DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Q1. What are Analog and digital signals explain the TCP IP and internet protocol with net
diagram in references model?
Analog:- In general terms, an Analog is an adjective that describes the continuous process of
something or transmission with two different variables. Analog represents an object that provides
the original or actual value, such as an analog hand-clock is an analog device because the clock
indicates the time of day at each instant of time. We live in an analog world, as the sound we hear,
the smells that we can smell, etc., all these are infinite and continuous in nature and hence said
as analog values.
Analog and Digital terms are commonly used together but in contrast with each other. The digital
term has come with computers as a computer only understand the digital values, and every computer
device is digital, whereas human experiences are said as analog.
Digital signal:- Digital signal is a type of signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values,
typically using binary numbers, it also contain different voltage values. Unlike analog signals,
which vary continuously over time, digital signals are discrete and quantized, meaning they only
take on specific, distinct values.
In digital communication and computing systems, information is encoded into digital signals for
transmission, processing, and storage. These signals are commonly used in telecommunications,
audio and video processing, computer networks, and many other applications.
TCP/IP model :- The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands
for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer,
and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of
network communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based
on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four
layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model. In this article, we are going to discuss the TCP/IP
model in detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later became the
foundation of the modern internet. It was designed with a focus on the practical aspects of
networking at the time. The lower-level hardware details and physical transmission medium were
largely abstracted away in favor of higher-level networking protocols.

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IP stands for internet protocol. It is a protocol defined in the TCP/IP model used for sending the
packets from source to destination. The main task of IP is to deliver the packets from source to the
destination based on the IP addresses available in the packet headers. IP defines the packet structure
that hides the data which is to be delivered as well as the addressing method that labels the datagram
with a source and destination information.
An IP protocol provides the connectionless service, which is accompanied by two transport
protocols, i.e., TCP/IP and UDP/IP, so internet protocol is also known as TCP/IP or UDP/IP.
The first version of IP (Internet Protocol) was IPv4. After IPv4, IPv6 came into the market, which
has been increasingly used on the public internet since 2006.

Primary Terminologies
• IP Address: IP address is referred as a number sticker given to each device that belongs to
the network which utilizes Internet Protocol to communicate. It serves two main purposes:
host or network interface recognition, identifier or location addressing.
• Packet: A packet is a parcel of data that is switched between an origin and a destination via
the Internet or some other network that is based on the packet switching mechanism. This
component mainly has a header and a payload.
• Router: A router is a network device that (serves as) a forwarding point for data packets
between computer networks. Routers carry out the traffic routing functions through the
Internet.
• IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a protocol that tends to provide connectivity
between the desktop computers online and that application layer is the wider application
one that covers most of the Internet communications nowadays
• IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), the final iteration in the series of the upgrades to
the Internet Protocol, is used for the purpose of identifying, locating and routing of various
computers so that traffic through Internet can be transferred properly.

Q2. What is Internet and protocol explain the different protocols?

Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each other
and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of
computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless and

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networking technologies. At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging
information and data between computers across the world.
It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA)
department of the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.
➢ Advantages of the Internet
• Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online through
the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the other.
• Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get more jobs
via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the other
hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be done via
the INTERNET.
• Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen to music,
play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, youtube itself is a hub
of knowledge as well as entertainment.
• New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital products so we
are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social media marketing
online businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the Internet is the medium
to help us to do so.
• Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from the
Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Voice chatting and
video conferencing are also available to help you to do important meetings online.
• Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things like
shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal items, etc.
You can books train and plane tickets online.
• GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you are able
to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your
mobile.
PROTOCOL :- An approved set of rules that control data transmission across various networked
devices is known as a network protocol. These set of rules specify the data's transmission, reception,
and processing steps and make sure that devices can comprehend and analyze the data they share.
It makes it possible for connected devices to interact with one another despite internal and structural
differences.
The proper operation of computer networks depends on protocols, which are also essential for
facilitating seamless communication.
A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a network. The
protocol is just like a language that computers use to talk to each other, ensuring they understand
and can respond to each other’s messages correctly. Protocols help make sure that data moves
smoothly and securely between devices on a network.
To make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures should be agreed
upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called
Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.

