Content Page

SL. No. Particulars Page No.

Concept of Computer 01-04

Four distinct parts of computer 01

Types of software 01
Components of hardware 01
01 Types of memory 02

Difference between RAM and ROM 02

Types of computers 03-04

Generation of computer 04

02 Number System 05

03 Logical Operation and Gate 06-07

An Introduction to R Programming and RStudio 08-10

Importance of R 08

Difference between R and RStudio 08

Mean, Median and Mode 09

04
Quartiles 09

Graphical representation 10
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Basic Concepts on Fundamentals of Submission Date:
01 Computer and R Programming 10-02-2025
Concept of Computer:
The word computer comes from ‘compute’, meaning computing or calculating. A computer is
an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks based on instructions from software.
Besides we can say that, a computer is an electronic device used to process data, convert data
into valid information that is useful to people.

The four distinct parts of a computer are:

Hardware: The physical components of a computer, including the CPU, RAM, storage devices
(HDD/SSD), motherboard, input/output devices, and peripherals.
• Software: The set of instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do, such as
operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux) and applications (web browsers, games,
word processors).
• Data: The raw information processed by the computer, including text, numbers, images,
videos, and other digital content. Data can be input, stored, processed, and output.
• User: The person who interacts with the computer, providing input and using its output.
Users can be individuals, businesses, or automated systems that control the computer.

Types of software:
There are three types of software in computer. These are-
• Application software: MS Office, R programming, Python, Adobe photoshop etc.
• System software: Microsoft Windows, Mac-OS, Linux, Chrome OS, Unix etc.
• Utility software: Antivirus Software, Backup Software, Task Manager, Firewall
Software, Registry Cleaners, Uninstaller Programs etc.

Components of hardware:
Processor: A processor, also known as a Central Processing Unit (CPU), is the main component
of a computer that carries out instructions, processes data, and executes tasks. It acts as the brain
of the computer, handling all computations and decision-making processes.

CPU: A CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of a computer, responsible for executing
instructions, performing calculations, and processing data. It controls and coordinates all
operations within a computer system.

Memory: Memory is one of the small chips refers to the storage system that holds data and
instructions temporarily or permanently for processing. It allows the computer to quickly access
and retrieve information needed for operations.
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
02 10-02-2025
Types of Memory:
1. Primary Memory (Volatile Memory)
2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile Memory)

Difference Between RAM and ROM:

Feature RAM (Random Access Memory) ROM (Read-Only Memory)

A volatile memory used for
A non-volatile memory used for
Definition temporary data storage while a
permanent data storage.
computer is running.
Stores data temporarily for quick Stores firmware or essential data
Data Storage
access by the CPU. permanently.
Volatile – data is lost when power is Non-volatile – data remains even
Volatility
turned off. after power loss.
Speed Faster read/write speeds. Slower compared to RAM.
Used for running applications,
Used for BIOS, firmware, and
Usage processing tasks, and system
booting processes.
operations.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM), SRAM
Types PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
(Static RAM).
Upgradability Can be upgraded or expanded. Usually not upgradable.
Data is pre-written and difficult or
Modification Data can be modified easily.
impossible to modify.

Input Processing Output

Unit Unit Unit

Take data

Keep data

Memories

Figure: Functional block diagram of computer hardware

 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
03 10-02-2025
Types of Computers:

Super Computer:
• Large, extremely fast, powerful and expensive
• Use for complex and sophisticated calculations
• Price of this computer is very high
• Example: Cray-11, Cray-T90, Cray-XMP etc

Mainframe Computer:
• Operates with a terminal monitor and keyboard
• Suitable for storing large volume of data
• Use in banking and insurance industry
• Example: IBM 4300, IBM 9672, NCR 8000 etc

Minicomputer:
• Relatively small sized with high processing power
• Largely used as servers on network
• Consist of high speed, huge storage and memory
• Example: IBM 134, DEC PDP8, DEC PDP 11 etc

Workstation:
• More processing power than personal computer
• Consist of bigger high-resolution monitor
• Used by scientist, engineer, graphic designer
• Example: Sun Ultra 60

Microcomputer:
• Widespread, popular and low priced
• Consist of different sizes with different
computational capabilities
• Costly than personal computer
• Example: IBM PC
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
04 10-02-2025
Desktop Computer:
• Single used based computer
• Lower price than workstation
• User friendly than the previous generation
• Less electricity consumed

Laptop Computer:
• Also known as notebook computer
• Consist with LCD monitor, keyboard and touchpad
• Users are students, professors, executives, researchers

Generation of Computers:
First generation (1944-1958):
• These computers were bulky, used great amount of electric power, generated a great
amount of heat and were not reliable.
• It is vacuum tube-based computer

Second generation (1959-1963):

• These computers are smaller, less expensive, required less power, generated less heat
and more reliable than their predecessors.
• It is transistor-based computer.

