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 A Simple Introduction
to Python
A Simple Introduction to Python is aimed at pre-university students and complete
novices to programming. The whole book has been created using Jupyter notebooks. After
introducing Python as a powerful calculator, simple programming constructs are covered,
and the NumPy, MatPlotLib and SymPy modules (libraries) are introduced. Python is then
used for Mathematics, Cryptography, Artificial Intelligence, Data Science and Object Ori-
ented Programming. The reader is shown how to program using the integrated development
environments: Python IDLE, Spyder, Jupyter notebooks, and through cloud computing with
Google Colab.
Features:
• No prior experience in programming is required.
• Demonstrates how to format Jupyter notebooks for publication on the Web.
• Full solutions to exercises are available as a Jupyter notebook on the Web.
• All Jupyter notebook solution files can be downloaded through GitHub.
GitHub Repository of Data Files and a Jupyter Solution notebook:
https://github.com/proflynch/A-Simple-Introduction-to-Python
Jupyter Solution notebook web page:
https://drstephenlynch.github.io/webpages/A-Simple-Introduction-to-Python-Solutions.html

In 2022, Stephen Lynch was named a National Teaching Fellow, which celebrates and
recognizes individuals who have made an outstanding impact on student outcomes and
teaching in higher education. He won the award for his work in programming in STEM
subjects, research feeding into teaching, and widening participation (using experiential
and object-based learning). Although educated as a pure mathematician, Stephen’s many
interests now include applied mathematics, cell biology, electrical engineering, comput-
ing, neural networks, nonlinear optics and binary oscillator computing, which he co-in-
vented with a colleague. He has authored 2 international patents for inventions, 8 books,
4 book chapters, over 45 journal articles, and a few conference proceedings. Stephen is a
Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics and Its Applications (FIMA) and a Senior Fellow
of the Higher Education Academy (SFHEA). He is currently a Reader with MMU and
was an Associate Lecturer with the Open University from 2008 to 2012. In 2010, Stephen
volunteered as a STEM Ambassador, in 2012, he was awarded MMU Public Engagement
Champion status, and in 2014, he became a Speaker for Schools. He runs national work-
shops on “Python for A-Level Mathematics and Beyond” and international workshops on
“Python for Scientific Computing and TensorFlow for Artificial Intelligence.” He has run
workshops in China, Malaysia, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, and the USA.
Chapman & Hall/CRC
The Python Series
About the Series

Python has been ranked as the most popular programming language, and it is
widely used in education and industry. This book series will offer a wide range of
books on Python for students and professionals. Titles in the series will help users
learn the language at an introductory and advanced level, and explore its many
applications in data science, AI, and machine learning. Series titles can also be
supplemented with Jupyter notebooks.

Image Processing and Acquisition using Python, Second Edition

Ravishankar Chityala, Sridevi Pudipeddi

Python Packages
Tomas Beuzen and Tiffany-Anne Timbers

Statistics and Data Visualisation with Python

Jesús Rogel-Salazar

Introduction to Python for Humanists

William J.B. Mattingly

Python for Scientific Computation and Artificial Intelligence

Stephen Lynch

Learning Professional Python Volume 1: The Basics

Usharani Bhimavarapu and Jude D. Hemanth

Learning Professional Python Volume 2: Advanced

Usharani Bhimavarapu and Jude D. Hemanth

Learning Advanced Python from Open Source Projects

Rongpeng Li

Foundations of Data Science with Python

John Mark Shea

Data Mining with Python: Theory, Applications, and Case Studies

Di Wu

A Simple Introduction to Python

Stephen Lynch

For more information about this series please visit: https://www.crcpress.com/

Chapman--HallCRC/book-series/PYTH
A Simple Introduction
to Python

Stephen Lynch
Manchester Metropolitan University,
United Kingdom
Designed cover image: Python Software Foundation

First edition published 2024

by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Stephen Lynch

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced
in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor-
age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lynch, Stephen, 1964- author.

Title: A simple introduction to Python / Stephen Lynch, Manchester Metropolitan
University, United Kingdom.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : C&H, CRC Press, 2024. |
Series: Chapman & Hall/CRC the Python series | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023056099 (print) | LCCN 2023056100 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032751672 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781032750293 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003472759 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Python (Computer program language) | Computer programming.
Classification: LCC QA76.73.P98 L963 2024 (print) | LCC QA76.73.P98 (ebook) |
DDC 005.13/3--dc23/eng/20240212 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2023056099 LC
ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023056100

ISBN: 978-1-032-75167-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-75029-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-47275-9 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003472759

Typeset in Latin Modern font

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Publisher’s note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors.
 To my family,
my brother Mark and my sister Jacqueline,
my wife Gaynor,
and our children, Sebastian and Thalia,
for their continuing love, inspiration and support.
Contents

Preface xi

Chapter 1 ■ Python as a Powerful Calculator 1

1.1 BODMAS 1
1.2 FRACTIONS: SYMBOLIC COMPUTATION 2
1.3 POWERS (EXPONENTIATION) AND ROOTS 3
1.4 THE MATH LIBRARY (MODULE) 4

Chapter 2 ■ Simple Programming with Python 7

2.1 LISTS, TUPLES, SETS AND DICTIONARIES 7

2.2 DEFINING FUNCTIONS (PROGRAMMING) 10
2.3 FOR AND WHILE LOOPS 11
2.4 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS, IF, ELIF, ELSE 14

Chapter 3 ■ The Turtle Library 17

3.1 THE CANTOR SET FRACTAL 18

3.2 THE KOCH SNOWFLAKE 19
3.3 A BIFURCATING TREE 20
3.4 THE SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE 21

Chapter 4 ■ NumPy and MatPlotLib 24

4.1 NUMERICAL PYTHON (NUMPY) 24

4.2 MATPLOTLIB 26

vii
viii ■ Contents

4.3 SCATTER PLOTS 28

4.4 SURFACE PLOTS 29

Chapter 5 ■ Google Colab, SymPy and GitHub 32

5.1 GOOGLE COLAB 32

5.2 FORMATTING NOTEBOOKS 33
5.3 SYMBOLIC PYTHON (SYMPY) 35
5.4 GITHUB 37

Chapter 6 ■ Python for Mathematics 40

6.1 BASIC ALGEBRA 40

6.2 SOLVING EQUATIONS 41
6.3 FUNCTIONS (MATHEMATICS) 43
6.4 DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION (CALCULUS) 46