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 ➢ Types of Protocol
• Network Layer Protocols: Network layer protocols operate in the network layer which is
also known as the Layer 3 of the network architecture. Network layer protocols are
responsible for packet routing, forwarding, and addressing of data packets throughout the
network. IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
• Transport Layer Protocols: Transport layer protocols work in the transport layer which
provides end-to-end service ensuring data transfer across apps on different
devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer protocols.
• Application Layer Protocol: Application layer protocol working in the application layer of
the network architecture provides communication between applications running on different
devices. The application layer protocols enable cross-device communication. They format,
exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are examples.
• Wireless Protocols: Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication which
enables data transfer through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are
examples.
• Routing Protocols: Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways
throughout the network for fastest data transmission. Routers share information to develop
and maintain routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
• Security Protocols: security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity
while transmission of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS, encryption methods,
and authentication protocols for providing data security.
• Internet Protocols: IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data
communication through routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another by
unique addressing scheme.

Q3. Define about physical layer and its working?

In computer networking, there is a seven-layer model called the OSI model. The physical layer is
the OSI model's first or base layer. The layer deals with the physical connection responsible for
facilitating networks in the computer. It is related to the physical connections that connect different
devices to form a network. The layer can be implemented by a chipset known as a PHY chip.
The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Model which is a physical and electrical representation of the system. It consists of various network
components such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends
data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s). The physical Layer defines the
types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are encoded in a signal). The physical Layer is
responsible for the communication of the unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.

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 ➢ Functions Performed by Physical Layer
The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the Physical Layer of
the OSI Model –
1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send per second).
2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology through which we
can connect the devices with each other).
5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-Point
configuration.
7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and transmission medium.
8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.
9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
10.This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware layer is
responsible for all the physical connection establishment and processing too).
11.It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of converting the data
into radio waves by adding the information to an electrical or optical nerve signal.
12.It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be forwarded from one port
(sender port) to the leading destination port.

➢ Transmission Impairment in Data Communication

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
Below are the causes of the impairment.
Causes of impairment –

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 • Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also
known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which
gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.

• Image Source – aviationchief

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.
Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is the power at sending end and P2 is the power at receiving end.
Some where the decibel is also define in terms of voltage instead of power.In this case because
power is proportional to the square of the voltage the formula is
Attenuation(dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)
V1 is the voltage at sending end and V2 is the voltage at receiving end.
• Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final
destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore,
they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

• Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other
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wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

• To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ration .The signal-to-noise ratio is
defined as
SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER
SNRdB = 10Log10SNR
EXAMPLE
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are
SNR = Signal Power/0 = ∞
SNRdB = 10Log10 ∞ = ∞

➢ Periodic Signal
Periodic signals are a type of electrical signals which repeat their behaviour after a certain interval
of time known as time period. It is also know as a cyclic function and the part of function which
repeats is called a cycle. For example, a sine wave, in which the signal has a unique behaviour from
t=0s to t=2π s .After this we observe that the waveform begins to repeat . This means that sine wave
is a periodic signal with a time period of 2π seconds.
Periodic Signal Graph
If we plot the graph representing the magnitude of periodic signal with time ,the graph of periodic
signal looks like this:

Triangular Waves

As we observe, we can see that a triangular signal is an example of a periodic signal. We see that
the signal repeats after a fixed interval of time i.e after T seconds hence it is a periodic signal.

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If we carefully observe the shape of graph we see that the graph shows a unique behaviour for first
T seconds . It rises linearly for the first half of the cycle and then decreases linearly for another half
of the cycle. After this interval a cycle is completed and the graph begins repeating its behaviour in
cycles of T seconds.

