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Load Characteristics

The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to power demand and load characteristics, including demand, base load, maximum demand, and various load factors. It also discusses load-duration curves and their significance in planning power plants, detailing factors such as capacity factor, demand factor, and diversity factor. Additionally, several examples illustrate how to calculate these factors and assess the performance of power plants.

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11 views26 pages

Load Characteristics

The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to power demand and load characteristics, including demand, base load, maximum demand, and various load factors. It also discusses load-duration curves and their significance in planning power plants, detailing factors such as capacity factor, demand factor, and diversity factor. Additionally, several examples illustrate how to calculate these factors and assess the performance of power plants.

Uploaded by

KowalskiCZGG
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LOAD

CHARACTERISTICS
Prepared by: ako
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Demand
 The demand of an installation or system is the load at the receiving
terminals averaged over a specified interval of time.
 The load may be given in kilowatts, kilovars, kilovoltamperes,
kiloamperes, or amperes.

Demand Interval
 It is the period over which the load is averaged.
 This selected Δt period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, or even longer.

Base Load (Continuous Load, Steady Load)


 The minimum load that occurs consistently over a long duration.
 This selected Δt period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, or even longer.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Maximum Demand (Peak Load, 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
 The highest power demand that the power station experiences over
a specific period (e.g., a day, a month, or a year).

Rated Capacity
 The maximum power output that the power station is designed to
deliver.

Actual Energy Generated


 The total amount of electricity the power plant produces over a
given time (e.g., a day, a month, a year).
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
When planning a power plant, the two basic parameters
to be decided are:
1. Total power output to be installed (KWinst).
2. Size of the generating units.

The total installed capacity required can be determined


from:
1. First demand (KWmax) estimated.
2. Growth of demand anticipated.
3. Reserve capacity required.
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
The size of the generating units will depend on:

1. Variation of load (load curve) during 24 hours


(summer, winter, weekdays, holidays).
2. Total capacity of units connected to the electrical grid.
3. Minimum start-up and shut-down periods of the units.
4. Maintenance program planned.
5. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit.
6. Price and space demand per KW vs. size of unit.
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Average Load

 The mean value of load over the period.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 (𝐸)


𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑇)
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Load Factor (LF) – (Utilization Ratio)
 The ratio of the average load to the peak load.
 It indicates how efficiently the demand is distributed
over time.
 A higher Load Factor indicates stable demand.
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐿𝐹 =
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 8760
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Capacity Factor (Plant Factor, Energy Factor)
 It is a measure of how much energy a power plant
actually generates compared to its maximum potential
energy generation capacity over a specific period.
 Similar to the Plant Factor but focuses on actual
power generation.
 Indicates how efficiently a power plant is utilized.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑


𝐶𝐹 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Plant Load Factor (PLF) – (Load Utilization Factor)

 Measures how efficiently a plant operates relative to


its peak demand.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑


𝑃𝐿𝐹 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Demand Factor (DF)
 The ratio of the maximum demand to the total
connected load.
 Indicates how much of the total installed capacity is
actually used.

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝐹 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝐹 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Diversity Factor (DF) – (Load Diversity Factor)

 Reduces required capacity for power generation.


 Always greater than 1.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠


𝐷𝐹 =
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Utilization Factor (UF) – (Equipment Utilization Factor)

 It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to


the rated capacity of the system.
 It is a measure of how effectively the capacity of a
system or piece of equipment is being used.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹𝑢 = 𝑈𝐹 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Use Factor (Operating Factor)

 Measures how much of the plant's capability is actually


used over a period.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙


𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Reserve Factor (Safety Factor, Spinning Reserve Ratio)

 Indicates how much extra capacity is available in the


system.

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑


𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Loss Factor (Safety Factor, Spinning Reserve Ratio)

 Helps in determining how much energy is lost in


transmission over time.
 Used in power system planning to optimize generation
and reduce transmission losses.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠


𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
Relation Between the Load and Loss Factor

2
FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7FLD

For rural areas:

2
𝐹𝐿𝑆 = 0.16𝐹𝐿𝐷 + 0.84𝐹𝐿𝐷
LOAD-DURATION CURVES
Example
1. A power station supplies the following loads to the
consumers:

(a) Draw the load curve and estimate the load factor of
the plant, (b) What is the load factor of a standby
equipment of 30 MW capacity if it takes up all loads
above 70 MW? What is its use factor?
Example
2. The peak load on a power plant is 60 MW. The loads
having maximum demands of 30 MW, 20 MW, 10 MW
and 14 MW are connected to the power plant. The
capacity of the power plant is 80 MW and the annual load
factor is 0.50. Estimate (a) the average load on the power
plant, (b) the energy supplied per year, (c) the demand
factor, (d) the diversity factor.
Example
3. A power plant has the following annual factors: load
factor = 0.75, capacity factor = 0.60, use factor = 0.65.
Maximum demand is 60 MW. Estimate (a) the annual
energy production, (b) the reserve capacity over and
above the peak load, and (c) the hours during which the
plant is not in service per year.
Example
4. A power plant serves three industrial loads with the
following demand variations over a 24-hour period:

Determine the following: Total energy generated in 24


hours; Peak Load and Average Load; Load Factor of the
power plant; Capacity Factor of the power plant; Reserve
Factor; Demand Factor if the total connected load is 150
MW; Diversity Factor considering individual peak demands.
Example
Determine the following:
a. Total energy generated in 24 hours;
b. Peak Load and Average Load;
c. Load Factor of the power plant;
d. Capacity Factor of the power plant;
e. Reserve Factor;
f. Demand Factor if the total connected load is 150 MW;
g. Diversity Factor considering individual peak demands.
Example
5. Assume that the annual peak load of a primary feeder
is 2000 kW, at which the power loss, that is, total copper,
or ∑𝐼 2 𝑅 loss, is 80 kW per three phase. Assuming an
annual loss factor of 0.15, determine
a. The average annual power loss
b. The total annual energy loss due to the copper losses
of the feeder circuits
Example
6. The average load factor of a substation is 0.65.
Determine the average loss factor of its feeders, if
the substation services
a. An urban area
b. A rural area

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