Chapter 7 ■ Introduction to Cryptography 51

7.1 THE CAESAR CIPHER 52

7.2 THE XOR CIPHER 53
7.3 THE RIVEST-SHAMIR-ADLEMAN (RSA)
CRYPTOSYSTEM 54
7.4 SIMPLE RSA ALGORITHM EXAMPLE 55

Chapter 8 ■ An Introduction to Artificial Intelligence 59

8.1 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS 60

8.2 THE AND/OR AND XOR GATE ANNS 61
8.3 THE BACKPROPAGATION ALGORITHM 63
8.4 BOSTON HOUSING DATA 65
 Contents ■ ix

Chapter 9 ■ An Introduction to Data Science 68

9.1 INTRODUCTION TO PANDAS 68

9.2 LOAD, CLEAN AND PREPROCESS THE DATA 71
9.3 EXPLORING THE DATA 73
9.4 VIOLIN, SCATTER AND HEXAGONAL BIN PLOTS 74

Chapter 10 ■ An Introduction to Object Oriented Programming 79

10.1 CLASSES AND OBJECTS 80

10.2 ENCAPSULATION 81
10.3 INHERITANCE 82
10.4 POLYMORPHISM 83

Index 89
Preface

Currently, Python is the most popular programming language in the

world. It is open source and completely free to the user. It is also fun to
program with and extremely powerful at solving real-world problems.
This book is for pre-university students or complete novices to pro-
gramming. This is the third book I have written on Python. The most
recent book, Python for Scientific Computing and Artificial Intelligence [1],
published by CRC Press in 2023, is aimed at high-school students, under-
graduates, postgraduates and scientists, and concentrates on interdisci-
plinary science, computational modeling, simulation and programming.
The more advanced book, Dynamical Systems with Applications using
Python [2], published by Springer International Publishing, is set at a
final-year undergraduate and postgraduate level and covers the mathe-
matical theory and research in some detail. This book is a precursor to
both [1] and [2] and provides a gentle introduction to programming in
Python and is aimed at complete novices.
In the second part of the Preface, the reader is shown three (from
many) methods to access Python. The Python Integrated Development
Learning Environment (IDLE) is suitable for Chapters 1 to 3. For Sci-
entific Computing and the material in Chapters 4 to 10, the reader will
need to use Jupyter notebooks or Spyder through Anaconda, or Google
Colab, via cloud computing.
Each chapter provides both examples and exercises. In order to un-
derstand programming, the reader must attempt these exercises. Learn-
ing to program is like learning to ride a bike – you have to fall off many
times before mastering the art. Expect to make many mistakes, learn
from those mistakes and then move on to the next chapter. Full working
solutions to all of the exercises and other resources will be provided via
GitHub, where readers will be able to download all files for free. There
will also be a web page with full-worked solutions, where readers can
simply copy and paste code and run the programs in a Python environ-
ment. Readers should note that Python programs can easily be generated
with ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer), developed