Point-to-Point Communication

A point-to-point communication is also known as P2P. In the context of telecommunication, it is an

established connection between two nodes that may be used to communicate back and forth. A basic
telephone call, in which one phone is connected to another, and both nodes can send and receive
audio, is the most common example of point-to-point communication.
These P2P connections were first established utilizing circuit-switched landlines in the early days
of telephony. However, point-to-point communication in modern networks nowadays is made
possible by complex fibre-optic networks. P2P connections of various forms can transmit many
types of data, including digital and analog signals.
The point-to-point connection is one of the line configuration methods that explains how two
communication devices are connected in a link. It is a unicast connection. A dedicated link exists
between each pair of sender and receiver. The entire channel's capacity is reserved solely for packet
transmission between the sender and receiver.
If a point-to-point connection is used to make a network, the packets must travel through a number
of intermediate devices. The length of the link between the many intermediate devices may vary.
As a result, in a point-to-point network finding the shortest distance to reach the receiver is crucial.

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of the data link
layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it is a data link protocol, data is
organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that verifies its
successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and
multipoint communications.
Transfer Modes
HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and asynchronous balanced
mode.
• Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are there, a primary station
that send commands and secondary station that can respond to received commands. It is
used for both point - to - point and multipoint communications.

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 • Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is balanced, i.e. each
station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is used for only point - to -
point communications.

HDLC Frame
HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The structure varies
according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are −
• Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110.
• Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the primary station,
it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is sent by the secondary station,
it contains the address of the primary station. The address field may be from 1 byte to
several bytes.
• Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.
• Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary from one
network to another.
• FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The standard code
used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

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 CELLULAR NETWORK
A cellular network is a system of radio waves dispersed across land in the shape of cells, with a base
station permanently fixed in each cell. These cells work together to provide greater geographic radio
coverage. Communication is, therefore, feasible even while the user equipment (UE), like a mobile
phone, is moving across cells during transmission.
Cellular networks provide users better benefits over earlier choices, such as more capacity, lower
battery consumption, a larger geographic coverage area, and less signal interference. Common
cellular technologies include code division, multiple access, general packet radio service (GPRS),
3GSM, and the Global Network for Mobile Communication.
Every base station is connected to the mobile switching centre to create a call and mobility network
by connecting mobile phones to wide area networks. On the other hand, internet connectivity is
achieved using wireless network devices. Cellular networks rely on the availability of network
ranges, while Wi-Fi has a limited range.
A cellular network is a communication network that uses radio waves to link mobile devices to a
central server or hub and each other. "Cellular" describes the network's topology, which is separated
into regions known as cells. Each cell's radio transceiver equipment is a component of a wider
network architecture.
Mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, and other wireless devices can send speech and data over great
distances thanks to cellular networks, primarily designed to facilitate wireless communication. The
aim behind cellular networks is to increase capacity, efficiency, and coverage by segmenting a given
geographic area into smaller cells.
Important elements of a cellular network consist of:
Cell sites, also known as base stations, are places outfitted with transceivers and antennas to aid
communication with mobile devices inside a particular cell. Every cell location is linked to the main
network infrastructure.
1. Mobile Devices: These end-user gadgets employ radio frequency signals to connect to cell
sites, including cell phones and mobile phones.
2. Centralized Network Infrastructure: This refers to the fundamental components of the
network that control communication between various cells and establish connections with
other networks, including the internet or the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
3. Switching Systems: These connect users to external networks and direct calls and data
amongst users inside the cellular network.
4. Backhaul Network: The network that links various cell sites to the core infrastructure is
called the backhaul network. Between the cell sites and the core network, it transports data.

