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.
The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the coil is free
to rotate. The current is fed to the coil through spiral springs which
are two in numbers.
The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured, moves
in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and a
pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the measured value.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): construction of PMMC instrument

 Continued…

• Advantages of PMMC Instruments:

1. The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
2. It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
3. The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
4. It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable
resistance.
5. It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray
magnetic field.
6. It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
 Continued…

• Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:

1. The moving coil instrument can only be used on DC supply as the
reversal of current produces reversal of torque on the coil.
2. It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
3. It’s costly as compared to moving iron instruments.
4. It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.
 Dynamometer type moving Coil Instruments

It is modification of PMMC instrument.

Permanent magnet in PMMC is replaced by two fixed coils.
• Principle of working:
It works on the principle that, whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, force is exerted on the
conductor.
In this case, fixed coils produced magnetic field.
Moving coil carrying the current to be measured is suspended in
this magnetic field.
Hence it experiences a torque.
The moving coil then rotates through an angle proportional to the
current flowing through the moving coil.
As the pointer is attached to the moving coil, we get the pointer
deflection proportional to the current to be measured.
 Continued…

• Construction:
As shown in fig.(1), F1, F2 are two identical circular, air cored
coils.
They are connected in series and these coils are placed in parallel
to each other.
They produced a uniform magnetic field.
M is a light moving coils.
It lies in the magnetic field produced by F1, F2.
Moving coil is supported by a spindle and jeweled bearing.
Two control springs wound in opposite directions are used as leads
to pass current in moving coil.
These springs produce the controlling torque.
Damping torque is obtained using air-friction damping.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): Dynamometer type moving coil instrument

 Continued…

• Advantages:
1. Use of iron is avoided. Hence it is free from hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
2. It is useful for both AC and DC measurements.
3. High degree of accuracy.
4. It can be used as a transfer instrument.
5. It is often used as a standard instrument for calibrating ammeter
and volt meters.
 Continued…

• Limitations:
1. Scale is nonlinear.
2. Torque to weight ratio is small.
3. It is an expensive instrument.
4. The instrument has low sensitivity.
5. Shielding should be provided to avoid effect of stray magnetic
field.
 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

Where ruggedness is more important than high degree of accuracy,

moving iron instruments are used.
• Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
Attraction type moving iron instrument
 Attraction type moving iron instrument

• Construction of the attraction type moving iron instrument is as

shown in the figure.
• The moving iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is eccentrically
mounted.
• Coil is situated around the disc.
• When the coil is excited it produces magnetic field.
• Due to magnetic field, the moving iron moves from the weaker
field outside the coil to the stronger field inside the coil.
• Thus moving iron gets attracted inwards and thus the name
attraction type.
 Continued…

• The controlling torque is provided by the balance weights attached

to the moving iron.
• Spring also can be used to provide controlling torque.
• Damping is provided by air friction in which aluminum piston is
attached to the moving system and moves in a closed air damping
chamber.
 Repulsion type moving iron instrument

• In these type of instruments there two vanes present inside the coil
in which one is fixed while other is movable.
• These both vanes gets similarly magnetized when coil is excited.
• Thus there is a force of repulsion between both vanes causing
movement in movable vane.
• There are further two different designs of repulsion type moving
iron instruments.
1. Radial Vane type
2. Co-axial (or) concentric vane type
Radial Vane Type Instruments
 Contd…

• It consists of two iron strips (vanes) are placed radially, in which

one is fixed and the other is movable.
• In this type of instrument, the deflection torque is directly
proportional to the actual current in the coil, thus making the scale
uniform and readings can be obtained directly.
• These are the most sensitive type of instruments.
Coaxial or Concentric vane type
 Contd…

• In co-axial vane type instruments, the vanes are the sections of

coaxial cylinders.
• In this, the two vanes are co-axially placed inside the coil.
• In which one vane is fixed to the coil frame that remains stationary,
while the other is movable which rotates at the central axis inside
the stationary vane.
• But the deflecting torque on the pointer is proportional to the
square of the actual current in the coil.
• Hence the scale cannot be uniform due to concentric vanes.
• Compared to radial type these instruments are less sensitive.
 Continued…

• Advantages of Moving iron Instruments:

1. Suitable of AC as well as DC measurements.
2. Good accuracy.
3. Cheaper in cost as compared to permanents magnet moving coil
instruments.
4. The instrument has high torque to weight ratio.
5. The instrument can be used for low frequency measurement also.
 Continued…

• Disadvantages of Moving iron instruments:

1. Power consumed by the instrument is high as compared to that of
the permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
2. The scale is non-uniform.
3. Due to the presence of iron part in the operating system, error due
to the hysteresis effect is introduced. To reduce this effect nickel
iron alloys are used.
* MC&RP 104