xi
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Company, Trafford Park, Manchester. It consists of a stationary
cylindrical vessel of exactly the right size to receive a wheel, which,
being placed in position, is at once lowered into a tank containing
the japan. Here it is made to revolve very rapidly, by which means
the japan is thoroughly distributed over every part. Hickory, being a
hard and comparatively non-absorbent wood, the japan might give
too thick a coating if dipped and left to dry in the ordinary way. To
prevent this, the wheel, while still revolving very rapidly, is
mechanically lifted out of the japan, and is held just above it, where
it continues to spin. This has the effect of throwing off the
superfluous japan by centrifugal force. The cylindrical sides of the
apparatus catch the japan, and it runs down into the tank below.
The wheels are then taken out by a man, who wears gloves, are
stacked on edge in rows to dry, and, after an hour or so, they
receive a second coat. After twenty-four hours, or less, they are
ready for use.
The advantage of rapidly revolving the wheels is that anything in the
nature of a drip is entirely eliminated. This machine can deal with
300 wheels an hour, so rapid is the process. At the present time the
Ford Works are using 2,000 wheels a week.
Some Typical Plants.
In gathering information of up-to-date character to include in this
book the author has visited various parts of the country, and through
the courtesy of the firms mentioned below has examined the plants
used successfully for the treatment of many different goods. The
following is a brief description of some of the plants inspected,
although it by no means exhausts the list:—
Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal.
Fig. 28.—Dipping a Coach Body at Woolwich Arsenal.
 Fig. 29.—General View of Paint Dipping Room at Woolwich
Arsenal.
The plant for painting wagons, etc., has been in use for about 12
years and has been eminently successful, it being found by
experience that a paint applied by dipping proves equally durable to
that formerly applied by means of brushes. Indeed, the durability is
increased for the reason, which has been pointed out elsewhere,
that the paint finds it way into open joints and crevices which could
not be reached by a brush. In some cases a wagon is dipped bodily,
while in others it is dismantled and the different parts are dipped
separately; again, the smaller portions are placed in an open wire
basket which is plunged into the paint. The building in which this
painting is done is of considerable extent and a large paint tank is
located at each end. A wagon on being completed, or in the case of
an old wagon, after having been prepared, is brought to the first
tank and is raised from the ground and lowered into the paint,
where it remains for about half a minute. It is then immediately
raised, allowed to drain over a tank for a few minutes, and then over
an inclined floor for a further period. At the end of about half an
hour a workman inspects the wagon or other article and removes
any tears or runs which may have occurred. The paint being
specially prepared this is not usually an arduous undertaking.
The illustrations show very clearly a coach body in process of
dipping. Overhead rails run throughout the length of the building
and upon these are suspended the painted wagons, which are
gradually moved along with a very little exertion, such rails being
slightly inclined to facilitate this. By the time the series of wagons
reach the further end of the building they are ready to receive a
second coat of paint, by being dipped in the second tank. This being
done they are then moved back, being at once suspended on the
rails until quite dry, when they are hoisted to the upper part of the
building, where they are left suspended until they are required for
use. The paint is, of course, a special one which is supplied in paste
form having the necessary binding ingredients. The colour used is
khaki, which is very durable, being composed of earth colours. The
thinning is done on the premises and white spirit is employed for the
purpose, not turpentine, which would be far too expensive. Formerly
benzine was employed, but this necessitated the use of a fan to take
away the fumes which came from the spirit. Such a fan is not now
found to be necessary.
The tanks are fitted with iron covers bearing upon thick felt and are
operated by means of levers placed at a distance, so that should a
fire occur they can be closed at a moment's notice. The hoist is
worked from the ground by electricity. Formerly the operator of the
hoist was located in a cab near the roof, but it was felt that this
would be a dangerous position in case of fire, and he now, as stated,
does the work from the ground. The work done at Woolwich gives
an excellent example of the actual saving which may be effected by
using the paint dipping process. Before the painting plant was put in
no fewer than 200 painters were constantly employed; now about 40
are fully able to turn out the same or even a larger number of
wagons in a given time.
James Gibbons.
Most of the metal sheets as well as finished metal work of various
kinds made at these extensive works at Wolverhampton are finished
by dipping into special enamels or japans made by Messrs. Mander
Bros. The dipping is done by hand and the pieces are placed at the
side of the tank to drain. In some cases it is found necessary to go
over the work slightly with a brush to remove tears, but such work
takes only a few minutes and is used mostly as a precautionary
measure.
One coat is usually found sufficient, and at the proper time the iron
sheet or metal article is stoved at 250° F. to 300° F. for two hours.
Many other articles are also dipped successfully.
Harrison, McGregor & Co.
In the extensive factories of this firm at Leigh, Lancashire, dipping
by immersion has been successfully carried on for some years past.
Various agricultural implements are dipped bodily in a tank of paint
which is fitted with a worm agitator, and is of simple construction.
The iron parts are dipped separately, being supported on suitable
hangers, while the very small parts are placed in wire baskets for
immersion.
Phillips and Son.
The paint dipping plant at these works, which are situated at
Sherbourne Street, Birmingham, has been in successful operation for
some years past and is applied principally to bedsteads.
The tank holding black japan measures about 5 feet by 18 inches
and is some 9 feet deep. The bedstead head and foot are separately
dipped by hand into the tank which contains black japan, and are
immediately hung on a hook attached to a slowly travelling chain.
This chain runs around a rectangular space, and beneath is a metal
lined dripping floor. The stove is located diagonally from the tank, so
that by the time the bedstead parts reach it the dripping has ceased
and they are ready to be baked. The stoving is done at 320° F., and
is continued all night. One coat is found to be ample.
A very ingenious arrangement is in use for the application of
coloured enamels. Three shallow tanks are mounted on rollers
running in angle irons one above the other in such a manner that
any one tank may be pulled out when required for use free from the
