Linear Algebra with Applications

Ninth edition
by Steven J. Leon
Syllabus
Chapter.1 1.1 to 1.6
Chapter.2 2.1 to 2.3
Chapter.3 3.1 to 3.6
Chapter.4 4.1 to 4.3
Chapter.5 5.1 to 5.6
Chapter.6 6.1 and 6.3 1
 Linear Algebra with Applications
Ninth edition
by Steven J. Leon
Overall Scoring Criteria

Attendance 10%
Homework/ Assignments 20%
Quizzes/Discussion/ Mock Test 20%
Mid Exam 15%
Final Exam 35%
2
 Linear Algebra with Applications
Ninth edition
by Steven J. Leon
Mid and Final Exam Papers

Q.1 5 sub-questions of True/False, (10 Marks)

Objective
Q.2 5 sub-questions of MCQs, (10 Marks)
Q.3 to Q.10 Long Questions, (10 Marks for each question)

3
 Chapter.1 Matrices and Systems of Equations
1.1 System of Linear Equations

1. Algebra 10. Constant, Coefficient and variables

2. Linear and Non-Linear Equations 11. Homogeneous System
3. System of Linear Equations 12. Solution Method.1: Strict Triangular Form and
4. 2×2 Systems Back substitution
5. m×n Systems 13. Augmented matrix
6. Linear Algebra 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
7. Consistent and Inconsistent System. 15. Conclusion
8. Solution Set of a Linear System
9. Equivalent Systems

4
 1. Algebra
Definition
Algebra is the branch of mathematics that helps in the representation of problems or situations in the
form of mathematical expressions. It involves variables like x, y, z, and mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to form a meaningful mathematical expression.
Example:
Jack has received the following scores on three exams:
82, 74, and 90. What score will Jack need to receive on the next exam so that the average score for the
four exams will be 85?
Sol:
Let 𝑥 represent the score on Jack next exam.

82+74+90+𝑥
The average of four exams is = = 85
4
=> 𝑥=94
5
 2. Linear and Non-Linear Equations
i. Linear Equations
A linear equation forms a straight line on a graph.
a) All variables power must be one. i.e. X, Y, Z, etc.
b) Variables shouldn’t be in the form of a product or quotient, e.g. XY or X/Y.

i . 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2 (ii). 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7 (iii). 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1
(i) (ii) (iii)
6
 2. Linear and Non-Linear Equations
ii. Non-Linear Equations
A nonlinear equation forms an S-curve, bell curve or another nonlinear shape
on a graph.
a) Variables in the form of a product or quotient, e.g. XY or X/Y.
b) Equations involved trigonometric functions. e.g. sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥,tan 𝑥, etc.
c) Variables appear in this form: log𝑥, 𝑒 𝑥 .

(i) (ii) (iii)

7
 2. Linear and Non-Linear Equations

Difference between Linear and nonlinear equations

Linear Nonlinear

𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑦𝑧 = 25

𝑥 − 𝜋𝑦 + 𝑒𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 + 𝑦2 = 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 3 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6

𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2 𝑥y = 5

8
 3. System of Linear Equations
i. Definitions
A system of linear equations is a set of two or more linear equations involving the same variables.

e.g: (a). 2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 1 (b). 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 1 (c). 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 1

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2
To generalize:

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + ⋯ +𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
.
.
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯ +𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
Here, 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , and 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . , 𝑚 𝑗 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛, are real numbers, and 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ,…, 𝑥𝑛 are variables.
9
 4. 2×2 Systems
i. Definitions

2×2 (two by two) system is a set of two linear equations with two similar
variables.
e.g:
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 = 𝑐1
𝑏1 𝑥1 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 = 𝑐2

Note: In other words, we can say 2×2 (two by two) or 2 (Rows) by 2 (columns)
10
 5. m×n Systems
Definitions
The system of linear equations is called an m×n (read as “m by n”) System if there are m
rows and n columns.
if m = 𝑛 then this is called a square system.
Here, m= number of rows/equations,
While n= number of columns/unknowns (variables)
Example: (a) (b)

2x + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2 2x + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2
3x + 5𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 3 3x + 5𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 3
4x − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 5
This is 3 × 3 system This is 2 × 3 system 11
 6. Linear Algebra

Definitions

Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics that is deal with the systems of linear
equations, matrices, determinants, vector spaces, and linear transformations.

12
7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.

13
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.
Examples

Parallel and Parallel and

Coincident lines distinct lines
14
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.
Examples

𝑥+𝑦=2 𝑥+𝑦 =2 𝑥+𝑦=2

ቊ ቊ ቊ
𝑥−𝑦 =2 −𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2 𝑥+𝑦 =1

15
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.
Definitions

Consistent Linear System:

A system of linear equations will be consistent if they have a unique solution or an
infinite number of solutions.
Inconsistent Linear System:
A system of linear equations will be inconsistent if they have no solution.

