Wave propagation

Prepared by: Clairmont Taitt

The process of communication involves the transmission of information from
one location to another. modulation is used to encode the information onto
a carrier wave, and may involve analog or digital methods. It is only the
characteristics of the carrier wave which determine how the signal will
propagate over any significant distance. This handout describes the different
ways that electromagnetic (EM) waves propagate.

Wave propagation is any of the ways or modes in which EM waves, especially

radio waves travel from point of transmission to point of reception, and takes
into account the behavior of radio waves as they propagate from one point to
another or into various parts of the atmosphere.

Electromagnetic waves propagation may occur in a vacuum (empty space)

as well as in a material medium.
Radio waves are form of Electromagnetic radiation. Meaning they exhibit all
the properties of EM waves:

▪ Travel at the speed of light.

▪ Electromagnetic waves travel in a transverse form
▪ Are not deflected by electric or magnetic field

▪ Do not require any medium for propagation

▪ Can be polarized.

▪ Undergo reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction

▪ The Speed (V) , wavelength(λ) and frequency (f) of the EM waves can be
related as: v= f λ
Classification of Radio Waves

Names of radio waves Frequency Wave length Principal applications

VLF (Very Low Frequency) 3kHz ~ 30kHz 100km ~ 10km

LF (Low Frequency) 30kHz ~ 300kHz 10km ~ 1km Vessel / Airplane beacon

MF (Medium Frequency) 300kHz ~ 3MHz 1km ~ 100m AM radio, Marine radio, Amateur radio

HF (High Frequency) 3MHz ~ 30MHz 100m ~ 10m Shortwave broadcasting, Marine / Air radio,
Amateur radio

VHF (Very High 30MHz ~ 300MHz 10m ~ 1m TV, FM, Fire radio, Police radio, Disaster PA
Frequency) radio network
UHF (Ultra High 300MHz ~ 3GHz 1m ~ 10cm Low power radio, Mobile-phone, Taxi radio,
Frequency) Amateur radio, TV, Wireless LAN

SHF (Super High 3GHz ~ 30GHz 10cm ~ 1cm Satellite broadcasting, Radar
Frequency)

EHF (Extremely High 30GHz ~ 300GHz 1cm ~ 1mm Satellite broadcasting, Radio astronomy,
Frequency) Radar

submillimeter waves 300GHz ~ 3THz 1mm ~ 0.1mm

TABLE.1 : Table showing classification of Radio waves ( Radio Wave Spectrum/band).

 Antenna

In order for a signal or information to be send and received, there must be a device
or structure to project it and to receive it, that device is known as an antenna. Which
can be very obvious, in the case of an outdoor TV antenna or hidden, in the case of a
cellphone.

An antenna is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio

waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.

▪ In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency

electric current to the antenna’s terminals, and the antenna radiates the
energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves)
▪ In reception, the radio wave carrying transmitted information is trapped by the
antenna and induce small oscillating currents corresponding to the
information, which is then processed to give a desired outcome.
An antenna can serve as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna or both.

▪ Transmitting antenna is design to efficiently radiate electromagnetic waves

in a desired direction.

▪ Receiving antenna is design to efficiently receive radiate electromagnetic

radiation.

Antenna can be classified according to their application and technology:

▪ Omnidirectional antenna: receive or radiates in more or less all directions.

▪ Directional antenna: receive or radiates in a particular direction.

Directivity of an antenna

Directivity is the measure of the concentration of an antenna's radiation pattern

in a particular direction. Directivity is expressed in dB. The higher the directivity,
the more concentrated or focused is the beam radiated by an antenna. A higher
directivity also means that the beam will travel further.

An antenna that radiated equally well in all directions would be omni-directional

and have a directivity of 1 (0 dB).

An antenna directivity is key to mapping the coverage and range of the radiated
signal.
Antenna Gain

Antenna gain tells us the power transmitted by an antenna in a specific direction

as compared to an isotropic antenna. This specification describes how strong a
signal an antenna can send out or receive in a specified direction.

Therefore, an antenna with a greater gain would be able to receive or transmit weaker signals with
greater ease or efficiency.

An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates equally in

all directions - horizontally and vertically with the same intensity.