others.
As a rule three coats are given for white work and two for green,
blue and most other colours. No white lead is used, but only non-
poisonous colours. The stoving is done mostly overnight at a
temperature of 250° F. A little rubbing down between coats is done
with very fine glass or emery paper. The japans are made by Messrs.
Thornley & Knight.
In these works safes are painted, but the work is all done by hand.
The Ford Motor Company.
The extensive works of this company, at Trafford Park, Manchester,
contain as complete a plant for painting, japanning, enamelling and
varnishing, as it has been the pleasure of the author to inspect.
With characteristic thoroughness every detail which will ensure a
first class finish with a minimum of time and labour has been
thought out and applied. The result is that not only is every part
dealt with most expeditiously but one coat of paint is applied to the
whole outer surface of a motor body in the almost incredibly short
time of two minutes. Further details will be found in this book under
the heads of "Flowing-on," "Motor Parts," and "Iron Rods."
Marshall, Sons & Co., Ltd.
This well-known firm of agricultural implement manufacturers have a
large dipping plant at their Gainsborough works, which they employ
for painting various agricultural machines made principally of red
wood. Some idea of the extent to which this process is applied may
be obtained when it is said that on an average nearly 5,000 pieces
pass through the dipping plant every month. The process is
particularly well adapted for threshing machines and for appliances
of the kind which consist of thousands of holes bored in the wood. If
the painting were done by hand it would take many hours to paint
such a machine, while by dipping it is done even more effectually in
a few minutes. The priming coat only is dipped after knots, etc.,
have been treated with shellac. The tank measures 21ft. long by 7ft.
deep and 2ft. 3in. in width. An agitating apparatus is used and the
lifting is done by pneumatic appliances.
Hayward Brothers and Eckstein, Limited.
The paint dipping plant in use at the works of this firm, at Union
Street, Borough, S.E., is of a comparatively simple type, and consists
of a shallow tank in which various cast iron and steel goods are
dipped in horizontal position. As a rule, one coat of paint is given,
but in certain cases two are required. The bottom of the tank is
slanted, and the contents are stirred up from time to time, but no
agitating apparatus is used. The principal goods painted by dipping
are the frames of Hayward's lights, which are of cast iron and are
dipped on one side only, the other side, after the glass is fitted,
being done by hand. Metal casements are also dipped in
considerable numbers, as well as treads and rises of circular
staircases, straight staircases, balconies, etc. These, being made of
ornamental open ironwork, contain a large number of small shaped
holes, and the dipping process is found to be by far the most
effective.
Another speciality of this firm are Hayward's patent steel collapsible
gates. The first coat of paint is applied by dipping; this paint, being
black, dries flat, i.e., without gloss.
The Crittall Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
These works are at Braintree, Essex, where a large amount of
structural steelwork is produced, the chief manufactures being metal
windows of all kinds, from the well-known steel casement and sash
to metal windows for use in industrial dwellings and specially
designed windows for various climates, steel fireproof doors,
skylights, steel office and works partitions, shop fronts; frictionless
ball race runners for sliding doors, etc.
Fig. 30.—Wagon Store Room, Woolwich Arsenal.
 Fig. 31.—Dipping Casements at the Crittall Manufacturing Co.'s
Factory, Braintree.
Perhaps the most noticeable feature of these works as far as our
subject is concerned, is the very complete system of overhead rails,
by means of which the various metal goods produced in the different
finishing shops are conveyed to one or other of the paint tanks and
then, having been left to dry, are taken to store rooms ready for
instant shipment. These rails facilitate handling of the various goods,
and reduce the actual expenditure under this particular item to a
minimum. The rails are L-shaped, the hanger used for each article or
series of articles being of a simple character, consisting of two
wheels bearing on the top of the upright flange, while rods secured
by bolts pass through the horizontal flange and hold it in position.
We will first describe the tank used for dipping metal windows. This
is 15ft. long by 12ft. deep and only 1ft. 6in. wide. Attached to the
tank is a large dripping floor measuring some 15ft. by 21ft. covered
with sheet iron and inclined toward the tank, so that the paint which
drips on to it finds its way back into the tank through a grating
provided for the purpose to take off any dried particles. The paint
used in this work is made by Messrs. Docker Brothers, and weighs
13 lbs. to the gallon; one coat is found sufficient for the purpose.
The sashes or casements being brought in from the finishing room
on the overhead rail, they are lowered into the tank by means of a
special lowering apparatus designed on the premises. Some idea of
this may be had from Fig. 31. In order to keep the load steady
during the time it is being dipped, a slight depression or dip in the
rail is made immediately over the tank. The sashes are only left in
the paint for a few seconds, and are then raised, allowed to drip
over the tank for perhaps a minute or two, and then allowed to drip
over the adjacent floor for perhaps a quarter of an hour or less.
They are then taken farther along and the paint dries in about three
hours. Sometimes two, four, six, or even eight casements may be
dipped at the same time. Attached to the elevating and lowering
apparatus are hooks which pass through one corner of the
casements. This causes the parts to hang at an angle which
facilitates running off of the paint.
We come now to the department in which the baking or stoving
enamel is used as applied to metal furniture in general, as
mentioned. In this case the articles are dipped in a manner very
similar to that already described, excepting that a large hook, similar
in shape to that shown in Fig. 32, is used to support the article to be
dipped; the wide opening goes inside the box or file and holds it at
an angle so that when it is lowered into the paint all parts are
covered inside and out. A few minutes are allowed for dripping, and
after two or three hours the articles are ready to be stoved. In this
case, Messrs. Docker Brothers' standard colour, a very pleasing dark
green, is used. The stoving takes three hours at a temperature of
240° F., or higher in some cases. The tank mentioned is, of course,
considerably wider than that used for casements. The dripping floor
is in this case inclined toward the centre, which in turn is inclined
toward the grating just outside the tank itself. If necessary, special
thinners are added to bring up the gloss, but, as a rule, this is
unnecessary. It is desirable after the article is dipped to go over it
once with a small brush to remove any drips or runs which may
possibly appear.