16
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.

Example.1: (A Linear System with one Solution)

Solve the following system of linear equations:
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 … … … (𝑖)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Solution:
7
Adding (i) and (ii), we get 𝑥 = .
3
4
Putting the value of x in equation (i) we get y= .
3
7 4 7 4
∴ Solution of the system (S.S) = 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = or ,
3 3 3 3
Geometrically, this means that the lines represented by the equations in the system intersect at
7 4
the single point ,
3 3
∴ The system is consistent and have unique/one solution.
17
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.
Example.2: (A Linear System with Infinitely many
Solutions)
Solve the following system of linear equations:
2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 3 … … … (𝑖)
4𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 6 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Solution:
Multiplying equation (i) with -2 and adding with equation (ii), we get 0 = 0.
∴ The solution of the system are those values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that satisfy every single
equation.
Geometrically, this means that the lines are parallel and coincident.
∴ The system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions. 18
 7. Consistent and Inconsistent Systems.
Example.3: (A Linear System with No Solution)
Solve the following system of linear equations:
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 … … … (𝑖)
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Solution:
Multiplying equation (i) with -2 and adding with equation (ii), we get 0 = −1.
The obtained result is contradictory,
∴ the given system has no solution.
Geometrically, this means that the lines are parallel and distinct.
∴ The given system is inconsistent.
19
 8. Solution Set of a Linear System
Definitions

A solution of a linear system is an assignment of values to the variables

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 such that each of the equations is satisfied. The set of all possible
solutions is called the solution set.

20
 9. Equivalent Systems
Definitions
Systems of equations that have the same solution are called equivalent systems.
Or, two systems of equations involving the same variable are said to be equivalent
if they have the same solution set.
Example:
Consider the following two systems of linear equations.
(a) (b)
3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = −2 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = −2
𝑥2 = 3 −3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 5 (~𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
2𝑥3 = 4 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 2 (~𝑅3 + 𝑅1 )
Both systems have the same solution set, which is −2,3,2 21
 9. Equivalent Systems
How to obtain an equal system.
1. The order in which any two equations are written may be interchanged.
2. Both sides of an equation may be multiplied by the same nonzero real number.
3. A multiple of one equation may be added to (or subtracted from) another.

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2
Example: (a). ቊ ቊ (Interchange both equations)
𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1
(b). ቊ ቊ (multiply equ.(ii) by 2)
𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −4
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3
(c). ቊ ቊ (subtract equ.(ii) from equ.(i) )
𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −2
22
10. Constant, Coefficient and variables

23
 11. Homogeneous System
Definitions
The system of linear equations having all the constant terms are zero is called a
homogeneous system, otherwise, the system is said to be a non-homogeneous
system.
Examples:
(a) (b)
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑏1 𝑥2 + 𝑐1 𝑥3 = 0 2x + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
𝑎2 𝑥1 − 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑐2 𝑥3 = 0 3x + 5𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 0
𝑎3 𝑥1 + 𝑏3 𝑥2 − 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 0 4x − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 0

24
12. Solution Method.1: Strict Triangular Form and Back
Substitution
(Strict) Triangular System.
A square system in which the first unknown 𝑥1 is the leading unknown in the first
equation, the second unknown 𝑥2 is the leading unknown in the second equation,
and so on. Then such a system is called Triangular system.
A square system is said to be in strict triangular form if, in the 𝑘𝑡ℎ equation, the
coefficients of the first 𝑘 − 1 variables are all zero and the coefficient of 𝑥𝑘 is
nonzero (𝑘 = 1, … , 𝑛).
Example: 3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 2
2𝑥3 = 4
25
12. Solution Method.1: Strict Triangular Form and Back
Substitution
Example.1: Solve the following system of linear equations using back substitution.
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 = 1---------------(i)
Putting the value of 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 in equ. (ii), we
𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥4 = 2−−−−−−−−(ii) get the following.
4𝑥3 + 3𝑥4 = 3−−−−−−−−(iii)
4𝑥4 = 4−−−−−−−−(iv)
Solution: Similarly putting the value of 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 in
Using back substitution equ.(i), we get the following.
(iv)=> 4𝑥4 = 4
=> Therefore, the solution is (1, -1, 0, 1)
Putting the value of 𝑥4 in equ.(iii), we get