Antenna gain is expressed or measured in decibel (dB)

Antenna Gain = Directivity x Antenna efficiency

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field strength of the
antenna’s radiation in all direction. [ FIG.1 and FIG.2 ]

FIG.1 FIG.2
Lets, say the radiation pattern (FIG.3) below, represent that of a WIFI router radio.
Anybody within the boundaries of the red line pattern (lobes) would receive WIFI signal.
The central Red dot ,represent the antenna and is the point of strongest signal. The
remaining dots are the location of three persons using the WIFI signal.
The blue dot would receive twice as much
signal strength as the black dot ,since its on
the -3dB lines and the black is on the 0dB
line, just on the boundary edge and would tend
to receive signal on and off. Since WIFI signal
pattern and strength tends to vary slightly.

The green dot would not receive signal

because he or she is not within red boundary;
though being closer to the antenna, but
occasionally might have signal since the signal
pattern and strength tends to vary. This location
FIG.3 can be refer to as a dead spot or zone.
 Polarization of an antenna and EM Waves

The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the
radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface.
Vertical Polarization
Linear Polarization medium wave and ground wave propagation

Polarization Horizontal Polarization

long distance communications using the
Circular Polarization
Use in satellite communication ionosphere

Attenuation

In the field of telecommunication and Electronics, you would often come across the term
“attenuation”.
Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of a signal during transmission.
Refraction
This is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium that has a different density.

Note: the incident ray bend

Angle of incident
away from its usual straight
line path
Medium 1

Medium 2

Angle of refraction

FIG.4a Diagram showing refraction of an EM wave

 Diffraction
This is the slight bending of an EM wave as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of bending
depends on the relative size of the wavelength of EM wave to the size of the opening. If the opening is much
larger than the EM wave wavelength, the bending will be almost unnoticeable. (FIG.4b and FIG.4c)

iffracted signal
FIG.4c
FIG.4b
Diagrams showing diffraction of EM waves
The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in
free space may be divided in to the following three categories:

1 Ground wave propagation

2 Sky wave propagation

3 Space wave or Line of sight propagation

1 Ground-Wave Propagation

▪ A Ground Wave (aka Surface Wave) is a radio wave that travels along earth’s
surface (contour) due to diffraction, enabling coverage to be achieved beyond
the horizon.
▪ travels better over a conductive surface such as sea water

▪ Suited for LF and MF portion of the radio spectrum, very useful up to frequencies of
about 2 MHz
▪ Losses (attenuation) increase with increasing frequency - not very effective
above 2 MHz
▪ ideal for relatively short distance propagation

NOTE: Lower frequencies tend to bend more, higher frequencies tend to bend less, they’re more directional (that’s why
a subwoofer can be anywhere, while tweeters must be aimed at listener)
 ▪ Only way to communicate with submarines – Extremely Low Frequencies
(ELF) propagation is used – ELF range from 30 to 300 Hz

FIG.4a
FIG.4b The radio signal spreads out from the
Diagram illustrating ground wave propagation
transmitter along the surface of the
Earth
2 Sky Wave Propagation

▪ A Sky Wave is a radio wave that is radiated from a transmitting antenna in

a direction toward the ionosphere – One of the most frequently used
methods for long distance transmission.

▪ Sky waves are reflected from the ionosphere back to earth after being
bent, or refracted, in the ionosphere. (FIG.6 and 7)

▪ Ionosphere also tends to attenuate the signal, especially

during the day and less at night.

▪ Long range transmission is possible in this mode, up to hundreds of

miles
▪ Use for HF (high Frequency) communication, usually frequencies 3 – 30 MHZ

▪ Communication using sky wave propagation depends on mostly on the

frequency and the time of day.

▪ There is need to change frequency to maintain communication link through out

the day, season or year, due to the constant changing nature of the ionosphere.

▪ Signal fading occur due to movement of the ionosphere layers.

▪ At about and above frequency of 30MHZ (VHF and UHF), signal is not
refracted and tend to escape or penetrate the ionosphere. (FIG.6)
Ionosphere

▪ the layer of the earth's atmosphere which contains a high concentration of

ions and free electrons and is able to reflect radio waves.

▪ These ions are formed by the ultraviolet light from the sun collides with atoms in
this region knocking electrons loose and forming IONS ; hence the name
“Ionosphere”.

▪ It extends from about 25 to 250 miles above the earth's surface.

▪ The ionosphere has three (3) layers. 1. Layer D 2. Layer E 3. Layer F.

▪ Increasing the frequency of signal, increases the ability to penetrate one layer
onto the next.
▪ Skip distance of reflected signal changes with time of day. (FIG.8)
FIG.5a Layers of Ionosphere FIG.5b Layers of Ionosphere
during day and night
. 1. Layer D

▪ First layer of ionosphere, usually at attitudes 48 - 88 KM ( 30 -55 miles)

▪ Layer D is presence during most of the day and disappears at night.