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 SATELLITE SYSTEMS
o A satellite is an artificial object which is placed intentionally into an orbit of any natural
satellite. Satellites are used for many purposes i.e. weather forecasting, digital transmission,
scientific research and development etc.
o In a communication context, a satellite is a specialized wireless transmitter/receiver that is
launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the earth.
o A satellite can be natural, like the moon, or artificial (human made). So we can say that a
satellite is an object that moves in a curved path around a planet.
o Satellite can travel around planets or around stars such as our sun. All the planets are satellites
around the sun.
o Satellites which are far away from the surface of the earth can cover a wide area on the surface
of the earth.
o The moon is earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many man-made (artificial)
satellites for example: SPUTNIK, ECHO, and SYNCOM.
➢ Characteristics of Satellite Systems
• Satellites have been launched for various applications and are placed at different altitudes.
Moreover their weights are also dissimilar.
• Provides connections between the Earth-based base station and the satellites.
• The GEO satellites, which are at an altitude of 35,768 km, orbit in the equatorial plane with
zero degree inclination and complete exactly one rotation in a day.
• The antennas are at fixed positions, and an uplink bank (reverse band) of 1634.5 to 1660.5
MHz and a downlink band (forward band) in the range of 1530 to 1559 MHz, are employed.
• Ku band frequencies (11 and 13 GHz) are employed for connection between the base station
(earth station) and the satellites.
• A satellite typically has a large footprint, which can be up to 34% of the earth's surface
covered, and therefore it is difficult to reuse frequencies.
• The global coverage of small mobile phones and data transmission typically cause high
latency in the range of about 275 ms.
• LEO satellite are divided into little and big satellites.
• Little LEOs are smaller in size and are in the frequency range of 148 to 150.
• They cause alphanumeric displays at low bit rates (of the order of 1 kb/s) for two ?way
message and positioning information.
• Big LEO satellites have adequate power and bandwidth to provide various global mobile
services (i.e. data transmission, paging, facsimile, and position location) along with good
quality voice services for mobile systems such as handled devices and vehicular transceivers.
• Big LEO transmits in the frequency range of 1610 to 1626.5 MHz (uplink) and 2483.5 to
2500MHz (downlink) and orbit at about 500 to 1500km above the earth surface.
• The latency is around 5 to 10 ms, and the satellite is visible for about 10 to 40 ms.
• Several satellites are needed to ensure global coverage. The same frequency spectrum is also
used by MEO and GEO.
• In MEO systems, the slow- moving satellites orbit at a height of about 5,000 to 12,000 km
above the earth and have a latency of about 70to 80 ms.
• Specialized antennas are used to provide smaller footprints and higher transmitting power.

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 ➢ Applications of Satellite Systems
• Weather forecasting:- Without the help of satellites, we cannot predict weather. Satellites
have the biggest contribution to making predictions about weather changes by studying the
several global scenarios. Several satellites deliver pictures of the earth using infrared or
visible light. Weather forecasting is done through fitting special instruments and powerful
cameras in the satellites which monitor various climate factors such as air pressure, air
temperature and humidity etc.
• Radio and TV broadcast satellites: Hundreds of TV and radio programs are available via
satellites. This technology uses cable in many places, as it is cheaper to install and, in most
cases, no extra fees have to be paid for this service. Today's satellite dishes have diameters of
30-40 cm in central Europe, and the diameters in northern countries are slightly larger.
• Military satellites :- One of the oldest applications of satellites was their use for carrying out
espionage. Most of the communication links are managed via satellite because they are much
safer from attack by enemies.
• Global telephone backbones:- One of the first applications of satellites for communication
was the establishment of international telephone backbones. Instead of using cables, it was
sometimes faster to launch a new satellite. These satellites are being replaced by fiber optical
cables crossing the oceans.
• Connections for remote or developing areas:- Due to their geographical location many
places all over the world do not have direct connection to the telephone network or the
internet. Satellites now offer a quick and simple connection to global networks.
• Global mobile communication:- The latest trend of satellites supports the global mobile
data communication. Due to the high latency, geostationary satellites are not ideal for this
task; therefore satellites using lower orbits are needed.