Fig. 32.—Hook Used for Suspending Metal Boxes While Dipping.

Another very important point to be attended to is to exclude all dust,
and for this purpose the Crittall Manufacturing Co. have erected in
this department screens of wire of the finest mesh over windows, so
that no air can pass into the room without the dust being screened
off.
Excluding Dust.
A matter of very great importance, yet one which is frequently
overlooked in painting iron and other goods which are to have a
glossy finish, either air dried or stoved, is to exclude dust from the
apartment in which the work is done. In many engineering shops the
nature of the business gives rise to a considerable amount of dust,
and if this is allowed to enter the paint shop it will be fatal to the
appearance of the painted work, as many specks will inevitably
settle on the work and mar its appearance.
 Fig. 33.—Dipping Casements at Braintree. Note the Narrow Tank
used for this Class of Work.

A paint shop is best provided with a concrete floor, and this should
be frequently cleaned. The workmen should wear clean overalls,
frequently renewed, and even so small a matter as keeping the hair,
beard, etc., clean and free from dandruff should be attended to. The
doors are best if double, and thick felt may be used with advantage
in the joints so as to practically seal the opening when the doors are
closed. Air which is admitted, either through ventilators or windows,
should be strained before entering the building, and for this purpose
silk gauze of the finest mesh is usually employed. In some cases,
cotton wool in addition is placed in such a position that the air must
pass through it before entering the room. If these precautions are
taken it will be found that the quality of the work is greatly
enhanced.
It may be observed in this connection that it is important also to
provide means of adequate ventilation of the apartment. Moisture
charged air has a bad effect upon paint work. Extreme heat is
unnecessary, but it is very important that the temperature be
maintained at a uniform rate, say 60° F. If the room in which the
painting is done is very hot, the paint will be affected and be likely to
become too thin for its purpose; while, on the other hand, if the
room or articles to be painted are very cold, the paint or enamel will
have a tendency to congeal. Both of these defects can be remedied,
as already stated, by a good system of ventilation and maintaining
the heat, night and day, at a uniform temperature.
A Model Drying Room.
The immense importance of providing a uniform temperature and
ensuring an adequate system of ventilation in the room in which
goods are placed for air drying can hardly be exaggerated. Unless
such a system is in use the actual drying may be greatly retarded
and the work stand a chance of being spoiled.
In connection with some of the plant inspected by the author it must
be admitted that the provision made in this respect falls far short of
what is needed. In one case the work of rubbing down was
proceeding in the same shop, although in a different part, in which
various goods which had been dipped were hanging up to dry. It
need hardly be said that under such conditions it was impossible to
keep the work free from specks.
In other cases the drying rooms were inadequate because of the
inefficiency of doors and windows. These, it may be
remarked,should always be double so as to maintain the heat
uniformly.
Every varnish user knows that a draught of cold air which is allowed
to reach a coat of varnish while drying is fatal alike to its appearance
and durability. The result is almost certain to be a case of
"blooming," which to the uninitiated may be described as a film not
unlike the bloom of a freshly coloured plum which comes on the
surface of varnish exposed under such conditions. Those
unacquainted with varnish vagaries are apt to regard this trouble as
being the result of inferior materials used in its manufacture. As a
matter of fact it indicates nothing of the kind because, speaking
generally, the higher grades of varnishes are the most susceptible.
Without doubt the best and by far the most economical plan to
adopt is to have a drying room specially built for the purpose of
receiving the articles to be dried. If constructed on scientific
principles this will not only give a uniform temperature entirely free
from draughts and dust but will considerably expedite the work,
thereby allowing of a quicker delivery of goods and effecting a great
saving of valuable floor space.
The author inspected such a drying room at the works of Messrs.
Pinchin, Johnson, and Co., Ltd., at Silvertown, and a description of it
will doubtless prove of interest. It is built of 5-ply wood and is about
16 feet square, sufficiently large to hold two full-sized motor bodies
or several dozen perambulators, hand wagons, etc. The actual size
may, of course, be varied according to the size of and number of
articles to be dried. Air is admitted through two ducts situated close
to the floor through fine wire gauze, which is provided with a lifting
cover by which the amount of air admitted may be regulated.
Immediately over the two air ducts mentioned is a coil of steam
pipes which heats the air to, say, 110° F. This, of course, causes it to
rise toward the ceiling, but the angle between the ceiling and wall is
rounded off by a cove, so that the current of heated air is directed
along the ceiling toward the centre of the room where there is
another cove and beneath it a coil of cold air pipes which lowers the
temperature somewhat. Thus is created a constant motion of the air
which may be regarded as the essence of the system.
But there is another very important provision in the shape of an
automatic control. This cuts off the steam when any desired heat is
attained so that when the drying room is filled up at night before the
works close it can safely be left until the morning when the drop in
temperature will not be more than 2 degrees. The steam may be
admitted at, say, 10 lbs. pressure, but as soon as the room is heated
from 2 to 2½ lbs. will be found to be sufficient. The actual time for
heating the room to 120° F. is from 15 to 20 minutes.
The speed with which work is turned out by this well-considered
adjunct may be gauged from the fact that a panel may receive one
coat of enamel and two coats of flatting varnish in one day, or four
coats of japan in the same period.
In addition to the advantages mentioned is the most important one
that the drying room renders the manufacturer who is fortunate
enough to possess one quite independent of the weather. In the
words of the inventors and patentees, "one enabled by its use to
create one's own climate."
Fig. 34.—Design for Show Card done by Spraying.
 CHAPTER IV.
Paints for Dipping.
It need hardly be said that the paint employed for this purpose must
be of a special character. There are several firms of manufacturers
who make a speciality of this class of paints and supply them either
ready for use or in paste form, requiring only the addition of white
spirit or other suitable thinner to bring them to the right consistency.
The following may be considered as the necessary qualities of a
paint suitable for this purpose:—
1. It must dry hard in not less than six hours.
2. The pigment must be of such a specific gravity that when mixed
with a suitable vehicle or thinner to form a paint the pigment will not
quickly deposit at the bottom of the tank or settle out.
3. The consistency of the paint must be so arranged that only a
minimum quantity will run off, while it must not be so thick as to
give rise to tears or runs.
White lead which has a specific gravity of about 6.750 is for the
reason mentioned usually considered too heavy, and in the case of a
white or grey paint, zinc oxide which has a specific gravity of 5.470
is used in preference. The following colours may also be successfully
employed, because of their low specific gravity, viz., Oxford ochre (s.
g. 2.822), Venetian red (s. g. 3.560), Indian red (4.732), golden
ochre (3.107), Italian raw sienna (3.081), burnt sienna (3.477),
Turkey umber (3.496), Prussian blue (1.956), bone black (2.319).
It will be observed that the earth colours, such as ochre, sienna,
umber, etc., are all light pigments, and as they are also recognised
as being the most durable, they are eminently well suited for use in
many positions, although the colour is not always very agreeable.
Precipitated barytes (s. g. 4.144) can be used up to, say, a
proportion of 10 per cent.—not more; red lead (s.g. 8.681) cannot
be used for this purpose, as it is far too heavy, and the same applies
to English vermilion (s. g. 7.726). If, however, a bright colour is
required, it may be obtained by dipping in Venetian red or Indian red
and giving a second coat of crimson lake (s. g. 1.898), but a coat of
varnish should be sprayed upon this for protective purposes.
In considering this subject, it is well to remember that much will
depend upon the thickness of the vehicle used, as, clearly, a fairly
heavy pigment will settle out in a thin vehicle much quicker than it
would in a comparatively thick one. The successful paint, therefore,
is one in which both considerations are taken into account.
Very rarely indeed does it pay manufacturers to attempt to grind or
prepare paints themselves, and much greater satisfaction will be
obtained by getting supplies from a reputable firm who have made a