▪ Attenuate Medium frequency (MF) and lower high frequency (HF) radio waves
significantly

▪ Causes the disappearance of distant AM broadcast band stations in the

daytime.

▪ Main signal absorption region, mostly signal below 10 MHz

. 2. Layer E
▪ Second layer of ionosphere usually at attitudes 88 - 136 KM ( 55 - 85 miles)

▪ Reflection is dependent upon the frequency and the angle of incidence of the
signal

▪ Lower ( HF) high frequency "reflection" region, usually frequencies lower than
about 10 MHz

▪ Sometimes disturbances in the E layer forms a "Sporadic E" layer which

causes abnormal reflections in parts of the E layer; Which may last for just
a few minutes to several hours and reflect frequencies up to 50 MHz and
higher
. 3. Layer F

▪ Third layer of ionosphere, usually at attitudes 136 - 400 KM ( 85 -250 miles)

▪ Layer F is divided into two layers: Layer F1 and Layer F2 during the day
and recombine to a single F Layer, at night .

▪ Signals above frequencies above 30MHZ penetrate this layer

and escape into space. (FIG.6)

▪ The F layer acts as a "reflector" of signals in the HF portion of

the radio spectrum

▪ The main region associated with HF signal propagation

 Higher than 30MHZ Higher than 30MHZ

FIG.6 Diagram showing ionospheric reflection and path of signals of

various frequencies at various time of day.
SKIP DISTANCE
The is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a radio
signal is transmitted, and point where it returns (received) at the earth surface
after being reflected/ refracted from the ionosphere.

The skip distance is dependent

egion in the upon a variety of factors such
ionosphere as :

1. Frequency
Skip distance
2. Ionosphere condition

3. The angle of radiation from

Earth s surface the transmitting antenna
Transmitter eceiver
4. Skip zone (FIG.9)

FIG.7 Sky wave propagation

 Due to changes in the condition
of the ionosphere at different
time of the day, the skip distance
Mid Day of return signal changes .

FIG.8 Diagram showing change in skip distance at various time of the day
SKIP ZONE
May also be called a silent zone or dead zone, is a region where a radio
transmission can not be received. The skip zone is the region between the point
where the ground wave signals can no longer be heard and the point where the
skywave first returns to Earth.

Transmitter Skip one where

signal is not
Ground wave detectable
coverage

FIG.9 Diagram showing skip zone

CRITICAL FREQUENCY

The frequency at which the signal penetrates a layer of the ionosphere upon to
the next layer or to outer space

▪ It gives an indication of the state of the ionosphere

▪ Can obtained by sending a series of test signal pulse at direct frequency

directly into the ionosphere.

▪ Then the frequency and return time is measured, after each pulse
by a device called an ionosonde, to determine the critical
frequency
 CRITICAL ANGLE
The angle at which the wave enters the layer of ionosphere, where the wave is
refracted back to the Earth without passing through the layer or not returning to
earth.

Waves that enter at too steep of an

angle pass through the layer.

Too small of an angle, the wave will

be refracted but will not return to
Earth

This image shows radio waves with an identical frequency entering an

FIG.10
ionospheric layer at different angles.
Skipping or Hops
The refracted signal can take another path where there is multiple hops
between the ionosphere and Earth, as show below. (FIG.11a and 11b)
▪ alternate bouncing is also known as skipping

B FIG.11b

Signal skips or hops from A to

B, then from B to C Diagrams showing signal skipping or hops
associated with sky waves.
FIG.11a
3 Space wave propagation

▪ The space waves are the radio waves of very high

frequency (i.e. between 30 MHz to 300 MHz or more).

▪ Uses VHF, UHF and SHF ( microwaves) band of radio wave spectrum.

▪ Uses line of sight (LOS) mode of transmission (i.e. from transmitter

antenna to receiver antenna directly) or the troposphere to reflect signal
back to the ground.

▪ space wave propagation is also called as line of sight propagation or

tropospheric propagation.

▪ This propagation is limited (i) to the line of sight distance and (ii) by the
curvature of the earth.
 ▪ Range of communication can be increased by increasing the heights of
transmitting and receiving antennas

▪ Is utilized because sky wave and ground wave propagations, both fail at such
high frequencies.

▪ Utilized in television communication, radar communication etc.

▪ The line of sight distance is the distance between transmitting antenna

and receiving antenna at which they can see each other, which is also
called range of communication.

▪ most space waves bend near the ground and follow practically a curved
path.