Ethernet
A local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various terminals or
computers within a building or limited geographical area. The connection between the devices could
be wired or wireless. Ethernet, Token rings, and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of
standard LAN technologies.
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3. The
reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and maintain, and
allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies
that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI
model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since
we mainly deal with DLLs. In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used
in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
➢ Advantages of Ethernet
o It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As compared to other systems of
connecting computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
o Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in terms of data security.
o Also, the Gigabit network allows the users to transmit data at a speed of 1-100Gbps.
o In this network, the quality of the data transfer does maintain.
o In this network, administration and maintenance are easier.
o The latest version of gigabit ethernet and wireless ethernet have the potential to transmit data
at the speed of 1-100Gbps.
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 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and headphones connect
to each other and share information without needing cables. Bluetooth simply follows the
principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can be paired with the other
device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated communication range to
connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet which can
further accommodate more than five devices.
Bluetooth technology has become integral to our daily lives, connecting various devices
wirelessly and enabling seamless communication and data exchange. In computer networks,
Bluetooth plays a crucial role by providing short-range wireless connectivity, enhancing the user
experience, and facilitating the Internet of Things (IoT).
➢ Key Features of Bluetooth
• The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
• Bluetooth is a wireless device.
• Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
• Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
• The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Wireless Fidelity
WIFI - Wireless Fidelity
Wifi is also known as Wireless Fidelity.
We are all familiar with Wi-Fi, which is available on our mobile phones, laptops, or wherever
Wi-Fi is supported. Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that permits to connect wirelessly
to a network or to other computer or mobile device. A circular radio frequency range is used to
transmit data in Wi-Fi.
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a generic term for the wireless network in the communication norm.
Wifi operates like a local area network without the use of a wire or cables.
WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. IEEE 802.11 is the rule for communication.
WiFi uses the Physical Data Link Layer (PDLL) to operate.
Modern computing devices like laptops and mobile phones, as well as digital cameras and smart
TVs, all have Wi-Fi capabilities. The access point or base station to client connection or any
client-to-client connection within a certain limit.
The range relies on the router that offers radio frequency via Wi-Fi.
Currently, these frequencies function on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths.
Because the Wi-Fi adapter within the device is responsible for receiving the Wi-Fi signal, all
modern laptops and mobile devices are competent in using both bandwidths. All devices have
a default bandwidth of 2.4 GHz.

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 2.4 GHz bandwidth is capable of covering a large area, but the frequency is low, so the internet
speed is lower, and 5 GHz bandwidth can cover a smaller area, but the frequency is high, so the
internet speed is higher. Hence, Wifi is a wireless network protocol family based on IEEE
802.11 standards. Moreover, it allows nearby digital devices to exchange data via radio waves.
Worldwide, these are the one of the commonly used computer networks. They are used in house
networks to connect desktop or laptop or computers, tablets, smart TV, and printer to a wireless
router, as well as in public access points in coffee shop, hotel, library, and airport.In order to
qualify as Wi-Fi Certified, a product must pass interoperability certification evaluation. Wi-Fi
is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, a non-profit organisation. There were more than 800
companies represented in the Wi-Fi Alliance as of 2017.
➢ Usage and Application of Wifi
o We use Wi-Fi every day. With Wi-Fi, we can connect to the internet from any Wi-Fi-
capable device.Wi-Fi allows us to have wireless communication, including streaming or
casting audio or video to any device.
o Data transfer rates are also very fast when using Wi-Fi to share files, data, etc., among two
or more computer or mobile phone.
o Another important attribute is the capability to print any document using a Wi-Fi printer.
o Wi-Fi can also be used as a HOTSPOT, providing Wireless Internet access for a specific
area. While the main network connection is active, consumers of Wi-Fi-enabled devices can
access the primary network connection via Hotspot, which provides them with temporary
internet connectivity. To create a hotspot, Wi-Fi adapters spread radio signals by utilising the
owner's network connection.
RF RADIO FREQUENCY
RF can travel through air or space but require specific transmitting and receiving mechanisms. It
has frequencies between 10 kHz to 14 kHz. In VLF (very low frequency), LF (Low Frequency),
and MF (Medium Frequency) bands, radio waves follow ground waves.
AM radio broadcasting uses the MF band. Radio waves in these bands pass through the building
quickly. HF (High Frequency) and VHF (Very High Frequency) tend to be absorbed by the earth,
but these waves travel through the Ionosphere. These waves are refracted by it and sent back to
earth. The military communicates in HF and VHF bands.