special study of the subject.
Sometimes a white paint is required for dipping, and in that case 30
lbs. of sublimed white lead, 10 lbs. of zinc oxide and 6 lbs. of gilders'
whiting, with 4 lbs. of asbestine pulp, mixed with 9 lbs. of raw
linseed oil, will be found to give good results.
A paint which dries with a gloss is often desired for the finish of
many articles, and can be readily obtained by first priming, then
giving a finishing coat of paint on it which has been mixed with
sufficient varnish to produce the desired gloss. In some cases three
coats may be given, namely, the first or priming coat, the second,
which should be flat, or semi-flat, and the third a coat of varnish
paint, which will dry with a gloss. It should be pointed out, however,
that the finish obtained by these means is not a little inferior to that
which may be produced by using over the priming one or more coats
of flat paint of the desired colour and finishing with a coat of suitable
varnish, which may be applied either by dipping or spraying,
according to circumstances. A point here worthy of mention is one
which every house painter is or should be well acquainted with, and
that is that the coats of paint that are superimposed should be
alternatively flat, i.e., without gloss, and glossy, in order that each
may adhere closely to the other. If the article to be painted is wood
or any other material which is of an absorbent character, a
comparatively large amount of turpentine and oil must be mixed
with it in order to allow for suction. This will dry with a semi-flat
finish, and a glossy coat or one having more oil in its composition,
may be applied over it. If a further coat is required it should be flat
or nearly so, and in that case a finishing coat of varnish will probably
be required. The paints for these purposes may be purchased ready
made or ready for thinning down, from firms who have made a
special study of the requirements.
The question sometimes arises as to whether paint dipping or
spraying can be used advantageously when in the finish two or more
colours are to be used. As a rule the difficulties can be overcome by
dipping first or even the second coat, spraying on the third or
finishing coat, using specially prepared masks or shields over those
parts which are not to be painted with the particular colour in use.
The following useful information is taken from "White Paints and
Painting Materials," by W. G. Scott, who was for sixteen years
connected as paint expert with the Milwaukee Harvester Company
and the J. I. Case Threshing Machinery Co. Mr. Scott therefore
speaks from a wide experience. He says:—
A certain amount of oil must be present in dipping paints to act as a
binder, and it is advisable to add a small quantity of varnish to hold
the paint together. The desired features in a good dipping paint are:
freedom of flow and proper drip; sufficient binder to prevent
chalkiness and produce a firm coat; covering capacity and an even
distribution of the paint.
Non-absorbent surfaces like metal and hard wood require less oil
than the absorbent soft woods.
In the former case there is little or no penetration of the liquid
portion of the paint, but with pine, bass wood, white wood, poplar,
etc., nearly all of the liquid is absorbed or taken up by the wood,
consequently with benzine only as a thinner there will not be
sufficient binder present to hold the pigment when the thinner
evaporates.
Whereas 5 lbs. of paste pigment or colour ground in oil and thinned
with a gallon of benzine would produce a suitable primer on iron or
other non-absorbent material, it would not answer for soft wood.
Dipping paints, as a rule, contain from 4 to 10 lbs. of paste per
gallon of thinner, the primer containing less paste than the second
coat paints.
The composition of the paste colour has much to do with the dipping
paint; for instance, 5 lbs. of paste white lead to the gallon of thinner
will cover and work better than a mixture consisting of half white
lead and the other half made up of transparent pigments like china
clay, barytes, etc., nevertheless a small amount of inert material is
generally understood to be an improvement in the way of durability.
Asbestine, whiting, silica and china clay are the inert materials most
often used in paste goods for dipping purposes.
Asbestine probably helps to hold the pigments in suspension better
than any of the others and answers nicely for dipping paints, but, as
previously mentioned, does not allow the paint to level out when
used with a brush.
China clay, on account of its low specific gravity, is much favoured as
a suspension agent, but materially lessens the opacity of the paint.
A small amount of whiting is a good addition to a dipping paint, as it
carries down much of the dirt and heavy particles usually produced
during the process of dipping. Silica gives the paint "tooth," and by
some authorities is considered an actual necessity in primers which
are intended to be sand-papered.
White lead and zinc oxide are the two ideal white pigments
considered from a dipping standpoint, and it will be found that the
majority of dipping paste paints on the market contain a notable
quantity of zinc oxide, either straight or in the form of zinc lead.
Zinc oxide is generally the predominating pigment in the white and
tinted paste paints, and is usually associated with white lead (basic
carbonate), zinc lead, and sublimed white lead, mixed with more or
less inert material according to the ideas of the manufacturer or in
order to cheapen the product.
The admixture of inert material with the coloured pigments requires
some knowledge of the composition of the coloured pigment; for
instance, lampblack might be safely mixed with asbestine, whiting,
silica, barytes, etc., without detriment, but yellow ochre containing,
naturally, considerable clay and silica would hardly permit of any
great addition of china clay or silica.
The strong iron oxides, chrome greens and similar tinting colours will
stand a large quantity of inert material when the paint is to be used
as a body colour, but for varnish colours it is customary to use the
chemically pure colours and less paste per gallon of thinner.
Paste paint for varnish colours is frequently ground in oil, in japan,
or in a mixture of the two, but far better results are obtained by
grinding the dry pigment in varnish thinned to a grinding consistency
with a little turpentine. A varnish with a viscosity of 20 (water = 1)
which gives a stiff mix with, say, 5 lbs. of pigment will, when thinned
to a viscosity of that of raw oil, i.e., a viscosity of 4, take about 20
lbs. of pigment.
No set rule can be given for the kind and amount of thinners to be
used in dipping paints for various purposes, but the following
proportions[1] will furnish a key to the general mixtures used:—
[1] The figures given relate to an American gallon, which contains
231 cubic inches, while an English imperial gallon contains 277¼
cubic inches. For practical purposes the latter may be considered
one-fifth greater than the former.
Primers for Metal.
4 to 5 lbs. of paste thinned with 7/8 to 31/32 gallon of benzine or
turpentine and 1/8 to 1/32 gallon of mixing varnish.
Primers for Hard Wood.
4 to 5 lbs. of paste thinned with 15/16 gallon benzine or turpentine,
3/64 gallon raw oil, 1/64 gallon mixing varnish.
Primers for Soft Wood.
4 to 7 lbs. paste thinned with ½ to ¾ gallon benzine or turpentine,
15/32 to 15/64 gallon raw oil, 1/32 to 1/64 gallon varnish.
In some cases, with very soft, porous woods, it may be necessary to
add more raw oil and some japan or liquid drier, but too much drier
must not be added, as it will shorten the "flow."
Second Coat Dipping Paints.
5 to 10 lbs. of paste thinned entirely with benzine or turpentine, or
with 7/8 gallon of solvent and variable proportions of oil and varnish
according to the surface desired.
Varnish is advocated in all of these mixtures, as it helps to hold the
solids and liquids together and prevent separation; it also induces
toughness.
It is essential that a varnish be used which will mix perfectly with oil
and benzine at a temperature of 60° F.
Varnish colours are best thinned with turpentine, but owing to the
high price of turpentine the large factories insist on using benzine or
some of the turpentine substitutes now on the market.
The fact that some of the turpentine substitutes work better and
give a better "flow" with the paint and varnish, is due to the fact that
most of them contain a heavy distillate of petroleum similar to
kerosene.
Kerosene oil has the double property of thinning and imparting
"flow" to either paint or varnish, but retards the drying, hence too
much must not be used.
Damar varnish, which will not stand thinning with benzine without
separation of the gum or becoming cloudy, will permit of dilution
with kerosene to quite an extent.
So far as durability is concerned, kerosene imparts more durability
and is more waterproof than any of the other thinners. Combined
with rosin and manganese oxide, it may be made to dry like raw
linseed oil, but, of course, does not possess the same properties.
In dipping paints, as in all other kinds of paints, good judgment
must be used in the mixing, and it is absolutely essential that paints
for soft wood, or other absorbent material, contain enough oil, or
binder, to hold the pigment.
White Paste Primer. Extra Fine.