▪ A high gain and horizontally polarized antenna is thus highly recommended

Troposphere

▪ The lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere, that extends from the Earth's
surface to a height of slightly over 7 miles.

▪ There is refracting or scattering of radio waves with short wavelengths and

high frequencies in the VHF, UHF and SHF band, when being shoot into the
troposphere.

▪ This scattering provides enhanced communications at higher frequencies

▪ Tropospheric scattering uses frequency range of about 100 MHZ to 10 GHZ.

FIG.12a Diagram showing Space Wave Propagation
Transmitting
antenna Receiving
antenna

FIG.12b Diagram showing Line of Sight and Tropospheric Propagation

Signal path loss

The signal path loss is essentially the reduction in power density of an

electromagnetic wave or signal as it propagates through the environment in which it
is travelling.

There are many reasons for the radio signal path loss that may occur:

▪ Free space loss ▪ Terrain

▪ Absorption losses ▪ Buildings and vegetation

▪ Multipath ▪ Atmosphere

▪ Diffraction
Satellite Communication

▪ A communication satellite is a space craft placed in an orbit around the earth,

provided with microwave receiver and transmitting equipment and act as a
relay link between two remote points on across the earth.

▪ The satellite communication is like the line-of-sight microwave communication

that take place between two earth stations through a satellite.

▪ Uses high frequency carrier signal in the Super High Frequency

(SHF) and Extreme High Frequency (EHF) band.

▪ These signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or any other
data between ground and space and vice-versa and offer very large
bandwidth.
▪ Satellite communication overcome the limitations of ground wave and sky
wave propagation to provide communication for long distances, which is
well beyond the line of sight.

▪ Since satellite communication is through space, hence it is also known as

space communication.

▪ It is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with

internet applications.

▪ The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they
are received by other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite.
Satellite's footprint is the area which receives a signal of useful strength
from the satellite.
FIG.13 Diagram showing basics of Satellite communication
How a Satellite Works

▪ A Communication Satellite is nothing but a Microwave Repeater Station in

space
▪ A Repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal
and then transmits it.

▪ This Repeater works as a Transponder; that means, it changes the frequency

band of the received signal then retransmit it.

▪ Information to be transmitted is modulated onto a high powered, high frequency

(GHz range) carrier signals.

▪ Signal is then transmitted from the first earth station to satellite through a
channel called an Uplink, at a frequency known as the Uplink frequency .
▪ The Satellite Transponder converts this signal frequency into another
frequency to avoid interference with the down link channel.

▪ The signal is then transmitted to the second earth station from the satellite
through a channel called a Downlink at a frequency known as the Downlink
frequency.

▪ Signal is then demodulated and processed.

Geostationary Satellite

▪ A satellite placed altitude of approximately 35,800 kilometers (22,300 miles)

directly over the equator, that revolves in the same direction the earth rotates
(west to east) and amount at the same speed.

▪ They are use to provide visible and infrared images of Earth's surface and
atmosphere for weather observation, oceanography, and atmospheric
tracking.

▪ Example of geostationary satellites are :INTELSAT-15 (at 85 deg East), GSAT-

10 (83 deg East), INSAT-4CR (at 48 deg East), INTELSAT-11 (at 43 deg West)
.etc
 Satellite Frequency Band
▪ Example:

Tradition Frequency New Frequency

Nearly all C-band communication and Tv broadcast
Band range (GHZ) name range (GHZ) satellites use the band of frequencies from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz
name for their downlinks, and the band of frequencies from
5.925 to 6.425 GHz for their uplinks.
L 1-2 D 1-2
S 2-4 E 2-3 Since C – band satellite dish usually have a diameter of
about 10 ft. those big dishes in compounds of agencies, etc.
C 4-8 F 3-4
X 8 - 12 G 4-6 Ku-band communication and Tv program satellites use
Ku 12 - 27 H 6-8 the band of frequencies from 11.7 - 12.2 GHz for their
K 18 - 18 I 8 - 10 downlinks, and the band of frequency of 14.5 - 14.8
GHz for uplinks.
Ka 27 - 40 J 10 - 20
V 40 -75 K 20 -40 This band is used for domestic TV programs, such as
Direct TV, etc.
W 75 - 110 L 40 - 60
Since Ku – band satellite dish usually have a smaller
mm 110 - 300 M 60 - 110
diameter of about 3 ft, due to their higher frequency
band with smaller wavelengths. Enabling smaller, less
Microwave frequency band for satellite conspicuous dishes on roof tops.