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Unit-4: Theories and Models in Geography: • Systems Approach and its relevance in Geography,
concepts of place, space, environment, interconnection, scale

Systems Approach and its relevance in Geography

The system has been taken from a Greek word "systema" that refers to normal rules and laws
governing its structure and behaviours. In other words, System is termed as a unified whole (working
body) which consists of interdependently functioning elements. The element is very basic part of a
unified whole. For example, the ecosystem or the human body is a biological system involving
various elements (parts) like cells, tissues, blood, bones, and muscles.

The systems approach in geography aims to unify natural and social sciences under a common
analytical framework, offering a way to simplify complex environmental and societal interactions for
better understanding, prediction, and management.

Systems Approach: Origin and Concept

The systems approach has its roots in the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who, between the 1920s
and 1950s, laid the foundation for the General Systems Theory (GST). His work emphasized:

1.​ Isomorphism among sciences through similar mathematical structures.

2.​ Focus on open systems (exchanging energy, matter, and information with their environment).
3.​ Recognition of equifinality (different paths leading to the same end state).
4.​ The acceptance of teleological behavior (goal-directed processes).
5.​ Need for a scientific theory of organization.
6.​ Education of scientific generalists.

Bertalanffy’s theory, though biologically inspired, quickly found relevance across disciplines, including
geography.

Systems Approach in Geography

R.J. Chorley was a pioneer in introducing the systems approach to geography through his 1962 paper
“Geomorphology and General System Theory”. According to him: "The system approach in geography
is a scientific method for analyzing the interrelationships between processes." Following him,
geographers like Leopold and Langbein, Wooldridge, and Berry applied system concepts in diverse
areas:

●​ Geomorphology: Open and closed systems (Chorley).

●​ Fluvial Systems: Entropy and steady-state (Leopold and Langbein).
●​ Urban Geography: Cities as systems (Berry).
●​ Central Place Theory and River Systems: Application of system models (Wooldridge and
Berry).
●​ Settlement Geography: Spatial analysis through systems (Curry).
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Modern geography now widely employs systems analysis to model and solve spatial problems in
both physical and human geography.

Basic Elements of a System

A system in geography typically consists of:

1.​ Inputs: Resources like energy, materials, or information entering the system (e.g., rainfall
entering a river system).
2.​ Processors: Mechanisms that transform inputs into outputs (e.g., weathering and erosion
processes). It is the operational component of a system
3.​ Outputs: Results flowing out of the system (e.g., sediment deposition).
4.​ Control: the decision-making subsystems that guide activities (e.g., feedback from climate
conditions).
5.​ Feedback: is an indication for characteristics, amount of produced output against the set
parameters and standard. It includes positive or negative responses that regulate the system’s
performance.
6.​ Environment: The surrounding framework influencing and being influenced by the system. It is
a broader framework often called “supra-system”.
7.​ Boundaries and Interfaces: Limits distinguishing one system from another, critical for spatial
analysis.

Components of a System
A set of elements form a component and a set of components form a system. All systems of varying
scales are having three basic components as follows:
1. A set of elements
2. A set of functioning links
3. A set of links between system and external environment

Types of Systems in Geography

Systems can be open or closed:

●​ Open Systems: Exchange energy and matter with its surrounding environment (e.g., Earth's
ecosystems, river basins). In geography, most systems (climate, rivers, cities) are open.
●​ Closed Systems: No exchange with surroundings (e.g., experimental laboratory settings).
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System Analysis: Essential Elements and Features

1.​ Environment: Physical, socio-cultural, and political settings affecting system operations.
2.​ Behaviour: Refers to all the dynamic activities, flow of energy and interactions, both internal and
external, within and between systems.
3.​ State: Tendency to achieve or maintain equilibrium (stable, steady, or dynamic).
4.​ Organization and Information: Level of order versus disorder in a system (negentropy and
entropy respectively). ‘Information’ is considered as ‘the measure of the amount of organization’
(as opposed to randomness) in the system. Good information means a well-organized system.
5.​ Structure: Arrangement of elements, either hierarchical (e.g., settlement systems) or parallel.
Basically how element and components of a system are arranged and interlinked.

Example: In Walter Christaller’s Central Place Theory, settlements are hierarchical arranged in an
urban system. Large urban cities in few number lie at the top of the order and small cities in large
number at the bottom.

Common Relationships in System Elements

The links of elements shape components and structure of a system. A different pattern of links between
elements forms a variety of relationships.