Third generation (1964-1970):

• It is IC based computer.
• Smaller in size, greater in capacity and performed as many as ten million additions per
second.
Fourth generation (1971-1980):
• VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) based computer.
• Low heat generated; low electricity consumed.
• These computers make extensive use of microprocessor.

Fifth generation (1980-Present):

• ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) based computer.
• Low heat generated; low electricity consumed.
• Price is lower than previous generation.
• More portable than previous generation.
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
05 10-02-2025
Number System:
A number system is a writing system used to express numbers. It consists of a set of symbols or
digits and rules for combining them to represent values. Computers and digital systems use
number systems to process and store data.

Types of Number Systems:

1. Binary Number System (Base-2)
o The binary number system uses only two symbols or digits: ‘0’ to mean zero and
‘1’ mean one. Counting numbers in binary is similar to that of decimal. It is used
in computers and digital electronics.
o Example:
(5)10 = (101)2
(7)10 = (111)2
2. Decimal Number System (Base-10)
o The decimal number system uses ten symbols or digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Counting numbers in decimal is similar to that of binary. It is used in everyday
counting and human-centric.
o Example:
(8)10 = (10)8
(5)10 = (101)2
3. Octal Number System (Base-8)
o The decimal number system uses eight symbols or digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. In
octal number system, any number from one to seven can be represented using
just one symbol. It used in older computer systems and sometimes as a shorthand
for binary.
o Example:
(8)10 = (10)8
(15)10 = (17)8
4. Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16)
o The decimal number system uses eight symbols or digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, A (10), B (11), C (12), D (13), E (14), F (15). The symbols ‘A’ to ‘F’
respectively mean the value of ten to fifteen.
o Example:
(10)10 = (A)16
(255)10 = (FF)16
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
06 10-02-2025
Logical Operation and Gates:
Logical operations are implemented using various electronic circuits. These circuits are
commonly known as logic gates. To realize the three logical operations there are three logic
gates known as 'OR', 'AND' and 'NOT' gates- named on the operations they implement. These
three gates are called fundamental gates because any logical function can be implemented using
only these three gates. There are however four more gates known as 'NOR', 'NAND', 'XOR', and
'XNOR'. These gates represent none of the three logical operations, rather they perform a
mixture of those, and hence can be formed by combining the fundamental gates. Though the
actual circuit contains various circuit elements such as transistors, diodes and resistors, a gate is
usually denoted by special symbol. Logical operations, gates and their symbols are discussed
below.

OR Gate:
An OR gate is a basic digital logic gate that outputs true 1 if at least one of its inputs is true 1. It
follows the logical OR operation, meaning the output is false 0 only when all inputs are false 0.
Truth table of OR gate
P Q P+Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

AND Gate:
An AND gate is a fundamental digital logic gate that outputs true 1 only if all its inputs are true
1. If any input is false 0, the output is also false 0. The AND gate is typically represented by a
D-shaped symbol with two or more inputs and one output.
Truth table of AND Gate
P Q PQ
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NOT Gate:
A NOT gate, also called an inverter, is a fundamental digital logic gate that outputs the opposite
or complement of its input. If the input is 1 true, the output is 0 false, and vice versa.
Truth table of NOT Gate
P P̅
0 1
1 0
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
07 10-02-2025
NOR Gate:
A NOR gate is formed by connecting a NOT gate at the output of an OR gate. The symbol of
NOR gate made by placing the circle of a NOT gate at the output of an OR gate. A NOR gate
(NOT-OR gate) is a digital logic gate that outputs true 1 only when all inputs are false 0.
Truth table of NOR Gate
P Q X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

NAND Gate:
A NAND gate is formed by connecting a NOT gate at the output of a AND gate. The symbol of
NAND gate is obtained by placing the circle of a NOT gate at the output of AND gate. A NAND
gate (NOT-AND gate) is a digital logic gate that outputs false 0 only when all inputs are true 1.
Truth table of NAND Gate
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR Gate:
XOR is short for OR. An XOR gate (Exclusive OR gate) is a digital logic gate that outputs true
1 only when the number of true inputs is odd. For a 2-input XOR gate, the output is 1 if the
inputs are different and 0 if the inputs are the same.
Truth table of XOR Gate
P Q X=P⊕Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XNOR Gate:
If a NOT is attached to the output of an XOR gate, an XNOR gate is formed. XNOR gate
produces an output of 1 when there are even (or zero) number of 1 in the output.
Truth table of XNOR Gate
P Q X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
08 10-02-2025
An Introduction to R Programming and RStudio:
R is a programming language and software environment for statistical analysis, graphics
representation and reporting. The R programming language is written in C, Fortran and R itself.
It’s an alternative implementation of the S programming language, which was widely used in
the 1980s for statistical computing.
➢ R is a free and open-source scripting language developed by Ross Ihaka and Robert
Gentleman.
➢ It allows integration with Python, C, C++, .Net and Fortran.
On the other hand, RStudio is an integrated development environment (IDE) is a software
application that helps programmers develop software code efficiency. In the simple word, we
can explain RStudio as an integrated development environment (IDE) for R, a programming
language widely used for statistical computing, data analysis, and machine learning. It provides
a user-friendly interface for writing and running R code efficiently.