300 lbs. white lead (carbonate).

150 " zinc oxide.
50 " floated silica.
Grind in 10 gal. raw linseed oil.
Product = 575 lbs.

This paste is thinned with turpentine or benzine for dipping purposes

in the following manner:—
White Dip for Metal.

100 lbs. of white paste.

14 gal. turpentine or benzine.
½ " pale mixing varnish.
¼ " white liquid drier.

White Dip for Hard Wood.

100 lbs. white paste.

13 gal. turpentine or benzine.
2 " raw linseed oil.
1/4 " pale mixing varnish.
1/2 " white liquid drier.

White Dip for Soft Wood.

 100 lbs. white paste.
12 gal. turpentine or benzine.
6 " raw linseed oil.
¾ " white liquid drier.

The pale mixing varnish and the white liquid drier must not liver with
lead or zinc, otherwise, the paint in the tank will thicken continually.
The above formula produces one of the best paints known, and it is
certainly not a cheap paint.
White Spirit.
As already mentioned, many firms who use the paint dipping process
buy their paint in paste form with the requisite amount of driers
added, and thin it themselves with white spirit, which is a petroleum
product specially prepared for the purpose. Turpentine is, of course,
too expensive, and the spirit costs, under normal conditions, little
more than one-third of the price, although exact figures cannot be
given owing to the fluctuation in the price of these materials. Some
manufacturers use a white spirit, to which has been added from 25
to 30 per cent. of genuine American turpentine. This, of course,
renders the mixture somewhat expensive, and possesses no
advantage excepting that it gives the characteristic smell of
turpentine; but this, it appears, is not important in a factory, and the
pure white spirit is quite suitable in itself.
According to Mr. S. Roy Illingworth, A.R.C.Sc., A.I.C., B.Sc., Lond.,
expert to the Gas Lighting and Improvement Co., Ltd., turpentine
substitutes were first placed on the market about 30 years ago, and
consisted at that time of a mixture of turpentine and kerosene oil.
Investigations led to the production of white spirit, drying as quickly
as turpentine, or even quicker if desired. Several grades of this
material are made, varying in flash-point from 80° up to 150°. The
flash-point of genuine turpentine, it may be mentioned in passing, is
90° to 91°, and the 90° flash-point spirit is the one usually employed
for painting purposes, although the 80° flash-point would answer
equally well for dipping. The best grade is practically free from smell
and is suitable for admixture in all paints, excepting those having a
bitumastic or asphaltic base, or paints in which very common driers
containing cheap rosin are used. A rough-and-ready test as to the
quality of white spirit is to dip a piece of blotting-paper into it and
hang it up to dry. In the course of an hour-and-a-half it should have
wholly disappeared, leaving no smell or stain behind it. If there
should be a stain the sample should be viewed with suspicion.
Another test of the same kind is to drop a little spirit on a piece of
white writing paper and to leave it for three-quarters of an hour,
when it should have disappeared without leaving a stain. In addition
to these tests it might be advisable to mix a little spirit with paint
and to try it experimentally.
In the evaporation of turpentine it is usually admitted that a small
proportion, say, from ·25 to ·50, is left behind owing to oxidation. In
the case of best white spirit, however, very little residue will be left
behind, certainly not sufficient quantity to interfere in any way with
the drying. The use of the spirit has proved so successful that
practically nothing else is now employed in paint dipping. It is,
however, important, of course, that the best quality white spirit be
used, but as this is so much less in cost than turpentine, there is no
temptation to use an inferior quality.
The Quantity of Paint Required for Dipping and Spraying.
Speaking generally, rather less paint will be required when it is
applied by dipping, or spraying, than is necessary when it is applied
with a brush. But there are many exceptions, particularly in spraying,
where it may be necessary to give a coat considerably thicker than
usual.
The following table will be found useful as a guide, but it should be
remembered that the actual space covered will vary considerably
with different grades of paint, so that the table should only be taken
as approximately correct. In cases of doubt, careful calculations
should be made after a given quantity of paint, varnish, or lacquer
has been applied to a surface of known area. This will serve as a
useful guide in ordering in the future. It need hardly be said that the
quantity of paint necessary will vary largely with the surface to which
the paint is applied. For example, an absorbent surface, such as
unprimed wood, will require much more paint than metal work,
which absorbs little or none.
Spreading Capacity of Paints.
Per Gallon on Wood. Per Gallon on Metal.
Priming Coats 60 to 70 90 to 100
Mixed Paint 2nd coat 85 to 90 100 to 120
Varnish (on paint) 95 to 110 120 to 130
Lacquer (on paint) 100 to 115 130 to 150
Enamel (on paint) 75 to 80 85 to 95
 CHAPTER V.
PAINTING BY COMPRESSED AIR.
The Evolution of the Apparatus Employed.
By way of introduction to the subject of the application of paints,
enamels, lacquers, varnishes, stains, etc., by means of compressed
air, a few notes on the development of the method may be given, if
only with the object of correcting the impression, which sometimes
exists, that such apparatus as is now employed is more or less of an
experimental character.
The early attempts to apply paint, etc., to articles other than by the
old method of brushing were mainly carried out with a type of
machine still largely used for whitewashing, and the principle
adopted was to partly fill a convenient tank with the paint or
whitewash and to pump a pressure of 35 to 40 lbs. into the tank by
means of a suitable hand pump. The paint was forced through a