●​ Cause and Effect: Unidirectional, irreversible link (e.g., rainfall increases erosion but soil
erosion directly does not have an effect on rainfall. ).​

●​ Parallel Relationships: Two variables affect a third (e.g., temperature and rainfall impact
vegetation).​

●​ Feedback Relationships: Two elements get mutually affected. (e.g., soil fertility and crop
cultivation).​

●​ Simple Compound Relationships: components are modified by itself and influenced by a set
of other external components. Both processes operate simultaneously.(e.g., industrial adoption
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of foreign technologies).​

●​ Complex Compound Relationships: Multidirectional interactions, elements of the internal and

external environment are mutually affected and influences each other.(e.g., ecosystem
dynamics).

Classification of Systems
Systems can be categorized as:

1.​ Homeostatic Systems: a system that keeps things balanced and stable. If something from the
outside disrupts it, the system works to bring itself back to normal. (e.g., geomorphic cycle of
erosion).​

2.​ Adaptive Systems: a system that can adjust to changes in its environment. It is somewhat
similar to a homeostatic system, but instead of just maintaining balance, it actively adapts to new
conditions to reach a new stable state (e.g., socio-economic adaptations to climate change).​

3.​ Dynamic Systems: a system that keeps changing over time to reach a stable or desired state.
Instead of staying the same or just adapting, it follows a continuous chain of changes. (e.g.,
economic growth models like cumulative causation).​

4.​ Controlled Systems: a system where inputs can be adjusted to achieve specific goals,
especially in areas like science, technology, and economic development (e.g., laboratory
experiments, planned regional development).

Relevance of Systems Approach in Geography

1.​ Holistic Understanding: Systems approach views geographical phenomena in totality rather
than isolation.
2.​ Predictive Power: Helps predict future changes (e.g., urban growth, environmental
degradation). Helps in analyzing climate change, disaster management, and sustainability.
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3.​ Useful in urban and regional planning by understanding human-environment interactions.

Simplifies complex systems for students and researchers, making geographical studies more
structured.
4.​ Interdisciplinary Linkages: Unites physical, human, environmental, and regional geography.
5.​ Problem-Solving Tool: Applied in land use planning, natural resource management, pollution
control, environmental planning, and climate change mitigation.
6.​ Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis: Use of advanced techniques like multivariate analysis,
PCA, Chi-square, and Gini coefficient to model spatial and temporal dynamics.

Advantages of Systems Approach

●​ Simplifies the complexity of real-world environments.
●​ Helps visualize the interaction between diverse elements.
●​ Facilitates theory building in geography.
●​ Employs mathematical and statistical tools for precision.
●​ Strengthens the predictive capabilities of geographical studies.

Criticisms of Systems Approach

●​ Overemphasis on positivism and quantification.
●​ Sometimes neglects normative aspects like human emotions, beliefs, and cultural values.
●​ May oversimplify complex socio-environmental realities.

Geographical concepts- place, space, environment, interconnection, scale

A concept is what we think with. It is a classifier that helps to organise thinking and make sense of the
world. It is a generalised idea about a class of objects, situations, actions, or processes. Geographical
concepts are the fundamental ideas and building blocks that geographers use to understand, interpret,
and explain patterns, processes, and relationships on the Earth's surface. They provide the essential
language, tools, and framework for studying both the physical environment and human societies,
and how they interact.

These concepts help geographers analyze spatial phenomena, describe places and environments,
explain relationships between people and nature, and predict future trends. Essentially, they bridge the
gap between observation and understanding in geography.
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PLACE
Every place has a particular location and a unique set of physical and human characteristics.
Furthermore, the same place can be represented differently. What we think about places is both
shaped by, and shapes, our ‘geographical imagination’.

The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like. Places can be parts of
the Earth’s surface with different identities. Geographers describe places by their physical and human
characteristics:

➔​ Physical characteristics include such elements as animal life, topography, geology

➔​ Human characteristics of the landscape can be noted in architecture, patterns of livelihood, land
use, transportation networks,etc. Languages, as well as religious and political ideologies, help shape
the character of a place .

Some features of a place are:

1.​ Unique: Real places, with all their similarities and differences are unique. No two places are
exactly the same.
2.​ Represented: Places can be represented in certain ways for specific purposes. For example, a
city can be described as an industrial heartland, a shopping haven, or tourist resort.
3.​ Dynamic: Places change. They have not always been like this. Geography has a role to play in
teaching pupils to understand the potential of places to be different in the future
4.​ Geographical imaginations: The ways individuals think about places depends to a large extent
on the knowledge and understanding they have at their disposal – but also what they make of
the images they see and what they associate with the new, the strange, etc.

