OL/IGCSE CS (2210/0478) Paper 2 Notes by Awab Aqib

Algorithm Design & Problem-Solving

Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)

● Analysis
● Design
● Coding
● Testing
● Maintenance

Analysis

● Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and document the problem clearly, known as
the "requirements specification" for the program.
● The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction and decomposition to identify the specific
requirements for the program.
● Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed for the solution while eliminating
unnecessary details and information.
● Decomposition involves identifying components parts of input, process, output, and storage.
The complex problem is then broken into smaller, more manageable parts that can be solved
individually.

Design
● The program specification derived from the analysis stage is used as a guide for program
development.
● During the design stage, the programmer should clearly understand the tasks to be completed, the
methods for performing each task, and how the tasks will work together.
● Documentation methods such as structure charts, flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to
document the program's design formally.

Coding and iterative testing

● The program or set of programs is developed based on the design.

● Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming language.
● Testing is conducted to ensure that each module functions correctly.
● Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting modular tests, making code
amendments if necessary, and repeating tests until the module meets the required functionality.

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Testing
● The completed program or set of programs is executed multiple times using various test data
sets.
● This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the program work together as specified in
the program design.
● Running the program with different test data can identify and address potential issues and errors.
● The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality and performance of the program by
evaluating its behavior with various inputs.

Methods to design solutions

● Every computer system is made up of sub-systems, which are in turn made up of further sub-
systems.
● Structure Diagrams - The breaking down of a computer system into sub-systems, then breaking
each sub-system into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a single action. A
structure diagram diagrammatically represents a top-down design.

● Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a process or set of steps) and flowcharts

are a diagrammatic representation.
● Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps required to complete a task and the
order that they are to be performed
● Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are called an algorithm

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Test Data

● Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and assess the functionality and performance of a
computer program or system.
● It helps identify errors and assess how the program handles different scenarios

Normal Data
● Normal data is the test data which accepts values in an acceptable range of values of the
program
● Normal data should be used to work through the solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they
are the same as the expected result(s)
● e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, normal test data will be: 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

Abnormal Data

● Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not suitable, if the solution is working
properly is called abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
● e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, abnormal data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520

Extreme Data
● Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take
● e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, extreme data will be: 0 and 100

Boundary Data
● This is used to establish where the largest and smallest values occur
● At each boundary two values are required: largest accepted & smallest rejected // smallest
accepted & largest rejected

Trace Table
● A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of every step in an algorithm. It is
employed to record the variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
● A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically executing an algorithm by following
each step in sequence.
● A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for any output e.g.

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Validation and Verification

To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data inputs, computer systems must thoroughly
examine each data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation and Verification come into play!

Validation
Validation in computer systems involves automated checks to ensure the reasonableness of data before
accepting it. If the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory message for rejection and allow
another chance to enter the data.

Range check
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within specified upper and lower limits.

Length check
This can either ensure that data consists of a precise number of characters.

Type Check

A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a specific data type.

Presence Check
A presence check to ensure that some data has been entered and the value has not been left blank.

Format Check
A format check checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined pattern.

Check Digit
● A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the other digits.
● Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, International Standard Book Numbers
(ISBN), and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).

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Verification
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied from one medium to another

There are 2 methods to verify data during entry

1. Double Entry

● Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.

● The computer system compares both entries and if they differ, an error message is displayed,
prompting the data to be reentered.

2. Screen/Visual check
● A screen/visual check involves the user manually reviewing the entered data.
● After data entry, the system displays the data on the screen and prompts the user to confirm its
accuracy before proceeding.
● The user can compare the displayed data against a paper document used as an input form or rely
on their own knowledge to verify correctness.

Creating a maintainable program

A maintainable program should:

● always use meaningful identifier names for variables, constants, arrays, procedures and
functions
● be divided into modules for each task using procedures and functions
● be fully commented using your programming language’s commenting feature

Commenting in pseudocode:
# Or \\ Now the text written is commented and thus ignore

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Programming Concepts

When writing the steps required to solve a problem, the following concepts need to be used and
understood:

● Sequence
● Selection
● Iteration
● Counting and totaling
● String handling
● Use of operators.

Sequence
The ordering of the steps in an algorithm is very important. An incorrect order can lead to incorrect results
and/or extra steps that are not required by the task.