flexible tube attached to a connection near the bottom of the tank,
and at the other end of the tube was a simple form of nozzle with a
trigger control for the paint.
It may be said at once that this method was doomed to failure
owing to the underlying principle being at fault. While eminently
suitable for applying whitewash or distemper, it was hopeless for
paint of a more viscous character, owing to the fact that the latter
was not atomised as it issued from the nozzle.
The type of machines referred to, viz., those which are used for
spraying lime white, distemper, whitewash, etc., are fully described
and illustrated in another chapter.
After failing to achieve satisfactory results with such simple
apparatus when applying viscous paints, etc., further experiments
were carried out with a somewhat different type, commonly known
as the "kettle" type of sprayer. The principle employed was to
employ compressed air, supplied, in this case, not from a hand pump
but some form of power compressor, and at a pressure varying from
20 to 50 lbs. per square inch.
The air was delivered through a nozzle controlled by a convenient
plunger or trigger type of valve, and impinged at an angle across a
similar nozzle communicating with the paint receptacle of the
sprayer. The action of the air impinging on or across the paint nozzle
created a vacuum in the paint tube, and thereby sucked up the paint
from the receptacle and gave a fan-shaped spray. Up to a point
these experiments proved satisfactory, but still did not overcome the
difficulty of successfully dealing with intricate shapes, small articles,
and particularly in applying heavy paints with fair percentages of
varnish embodied therein.
The Concentric Form of Spray.
Attention was therefore directed to the concentric jet form of
sprayer, and this is now almost universally employed where painting,
enamelling, etc., is carried out on a large scale.
The advantages of the latter type are many, and in addition to being
designed, in most cases, to produce the greatest effect with the
least possible consumption of air, they are also capable of applying
the paint in very finely divided particles to the smallest work, such as
buttons, imitation jewellery, small electrical camera parts, or of
applying silky coats to such large work as motor bodies,
constructional iron work, large tinplate work, agricultural machinery,
domestic gas apparatus, etc. at a speed approximating to four to ten
times the speed of handwork, and giving a far superior finish, in
many cases with less coats.
Many people who contemplate the subject of painting with a spray
think only of a smother of paint being discharged from a nozzle.
They are not aware that the colour can be better controlled in a
suitably constructed spray than is possible with a hog's hair brush.
The flow of paint is stopped or started instantly, and the amount of
paint delivered is at all times under perfect control, so that a
quantity corresponding to that delivered by a ¼-inch brush or pencil
can be increased to the quantity distributed by a 4-inch brush in a
single stroke. In other words, you have a tool which is the equivalent
of half a dozen brushes ranging from ¼ inch to 4 inch in width.
A little practice is, of course, necessary to master the instrument,
but nothing like the practice which is required for successful painting
with hog's hair.
The principal care is to put on the paint until the beads of paint
coalesce. Too much would make the paint run, too little would not
leave the surface covered. When properly done the surface is
superior to other painting, as the hairs of the brush are not dragged
through it to disturb the evenness of the surface.
The air pressure required for painting varies with the consistency of
the paint, its viscosity as well as its thickness. Some liquids have a
quality of stringiness or hanging together which require a higher
pressure to break up.
Thin lacquers and varnishes may be sprayed with 18 or 20 lbs. to
the square inch, and from that to about 50 lbs. will cover most
classes of paint.
The lowest pressure at which a paint breaks up is the best pressure
to use, as high pressures have a tendency to make more dust and
put fine particles of paint in the air, where they are not wanted.
The volume of air has also to be considered. This varies with the size
of the aperture through which it exhausts and to some extent with
the pressure—for a small nozzle such as is used for lacquers and thin
liquids, say, one cubic foot of free air per minute, and up to 3 cubic
feet for oil paints.
When it is stated that a pistol sprayer consumes say two cubic ft. of
free air per minute, it means when working almost continuously, but
as the periods of actual work do not represent more than two-thirds
of the actual number of working hours, there is a margin left.
Nevertheless, it would be unsafe to state a lower figure, for in some
cases where convenient feeding of the work to the operator is
arranged, the consumption of air is continuous.
It should also be remembered that the air is used for other
purposes, i.e., a small amount is used to provide a pressure feed of
colour to the instrument in many cases, and where a heater is
employed, a small amount of air is bypassed through the pistol to
keep this warm when spraying is momentarily stopped. Although the
practice of heating the air slightly increases the ultimate efficiency of
a given compressor, yet it is unwise to count too much upon this
fact.
In submitting the following figures as to air consumption, the
Airostyle pistol has been taken as a type:—
For work with a tip and needle of 1 m/m. dia., 1 cub. ft. per minute;
1½ m/m. dia., 1¾ cub. ft.; 2 m/m. dia., 2½ cub. ft.; 2½ m/m. dia.,
3 cub. ft.; 2½-3 m/m. dia., 3½-4 cub. ft.; 4½ m/m. dia., 5 cub. ft.
These consumptions naturally vary slightly with the adjustment of
the nozzle of the pistol, but they are from actual tests and so may
be taken as authoritative.
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