Place is influenced by environmental characteristics and resources, relative location, interconnections,

culture, economy, and decisions and actions made regarding place over time. Characteristics of place
can be tangible:

●​ landforms
●​ people

or intangible:

●​ scenic quality
●​ culture

Environmental characteristics of place are influenced by human and environmental processes.

Sustainability of places can be threatened by:
●​ natural hazards;
●​ climate change;
●​ economic, social and technological change;
●​ government decisions and politics; and
●​ resource exhaution.
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SPACE
Space is an abstract idea that relates to how phenomena (e.g., physical features, people, services,
goods) are arranged on the Earth’s surface. The concept of space is about the significance of location
and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in. Most
phenomena (e.g. physical features, people, services, goods) are located and distributed in space. They
have relative locations to each other and often interact with each other across space. Any flows or
movements between these phenomena create patterns and networks. Spatial patterns, distributions
and networks can be described and analysed,and often explained by reference to social, economic,
environmental and political processes.

1.​ Location: Every point on Earth has a specific location that is determined by an imaginary grid of
lines denoting latitude and longitude (where something is located). It can be absolute or relative.
2.​ Flows: The movement of phenomena through space, e.g. migration. Flows are often expressive
of links that exist between locations and contribute to the pattern of networks that bind social and
economic systems, e.g. trade links.
3.​ Networks and distributions: Networks are often describable and display predictable
characteristics. Distribution patterns are often uneven (e.g. the distribution of wealth at a global
scale, or within a single city). It is possible to seek explanations for the patterns by reference to
the social, economic or environmental processes at work.
4.​ Spatially aware: The ability to recognise, interpret and understand spatial patterns, distributions
and relationships is nurtured through geographical enquiry.
5.​ Territory: When space is mapped it is common for a place to set boundaries – often with legal
significance, e.g. international borders, natural landforms. Boundaries sometimes seem fixed,
but more usually change.

Environmental and human characteristics of places can be influenced by their location. The effects of
location and distance can be reduced (potentially unequally) through transport and communication
technologies. Individual characteristics of places form spatial distributions. Distributions can have
environmental, economic, social and political consequences. Spaces can be:

●​ perceived;
●​ structured;
●​ organised; and
●​ managed by people

They can be modified to achieve or fit a particular purpose(s).

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ENVIRONMENT
Environment is the understanding that the world’s environments, landscapes and societies are dynamic
and that changes result from a wide range of human and physical processes. It involves ideas about
interaction between physical and human geography, ecosystems, environmental change and impact,
resources and sustainability, in a variety of contexts and scales. The concept of environment is about
the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans
and the environment. The environment is the product of:

●​ geological (relating to the earth’s physical structure);

●​ atmospheric (rtt. atmosphere of the earth);
●​ hydrological (rtt. properties, distribution and circulation of water);
●​ geomorphic (rtt. form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth);
●​ edaphic (rtt. soil);
●​ biotic (living/biological) and abiotic (physical); and
●​ human processes.

Central to the concept is that people are dependent on the biophysical environment for their survival
and wellbeing; also, the environment influences human life through its resources, both renewable and
non-renewable. The environment supports and enriches life by:

●​ providing raw materials and food;

●​ absorbing and recycling wastes;
●​ maintaining a safe habitat; and
●​ being a source of enjoyment and inspiration

Concepts that influence how people perceive, adapt to and use environments:
●​ Culture
●​ Population density
●​ Economy
●​ Technology
●​ Values
●​ Environmental worldviews

In addition, humans are changing the environment at an increasingly rapid rate. There are different
forms of environmental hazards, both natural and those created by humans; and those qualities are
attributed to environments. Human-induced environmental change (and management, thereof), include
cause and effect, consequences of change, and application of geographical concepts and techniques
in order to identify appropriate strategies. The impacts of specific hazards in different environments can
be determined by natural and human factors. Hazards can be managed through prevention, mitigation,
and preparedness.

Another aspect of this is sustainability, which is managing resources for current and future
generations.The linked concept of sustainability relates to an ideal in which physical and human
processes maintain the quality of environments and the availability of resources. Sustainable
development is promoted through conservation and environmental and resource management.
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INTERCONNECTION
The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in
isolation. People and organisations in places are interconnected with other places. Interconnections
have significant influences on place characteristics and the changes that occur in these places.
Understanding interconnections helps geographers explain patterns, distributions, flows, and changes
on the Earth's surface.