Selection

It allows different routes through the steps of a program. Example: If conditions, Case of otherwise

Iteration
Repeating a block of code multiple times. Example: For, while, repeat until loops
• Count-controlled: For loop
o Runs for a fixed number of times
o Count of iterations is already known

• Conditional: While and Repeat Until loops

o Pre-Conditional:
▪ Checks the condition at the start (While loop)
▪ Will not run even once if the condition is not true
o Post-conditional
▪ Checks the condition at the end (Repeat Until loop)
▪ Will always run at least once even if the condition is true

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Functions and Procedures

● A procedure refers to a collection of programming statements organized under a single name,

invoked at any given point in a program to execute a specific task.
● A function is a compilation of programming statements consolidated under a singular name,
invoked at any moment within a program to accomplish a particular task. Unlike a procedure, a
function also has the capability to return a value back to the main program.
● Parameters refer to variables that store the values of arguments passed to a procedure or
function. While not all procedures and functions require parameters, some utilize them to facilitate
their operations.

Local and Global Variable

● Any part of a program can use a global variable – its scope covers the whole program and is
declared at the highest level of scope
● A local variable can only be used in a block/subroutine of the program it is declared in – its
scope is restricted to that part of the program

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Databases
A database is a well-organized compilation of data that enables individuals to retrieve
information according to their specific requirements. The data contained within a database can
encompass various forms such as text, numerical values, images, or any other type of digital
content that can be stored on a computer system.

Why do we need a database?

● To store data about people, things, and events.
● Any modifications or additions need to be made only once, ensuring data consistency.
● All users access and utilize the same set of data, promoting uniformity.
● Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive manner, eliminating duplication.

What makes a database?

● Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists of
a specific type of data e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to be
named according to what they contain e.g. a table containing
patient information will be PATIENT
● These tables consist of records (rows). Each record consists
of data about a single entity (a single item, person or event)
e.g. a single car
● These tables also have columns that are knows as fields
These consist of specific information regarding the entities
that are written later in records e.g. car name, car
manufacturer etc.

Basic Data Types

Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type classifies how the data
is stored, displayed and the operations that can be performed on the stored value.
The datatypes for database are quite similar to original datatypes, however, there are
a few differences.

Primary Key

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● Each record in a table represents a unique item, person, or event.

● To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field called the primary key is necessary.
● The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each item within the data.
● In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have values that are never repeated within the
table.

Foreign Key
● A field in one table that refers to the primary key in another table. It creates a relationship
between the two tables, ensuring data consistency by enforcing referential integrity

Structured Query Language – SQL

● Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard language for writing scripts to retrieve
valuable information from databases.
● By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display specific information needed from a
database.

SQL Scripts
● An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are used to perform a specific task, often
stored in a file for reusability.
● To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL script, practical experience in writing SQL
scripts is necessary.

Select Statements:
SELECT (fieldname)
FROM (tablesname)
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

Selecting Sum of values in a table:

SELECT SUM (fieldsname)
FROM (tablesname)
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

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Counting the number of records where the field matches as a specified

condition
SELECT COUNT (fieldsname)
FROM (tablesname)
WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;

==ORDER BY Field1, Field2, etc. – this specifies

a sort in ascending or alphabetical order starting
with the first field.==

==ORDER BY Field1, Field2 DESC – this

specifies a sort in descending or reverse
alphabetical order starting with the first field.==

Note: ORDER BY is not necessary to add. It has

to be only added if required!

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TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

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TRUTH TABLES OF INPUTS

-if the logic circuit/network has only 2 inputs then the truth table for them is:
-total combinations are 22=4

A B
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

-if the logic circuit/network has only 3 inputs then the truth table for them is:
-total combinations are 23=8

A B C
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

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CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE TO LOGIC STATEMENT

A B C
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

-Assuming the above Truth table, we will only consider the outputs that are 1
-Each input with 0 value will be replaced by NOT and 1 will be replaced by input symbol

0 0 1 = NOT A and NOT B and C

0 1 1 = NOT A and B and C
1 1 1 = A and B and C
-Final step is put OR gates between these sub-circuits to get the logic expression:
(NOT A and NOT B and C) or (NOT A and B and C ) or (A and B and C)

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