Process Management

• A program does nothing unless its instructions are executed

by a CPU. A program in execution, as mentioned, is a process.
• A process needs certain resources—including CPU time,
memory, files, and I/O devices—to accomplish its task.
• These resources are either given to the process when it is
created or allocated to it while it is running.
• A program is a passive entity, like the contents of a file stored
on disk, whereas a process is an active entity.
• A single-threaded process has one program
counter specifying the next instruction to execute.
• A process is the unit of work in a system. A system consists of
a collection of processes, some of which are operating-system
processes and the rest of which are user processes
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management

• The operating system is responsible for the following activities

in connection with process management:
• Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication

Process-management techniques discussed later

 Memory Management
• Main memory is a large array of bytes, ranging in size from
hundreds of thousands to billions. Each byte has its own
address.
• The central processor reads instructions from main memory
during the instruction-fetch cycle
• For a program to be executed, it must be loaded into memory.
• As the program executes, it accesses program instructions and
data from memory.
• When the program terminates, its memory space is made free
for the next program can be loaded and executed.
• To improve the utilization of the CPU and the speed of the
computer's response to its users, keep several programs in
memory, creating a need for memory management.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with memory management

• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being

used and who is using them
• Deciding which processes (or parts of processes) and data to
move into and out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Memory-management techniques are discussed later

 Storage Management

• The operating system abstracts from the physical properties

of its storage devices to define a logical storage unit, the file.
• The operating system maps files onto physical media and
accesses these files via the storage devices.
 File-System Management
• File management is one of the most visible components of an
operating system.
• Computers can store information on several different types of
physical media.
• Magnetic disk, optical disk, and magnetic tape are the most
common.
• A file is a collection of related information
• Files represent programs and data. Data files may be numeric,
alphabetic, alphanumeric, or binary.
• The operating system implements the abstract concept of a
file by managing mass-storage media, such as tapes and disks.
• Files are normally organized into directories to make them
easier to use.
• When multiple users have access to files, it may be desirable
to control which user may access a file and how that user may
access it.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with file management

• Creating and deleting files

• Creating and deleting directories to organize files
• Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

File-management techniques are discussed later

 Kernel Data Structures

• In this section, we briefly describe several

fundamental data structures used extensively
in operating systems.
– Lists, Stacks, and Queues
– Trees
– Hash Functions and Maps
– Bitmaps
 Lists, Stacks, and Queues
• List represents a collection of data values as a sequence. The
most common method for implementing this structure is
a linked list, in which items are linked to one another.

• Linked lists are of several types:

– singly linked list
– doubly linked list
– circularly linked list
• A stack is a sequentially ordered data structure that
uses the last in, first out (LIFO) principle for adding
and removing items, i.e the last item placed onto a
stack is the first item removed. The operations for
inserting and removing items from a stack are known
as push and pop.
• A queue, is a sequentially ordered data structure
that uses the first in, first out (FIFO) principle: items
are removed from a queue in the order in which they
were inserted.
• A tree is a data structure that can be used to represent data
hierarchically. Data values in a tree structure are linked
through parent–child relationships. In a general tree, a parent
may have an unlimited number of children. In a binary tree, a
parent may have at most two children, which we term the left
child and the right child.
• A hash function takes data as its input, performs a numeric
operation on this data, and returns a numeric value. This
numeric value can then be used as an index into a table
(typically an array) to quickly retrieve the data.
• One use of a hash function is to implement a hash map
• A bitmap is a string of n binary digits that can be used to
represent the status of n items.
• For example, suppose we have several resources, and the
availability of each resource is indicated by the value of a
binary digit:
• 0 means the resource is available
• 1 indicates that it is unavailable
 Computing Environments
• How operating systems are used in a variety of
computing environments.
– Traditional Computing
– Mobile Computing
– Distributed Systems
– Client–Server Computing
– Peer-to-Peer Computing
– Virtualization
– Cloud Computing
– Real-Time Embedded Systems
 Traditional Computing
• Consider the “typical office environment.” Just a few years
ago, this environment consisted of PCs connected to a
network, with servers providing file and print services.
Remote access was awkward, and portability was achieved by
use of laptop computers.
 Mobile Computing
• Mobile computing refers to computing on handheld
smartphones and tablet computers. These devices share the
distinguishing physical features of being portable and
lightweight. Historically, compared with desktop and laptop
computers, mobile systems gave up screen size, memory
capacity, and overall functionality
 Distributed Systems
• A distributed system is a collection of physically separate,
possibly heterogeneous, computer systems that are
networked to provide users with access to the various
resources that the system maintains. Access to a shared
resource increases computation speed, functionality, data
availability, and reliability.
 Client–Server Computing
• As PCs have become faster, more powerful, and cheaper,
designers have shifted away from centralized system
architecture. Terminals connected to centralized systems are
now being supplanted by PCs and mobile devices.
 Peer-to-Peer Computing
• In this model, all nodes within the system are considered
peers, and each may act as either a client or a server,
depending on whether it is requesting or providing a service.
 Virtualization
• Virtualization is a technology that allows operating systems to
run as applications within other operating systems.
 Cloud Computing
• Cloud computing is a type of computing that delivers
computing, storage, and even applications as a service across
a network.
• There are actually many types of cloud computing,
– Public cloud—a cloud available via the Internet to anyone willing to
pay for the services
– Private cloud—a cloud run by a company for that company's own use
– Hybrid cloud—a cloud that includes both public and private cloud
components
 Real-Time Embedded Systems
• Embedded systems almost always run real-time operating
systems.
• A real-time system is used when rigid time requirements have
been placed on the operation of a processor or the flow of
data.
• Sensors bring data to the computer.
• Processing must be done within the defined constraints, or
the system will fail.