26
12. Solution Method.1: Strict Triangular Form and Back
Substitution
Example.2: Solve the following system of linear equations using back substitution.
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 3-------(i)
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 3 ---(vii)
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 −3𝑥3 = −1−−−−−(ii) 0 −7𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = −10 ---(viii)
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4 −−−−(iii) -7(vi)+(v) => 0 + 0 + 𝑥3 = 4 ---(ix)
Solution: Now, Using back substitution
Convert the above system into a triangular
(ix)=>
system (equivalent system).
Putting values of 𝑥3 in equ.(viii), we get
Target: We need to eliminate 1st element from
equ.(ii), also, 1st and 2nd element from equ.(iii)
Putting values of 𝑥3 , 𝑥2 in equ.(vii), we get
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 3 ---(iv)
(ii)-3(i) => 0 − 7𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = −10----(v)
Therefore, the solution is (3, -2, 4)
(iii)-2(i) => 0 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = −2 ---(vi) 27
 13. Augmented matrix
Considered the following system of equations.
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑏1 𝑥2 + 𝑐1 𝑥3 = 𝑑1
(i). ቐ𝑎2 𝑥1 − 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑐2 𝑥3 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥1 + 𝑏3 𝑥2 − 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 𝑑3

From the above equation we can write the following;

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
M = 𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑐2 ቮ𝑑2 , A= 𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 −𝑐3 𝑑3 𝑎3 𝑏3 −𝑐3
Here matrix M is called Augmented matrix,
while matrix A is called coefficient matrix.

28
 13. Augmented matrix
In general form.

𝑎11 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑑1 𝑎11 … 𝑎1𝑛

M= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ቮ ⋮ , A= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑚1 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Here matrix M is called Augmented matrix,
while matrix A is called coefficient matrix.

29
 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
Elementary Row Operations
I. Interchange two rows.
II. Multiply a row by a nonzero real number.
III. Replace a row by its sum with a multiple of another row.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 0 0

U= 0 𝑎22 𝑎23 L= 𝑎21 𝑎22 0
0 0 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

30
 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
Pivoting:
Changing the order of equations is called pivoting. It has two types.
1. Partial pivoting
In partial pivoting, we interchange rows where the pivotal element is zero.
1. Total pivoting
In total pivoting, we interchange rows as well as columns.

31
 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
Pivoting:

0
32
 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
Example: Solve the following system using elementary row operations
−𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0
Step.2:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 6 1 1 1 1 6 Pivotal row
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 = −1 ~𝑅1 𝑅2 0 −1 −1 1 ተ 0
2 4 1 −2 −1
3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 3
3 1 −2 2 3
Solution:
Step.1:
1 1 1 1 6
The augmented matrix for the system is ~𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 0 −1 −1 1 ተ 0 Pivotal row
0 −1 −1 1 0 ~𝑅4 − 3𝑅1 0 2 −1 −4 −13
1 1 1 1ተ6 0 −2 −5 −1 −15
2 4 1 −2 −1
3 1 −2 2 3
33
 14. Solution Method.2: Elementary Row Operations
Example: Solve the following system using elementary row operations
Solution:(Continued) Now, using back substitutions
𝑅4 ⇒ −𝑥4 =-2
~𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 1 1 1 1 6 ⇒
~𝑅4 − 2𝑅2
0 −1 −1 1 ተ 0 Putting the values of 𝑥4 in 𝑅3 , we get,
0 0 −3 −2 −13 Pivotal row ⇒
0 0 −3 −3 −15 Putting the values of 𝑥4 , 𝑥3 in 𝑅2 , we
get,
1 1 1 1 6 ⇒
~𝑅4 − 𝑅3 0 −1 −1 1 ተ 0 Putting the values of 𝑥4 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥2 in 𝑅1 ,
0 0 −3 −2 −13 we get,
0 0 0 −1 −2 ⇒
Solution is (2, -1, 3, 2)
34
 15. Conclusion
1. Algebra: The branch of mathematics that helps in the representation of problems or situations in the form of
mathematical expressions.
2. Linear equation: (a) variables power must be one, (b) Variables shouldn’t be in the form of a product or
quotient.
3. Non-linear equations: (a) Variables in the form of product or quotient, (b) Equations involving trigonometric
functions, (c) Variables appear in the form of log𝑥, 𝑒 𝑥 .
4. System of linear equations: A set of two or more linear equations involving the same variables.
5. Consistent Linear System: Having a unique solution or an infinite number of solutions.
6. inconsistent Linear System: Have no solution.
7. Equivalent System: Systems of equations that have the same solution.
8. Homogeneous system: The system of linear equations having all the constant terms are zero.
9. Augmented matrix: A matrix contains coefficient and constant numbers.
10. Coefficient matrix: A matrix contains coefficient terms. 35