Advantages
• It is easy to generate and can travel long distances.
• It can easily penetrate buildings, i.e., the signals do not attenuate if the building comes in
between the path of signals.
• Radio waves are unidirectional means they travel in all directions, i.e., no need to be careful
about the antenna’s setting.
• The features of radio waves are frequency dependent.
•

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 Zigbee
ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low-rate task group 4. It is a technology of
home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the
network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area Network of task group 4 so it is based on
IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed to provide an easy-to-use architecture
for secure, reliable, low power wireless networks. Flow or process control equipment can be place
anywhere and still communicate with the rest of the system. It can also be moved, since the
network doesn’t care about the physical location of a sensor, pump or valve.
IEEE802.15.4 developed the PHY and MAC layer whereas, the ZigBee takes care of upper higher
layers.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low power
devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.
IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies. The ZigBee specification supports star
and two kinds of peer-to-peer topologies, mesh and cluster tree. ZigBee-compliant devices are
sometimes specified as supporting point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies.
Types of ZigBee Devices:
• Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
• Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
• Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

NFC: Near Field Communication

NFC stands for Near Field Communication. It refers to short-range communication between
compatible electronic devices where one of the devices acts as a transmitting device and another
as a receiving device. These devices should be within 10 cm of range. The underlying layers of
NFC technology include ISO, ETSI, and ECMA standards.
We can say that NFC is a short-range high-frequency wireless communication technology
developed to exchange the data between devices. It is an upgrade of the existing proximity card
standard. It allows you to share content between digital devices, pay bills wirelessly, or can even
use a cell phone as an electronic travelling ticket for public transportations using contactless
infrastructure.
NFC applications can be divided into the following four basic categories:
o Touch and Go: In this method, the user needs to bring the device storing the ticket or access
code close to the reader.
o Touch and Confirm: It occurs in mobile payments, where the user has to confirm the
payment by entering a password or just accepting the transaction.
o Touch and Connect: In this application, two NFC enabled devices are linked to allow peer
to peer data transfer, such as downloading music, sharing images, and more.
o Touch and Explore: The NFC devices can perform more than one function. The user can
explore a device's capabilities to find out the available services and functions.
➢ NFC Modes of Operation
o Reader/Writer Mode: This mode allows NFC devices to read and/or write passive NFC
tags.
o P2P (Pear-to-Pear) Mode: This mode gives the facility to NFC device for exchanging
information with other NFC devices.

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 o Card emulation mode: This mode allows NFC devices to act itself as an NFC card so that
an external NFC reader can access it.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), originally, a digital subscriber loop is a communication
medium, which is used to transfer the internet through copper wire telecommunication lines.
Along with cable internet, DSL is one of the most popular ways ISPs provide broadband internet
access.
Properties of DSL
• Its aim is to maintain the high speed of the data being transferred.
• If we ask how we going to achieve such a thing i.e., both telephone and internet facilities,
then the answer is by using splitters or DSL filters(shown in the below diagram). Basically,
the splitter is used to split the frequency and make sure that it can’t get interrupted.