Importance of R:
• Free & Open Source
• Extensive Libraries for Data Science
• Strong Statistical Capabilities
• Great for Data Visualization
• Seamless Integration with Python, SQL, and Big Data Tools

Difference between R and RStudio:

Feature R RStudio
An Integrated Development Environment
A programming language for statistical
Definition (IDE) for R that provides a user-friendly
computing and data analysis.
interface.

Makes writing, debugging, and visualizing R

Function Runs R code and performs computations.
code easier.

Installation Must be installed first to run RStudio. Installed separately but requires R to function.
Command-line based; runs in a terminal Graphical interface with a console, script
User Interface
or console. editor, plots, and variable viewer.
Can execute R scripts, but lacks advanced Provides script management, debugging tools,
Code Execution
tools for managing projects. and interactive execution.
Displays plots, help documentation, and
Visualization Generates plots in a separate window.
variables in dedicated panes.
Additional Supports R Markdown, Shiny apps, version
Only includes core R functionality.
Features control (Git), and package management.
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Continued Submission Date:
09 10-02-2025
CSV File:
The csv file is a text file in which the values in the columns are separated by a comma. It is
commonly used for data exchange between software applications like spreadsheets (Excel),
databases, and programming languages (R, Python, etc.).
Reading a CSV File:
data <- read.csv("input.csv")
print(data)
Operators:
Operators are essential in programming and mathematics for performing various operations such
as arithmetic calculations, comparisons, logical decisions, and data manipulation.

Mean, Median and Mode:

➢ Mean (Average): The mean is the average of a set of numbers. To find the mean, you
add up all the numbers and then divide by how many numbers there are.
➢ Median: The median is the middle value in a set of numbers when the numbers are
arranged in order (from smallest to largest). If there’s an even number of values, the
median is the average of the two middle numbers.
➢ Mode: The mode is the number that appears most frequently in a set of numbers. A set
can have one mode, more than one mode, or no mode at all (if no number repeats).
In simple word we can define-
• Mean = Average of all numbers.
• Median = Middle value when ordered.
• Mode = The number that appears most frequently.

Quartiles: A quartile is a type of statistical measure that divides a set of data into four equal
parts. Each quartile contains 25% of the data points.
There are three quartiles that help us understand the spread and distribution of the data:
1. First Quartile (Q1): The first quartile (Q1) is the median of the lower half of the dataset.
It marks the point below which 25% of the data points fall. It is also known as the 25th
percentile.
2. Second Quartile (Q2): The second quartile (Q2) is the median of the entire dataset. It
divides the dataset into two equal halves. It is also known as the 50th percentile.
3. Third Quartile (Q3): The third quartile (Q3) is the median of the upper half of the dataset.
It marks the point below which 75% of the data points fall. It is also known as the 75th
percentile.

Variance: Variance is a statistical measure that tells us how much the values in a dataset differ
from the mean (average). It is the average of the squared differences from the mean. In simpler
terms, variance gives us an idea of the spread or dispersion of the data.
 Assignment No. Name of the Assignment Assigned Date:
01 14-01-2025
Page No. Basic Concepts on Fundamentals of Submission Date:
10 Computer and R Programming 10-02-2025
Graphical Representation:
Line Graph:
A line graph is a type of chart that displays data points in a continuous manner by connecting
them with straight lines. It is typically used to represent trends over a period of time or
continuous data, making it easy to visualize changes and relationships between variables.
Bar Chart:
A bar chart is a visual representation of data where rectangular bars are used to represent
different categories or values. The length or height of each bar is proportional to the value or
frequency it represents.
ANOVA in R:
ANOVA (Analysis of variance) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or
more group to determine if there is a statistically significant difference among them. Analysis
of variance used to investigate relations between categorical variables and continuous variables
in the R programming.
Key characteristics of ANOVA:
➢ ANOVA compares the means of multiple groups.
➢ It uses the F-statistic to test if there are significant differences between groups.
➢ Assumptions include normality, independence, and equal variances.
➢ If differences are found, post-hoc tests identify where those differences lie.
Types of ANOVA:
1. One-Way ANOVA: Compares the means of three or more groups based on one factor
(independent variable).
2. Two-Way ANOVA: Compares the means of groups based on two factors, and also
examines if there is an interaction between these two factors.

ggplot:
ggplot is a data visualization package in R that provides a powerful and flexible system for
creating a wide range of graphs and plots. It is part of the ggplot2 package, which follows the
Grammar of Graphics, a framework for creating visualizations in a systematic and consistent
way.

AgroR Library:
The AgroR library in R is a specialized package designed for agronomic data analysis and
statistical analysis in agricultural research. It provides functions that help in analysing
experimental designs, performing statistical tests, and visualizing data related to agriculture and
plant breeding.