Interconnection is the understanding of the interrelationships that operate in our complex, diverse and
changing world. Interconnection is the concept at the top of a hierarchy that includes interdependence,
interaction, processes and systems. This concept involves the understanding of not only how things are
linked together, but also how one aspect affects and needs another. The concept of interconnection is
about people recognising that the places in which they live are connected to places around the world,
and that their climate, population, economy and culture are influenced by these interconnections at all
scales from the local to the global.

Environmental and human processes (e.g water cycle, urbanisation) are sets of cause and effect
interconnections. These operate between and within places. They can be organised as networks of
interconnections through flow of:

●​ matter
●​ energy
●​ information
●​ actions

Types of Interconnections
1.​ Natural Interconnections: Processes in nature link different parts of the environment. Example:
The ecosystems depend on climate, soil, and species interactions.

2.​ Human Interconnections: Economic, social, cultural, and political connections between people
and places. Examples: Trade routes, migration flows, internet communications, cultural
exchanges, tourism.

3.​ Human-Environment Interconnections: How human activities impact environments and how
environments, in turn, influence human life. Examples: Deforestation affecting global climate;
natural disasters influencing settlement patterns.

Importance of Interconnection in Geography

●​ Understanding Globalization: Helps explain how local actions can have global consequences
(e.g., global trade, climate change).
●​ Explaining Spatial Patterns: Why cities grow in particular areas, why deserts are expanding,
why diseases spread.
●​ Predicting Change: By analyzing interconnections, geographers can forecast future trends like
migration, economic growth, or environmental degradation.
●​ Problem Solving: Helps in managing resources, planning cities, conserving biodiversity, and
mitigating natural hazards.
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SCALE
Scale – central to geographic inquiry. It refers to the level or extent at which a geographical
phenomenon or problem is examined, understood, and represented. It allows geographers to study the
world from different perspectives — from local to global — and understand how events or processes
operate at different levels. Without the idea of scale, it would be impossible to meaningfully organize,
analyze, or explain spatial phenomena.

The concept of scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at
different spatial levels. Scale influences the way we represent what we see or experience. We can
construct different resolutions of scale from the personal, local and regional to the global. In between,
we have the national and international scales – very important politically, and a huge influence on the
identity of individuals and groups. Choice of scale is therefore important in geographical enquiry, as is
the realisation that scale resolutions are interconnected.

1.​ Personal: The personal scale refers to personal space, the ‘bubble’ in which people are
sometimes said to live – the world they inhabit in their person, and how they perceive the world.
2.​ Local: This is sometimes expressed as the scale of experience, and has given rise to ‘locality
studies’ which focus on the daily lives of people – where they live, work, shop and play.
3.​ Regional: This is a wider frame of reference, often resting on administrative concerns (such as
the planning regions of England), but sometimes strongly associated with identity and linked to
landscape or heritage.
4.​ National: This has been expressed as the ‘scale of ideology’, in the sense that this is the
political context in which people live as citizens in a relationship with the state. The borders of
nations change, frequently as a result of violent conflict.
5.​ Global: The global scale has become ever more present in people’s minds since the Apollo
photographs of 1969 – and now with Google Earth. The global scale has been dubbed the ‘scale
of reality’, in the sense that economic, environmental, political and social processes operate on a
global scale.

Generalisations (general statement about something) and relationships (the way in which two or more things are
connected) at one level of scale can be different at higher or lower levels. For example, in regards to studies of
vegetation, at the global scale climate is the main concern, but at the local scale, soil, drainage, public policy and
irrigation may be the larger factor.Cause and effect relationships can cross scales. For example, local events can
have global outcomes, such as the burning of the Amazon rainforest, and how that impacts the rest of the
world’s air quality. There is usually a strong relationship between spatial and temporal scales.

Three types of scale:

●​ Cartographic scale – refers to the depicted size of a feature on a map relative to its actual size in the
world
●​ Analysis scale – refers to the size of the unit at which some problem is analyzed, such as at the country
or state level
●​ Phenomenon scale refers to the size at which human or physical earth structures or processes exist
regardless of how they are studied or represented. It is the “true” scale of geographic phenomena.

Scale Dilemma: Whatever scale is selected, geographers have nevertheless always realized that results
obtained at one scale are not enough.