Types of DSL
Symmetric DSL
SDSL, splits the upstream and downstream frequencies evenly, providing equal speeds to both
uploading and downloading data transfer. This connection may provide 2 Mbps upstream and
downstream.it is mostly preferred by small organizations.
Asymmetric DSL
ADSL, provides a wider frequency range for downstream transfers, which offers several times
faster downstream speeds. an ADSL connection may offer 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps
upstream, it is because most users download more data than they upload.
Features of DSL
• Speed: DSL provides high-speed internet connectivity that is much faster than traditional
dial-up connections. With DSL, users can expect download speeds of up to 25 Mbps and
upload speeds of up to 3 Mbps, depending on the type of DSL service and the distance from
the service provider.
• Availability: DSL is widely available in many areas and is often the most accessible high-
speed internet option for users who live in rural or remote areas. As long as there is a
telephone line, DSL can be provided, making it an attractive option for users who don’t have
access to cable or fiber internet.
• Security: DSL provides a secure connection, as the data transmitted over the telephone lines
is encrypted. This means that hackers and other unauthorized users cannot intercept or access
the data being transmitted.
• Reliability: DSL is a reliable internet connection option, as the connection is always on and
doesn’t require users to dial in or connect manually. This makes it ideal for users who need
a constant internet connection for work or other purposes.
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 • Affordability: DSL is generally more affordable than other high-speed internet options, such
as cable or fiber internet. This makes it an attractive option for users who need high-speed
internet but don’t want to pay the high prices associated with other options.
• Compatibility: DSL is compatible with a wide range of devices, including computers,
smartphones, tablets, and other internet-connected devices. This makes it easy for users to
connect to the internet and access online services and applications.

Modem
Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The modem is defined as a networking device that
is used to connect devices connected in the network to the internet. The main function of a modem
is to convert the analog signals that come from telephone wire into a digital form. In digital form,
these converted signals are stored in the form of 0s and 1s. The modem can perform both the task
of modulation and demodulation simultaneously. Modems are majorly used to transfer digital
data in personal systems. The modem is also known as a signal translator as it translates one
signal into another signal by modulating the digital signal into an analog signal for transmission
and then demodulates receiving analog signals into digital signals.
Features of Modem
• Modems can modulate as well as demodulate the signals simultaneously.
• Modem allows to connect only a specific number of devices to the internet.
• According to the features of modem, it’s price ranges.
• Modems can be upgraded with the help of a specific software patch.
• To use the devices over the internet with a modem devices need to be configured with
an Internet Service Provider(ISP).
• When the modem is connected to Hub it slows down its process.
Working of Modem
The two main components of a modem are modulation and demodulation. Where the modem can
perform both tasks simultaneously. The step-by-step working of the modem is given below:

Step 1: Data Generation: When data needs to be transmitted it is first generated. Therefore
computer system generated the data which is in digital form of 0s and 1s.
Step 2: Modulation: Modulation is defined as a process of converting digital data signals of the
computer into analog data signals so that these signals can travel on the internet. The digital data
is encoded onto a carrier wave.
Step 3: Transmission: The resultant of modulation that is modulated data is transmitted over the
communication line to the modem that is receiving it.
Step 4: Demodulation: Demodulation is defined as a process in which analog data signals from
the internet are converted into digital data signals so they can be understood by computer systems.
In the process of demodulation, the digital data from the carrier wave is decoded.
Step 5: Decoding: The resultant of demodulation that is demodulated data is being sent to the
computer systems for their further use.

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 Cable TV Networks
Cable TV network started its business only as a video service provider, but with the new
advancement in technology, it’s moved to the business of Internet access. It also refers to the
system that distributes Television signals with the utilization of transmission media. Types of
Cable TV Networks are as follows –
1. Traditionally Cable Networks
2. Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network
Traditional Cable Network : This network began to distribute the broadcast video signals to
the locations with poor or no reception. Traditional Cable Network also called community
antenna TV because this antenna is present at the highest of the building to receive signals from
the TV stations then distribute these signals via coaxial cables to the community. The following
is the schematic diagram of the traditional cable TV network.

In this, Cable TV office is referred to as the head end which can receive the video signals from
broadcasting stations and then feeds the signals into coaxial cables. Due to the distance increases,
the signals are getting weaker, for this purpose amplifiers were installed through this network to
regenerate the signals. During this network, we have more than 35 amplifiers between the head
end and the premises of subscribers. At the other end of the Cable TV network, splitters were
placed to split the signal and the tap and drop cables make the connections to the subscriber
premises. Communication in this network is unidirectional. The video signals were transmitted
downstream from the head end to the subscriber premises.
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network : Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network is that the second generation
of the cable network. which is a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable is used in this type
of network. The transmission mode is used is fiber node i.e. fiber mode. The schematic diagram
of the HFC network is as follows –

➢ Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network

There are nearly 400, 000 subscribers served by Regional Cable Head (RCH). Modulation and
demodulation of the signal are done through the distribution hubs after these signals are sent
to the fiber nodes through fiber-optic cables. The fiber node split the analog signal so that the
same signal is sent to each coaxial cable. Approx. 1000 subscribers are served by coaxial cable.

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 Communication in this is bidirectional.
Advantages of Cable TV Network :
• Cable TV is stable in its service.
• It is fairly inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Cable TV Network :
• Due to the supply of single provider, it creates monopoly.
• It will cause to less privacy, when out TV cable it connected to the internet or world wide
web.

TELEPHONE NETWORK
Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone Network uses Circuit
Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred to as a plain old telephone system (POTS)
which uses analog signals. With the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there
comes a feature to carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both analogous and digital.

Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major components of the telephone
network:
1. Local loops
2. Trunks
3. Switching Offices
There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in the following figure:

A telephone system
Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber
telephone to the nearest end office or local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is
4000 Hz. It is very interesting to examine the telephone number that is associated with each local
loop. The office is defined by the first three digits and the local loop number is defined by the
next four digits defines.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between offices.
Through multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly
transmission is performed through optical fibers or satellite links.
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To avoid
this, the telephone company uses switches that are located in switching offices. A switch is able
to connect various loops or trunks and allows a connection between different subscribes.

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 Switching offices
Advantages of Telephone Network:
• It is a circuit-switched network.
• There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.

VIRTUAL CIRCUITS
Virtual Circuits are computer networks that offer connection-oriented services, whereas
Datagram networks offer connection-less services. The Internet that we use is actually built
on a Datagram network (connection-less) at the network level since not all packets that travel
from a source to a destination use the same route.
Connection-oriented switching is another name for virtual circuits. Before messages are sent,
a virtual circuit switching sets a predetermined routing. This route is referred to as a virtual
circuit since it gives the user the impression that a passionate physical circuit exists. The call
request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between the sender and
the recipient.
The term "virtual circuit" refers to a logical link between two network nodes, typically in a
communications network. The path consists of many network parts that are connected by
switches.
Datagram Networks
It is a method of switching packets in which every packet, or "datagram," is seen as a distinct
entity. The switch uses the destination information contained in each packet to direct it to the
intended location. Since no specific channel is classified for a connection session, there is no
need to reserve resources. As a result, packets have a header with all of the information about
the destination. A packet's header is examined by the intermediate nodes, which then select
an appropriate link to another node that is closer to the destination.
Datagram networks assign resources according to the First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
principle. Regardless of its source or destination, if another packet is being processed when
a packet arrives at a router, it must wait.

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 Datagram packets transmitted between hosts H1 and H2 are shown in the diagram above. The
same message is being carried by the four datagram packets bearing the labels A, B, C, and
D, each of which is being sent by a separate path. The packets of the message reach their
destination out of order. It is H2's responsibility to rearrange the packets in order to recover
the original message.
Datagram switching is a packet switching method that treats each packet, or datagram, as a
separate entity. Each packet is routed via the network on its own. It is a service that does not
require a connection. Because there is no specific channel for a connection session, there is
no need to reserve resources. As a result, packets have a header with all the destination’s
information.

Switch
The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different
subnetworks called subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding
the packets between LAN segments based on MAC address.
Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is
examined first and some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices. Different
types of communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast
communication.
Features of Network Switches
• It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.
• It performs error checking before forwarding data.
• It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
• It operates in full duplex mode.
• It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.
• It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission
modes.
• Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to destination.
• Switches have a more significant number of ports.

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