Chapters Name

Set Theory, (02-32)

Mathematics
Relation and Function (33-107)
Progressions (108-135) Limit, Continuity & Differentiability (519-544)
Quadratic Equation (136-151) Application of Derivatives (545-566)
Logarithms (152-164)
Complex Number (165-189) Integration (Definite and Indefinite) (567-584)
Binary Number (190-203)
Binomial Theorem (204-212)
Differential Equations (585-603)
Permutations and Combinations (213-274)
Vector Algebra(604-624)
Matrices and Determinants (275-315)
Straight Line (316-368) Three-Dimensional Geometry(624-660)
Conic Sections(369-427)
Trigonometry+ Height and Distance +Properties of Triangle
Probability
(428-471)
Inverse Trigonometric functions (472-518)
SETS

By: Himani Rawat

Set (Definition): In mathematics, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct
objects.

Examples: (1) The set of even numbers between 1 and 9.

𝐴 = {2,4,6,8}

(2) The set of vowels in the English alphabet,

𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}

(3) Empty Set

The set of prime numbers less than 2
𝜙 ={}
Representation of sets :
Roster form /Tabular form Set-Builder Form/Rule Method

In roster form, a set is represented by listing all its elements, In set-builder form, a set is represented by a rule or property
separated by commas, and enclosed in curly braces that describes the elements of the set, rather than listing them
explicitly.

This form is used when the elements of the set can be listed This is useful for large or infinite sets, or when the elements
explicitly. follow a specific pattern.

General Form: General Form:

{𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 }
This means "the set of all x such that x satisfies the given
condition(s)."

Examples: Examples:
The set of natural numbers less than 6: The set of natural numbers less than 6:
A {1,2,3,4,5} A = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑵, 𝑥 < 6}
Finite and Infinite Set:
A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is called finite
otherwise, the set is called infinite.

Examples :
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation 𝑥 2 − 16 = 0, Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
Some Standard Sets :

N : the set of all natural numbers

Z : the set of all integers
Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
𝒁+ : the set of positive integers
𝑸+ : the set of positive rational numbers,
and 𝑹+ : the set of positive real numbers
Equal Sets :

Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every
element of B is also an element of A.

Examples: 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑏
Subset:
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 .

Examples: 𝐴 = 2,3,4,5,6 , 𝐵 = 1,2,3,4,5,6, … , 10 , 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵.

Universal Set:
For some given sets, the universal set is the superset of all those set.

Example:
𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} is universal set for the sets
𝐴 = 1,2,3 , 𝐵 = 2,3,5,6 , 𝐶 = {2,4,6,8}
Complement of a set :
𝐴′ 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑐 or U – A
Example :

U = { 1,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 }

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} then A ′ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Symmetric difference of two sets :

A ∆ B = (A-B) ∪ (B−A)
Equivalent sets:
Two finite sets A and B are equivalent, if their cardinal numbers are
same,
n( A )=n (B)

Example: A ={ a,b ,c, d, e} B = { 1, 3,5 ,7 ,9}

n(A)= n (B ) So, these sets are equivalent sets.
No of subsets :

For a set with n elements, the total number of subsets is given by:

Number of subsets=𝟐𝒏 ,

Number of non-empty subsets = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏,

Number proper subsets = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏,

Number non−empty proper subsets = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟐

 Example:

The set is S={a,b,c} has n=3 elements. Therefore, the number of subsets is 𝟐𝟑

The subsets are(no of subsets = 𝟐𝟑 =8)

{ }, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a,b,c}.

Proper Subsets (Total no of proper subsets = 8-1=7)

{ }, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c}
Non empty subsets = 8-1 =7
{a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a,b,c}.
Power Set :
The power set of a set S is the set of all possible subsets of S, including the empty
set and S itself.

Example: 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏}

Subsets of S are : , 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑎, 𝑏
And the power set of S is 𝑃 𝑆 = { , 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑎, 𝑏 }

𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑃 𝑆 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑛

= 2𝑛
Algebra of Sets :
Set difference:
If A and B are two sets, the set difference A−B={x∈A∣x∉B}
(take all the elements of A and remove any elements that are also in B.
Example: 𝐴 = 21, 27, 29, 30, 1000 , 𝐵 = 30,31,1000
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 21,27,29 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 − 𝐴 = 31
• Key Properties:
1.Non-commutative: A−B≠B−A , in general.
2.If A∩B=∅, then A−B=A (since no elements overlap).
3.If B⊆A, A−B⊆A
Intersection :
intersection of two sets is the set of elements that are common to both sets.
A∩B={x∣x∈A and x∈B}

Let A={1,2,3,4} and B={3,4,5,6}

The intersection A∩B is
A∩B={3,4}

• Key Properties:
1.Commutative: A∩B=B∩A.
2.Associative: (A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C).
3.Subset Property: A∩B⊆A, and A∩B⊆B.
4.If A∩B=∅, Then A and B are called disjoint sets.
Union:

A and B are two sets, the union of A and B, denoted by A∪B, is defined as:
A∪B={x∣x∈A or x∈B}. This means the union includes:
1.All elements of A,
2.All elements of B,
3.Without repeating any elements that appear in both.
Example: Let A={1,2}, B={3,4}.
The union A∪B is:
A∪B={1,2,3,4}

Key Properties:
1.Commutative: A∪B=B∪A.
2.Associative: (A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C)
3.Idempotent: A∪A=A.
4.Subset Property: If A⊆B, then A∪B=B.
5.If A∩B=∅, then A∪B is called the disjoint union
 Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint,
if A ∩ B = φ
If A ∩ B ≠ φ, then A and B are said to be intersecting or overlapping sets.

Example:
A = { 1,2 ,3 } and B = {4 ,5 ,6 }
Then A ∩ B = φ ,
A and B are disjoint sets
Venn Diagram :
A Venn diagram is a graphical representation of sets and their relationships.

Intersection of two sets

𝑨∩𝑩
Union of two sets A and B

𝑨∪𝑩
Intersection of sets :

𝑨∩𝑩∩𝑪
𝑨 𝑪
 𝑩 𝑩 − (𝑨 ∪ 𝑪)

𝑨 𝑪
 𝑨

𝑨 ∩ 𝑪 ∪ (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)
𝑩 𝑪
 𝑨

𝑩 − (𝑩 ∩ 𝑪)
𝑩
𝑪
Complement of a set:

A
Formula:
n 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝒏 𝑨 + 𝒏 𝑩 − 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)

n 𝑨∪𝑩∪𝑪 =𝒏 𝑨 +𝒏 𝑩 +𝒏 𝑪 −𝒏 𝑨∩𝑩 −𝒏 𝑩∩𝑪 −

𝒏 𝑨 ∩ 𝑪 + 𝒏(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ∩ 𝑪)

De morgan Low:
𝑨∪𝑩 ′ = 𝑨 ′∩ 𝑩 ′
𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ′ = 𝑨′ ∪ 𝑩′
Example ): In a class, 3 languages are offered mainly Hindi, English and
French. The total number of students learning French is 46. In x denotes
the number of students learning Hindi and French but bot English, then
answer the following using adjacent Venn diagram

How many students learn precisely two languages?

(a) 55
(b) 40
(c) 30
(d) 13
How many students learn English and French?
How many students learn at least two languages? (a) 30
(a) 15 (b) 43
(b) 30 (c) 45
(c) 45 (d) 73 .
(d) 55.
How many students learn at least one language?
What is the total strength of the class? (a) 45
(a) 124 (b) 51
(b) 100 (c) 96
(c) 96 (d) None of these
(d) 66 .
Example: If A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, then what is the cardinality of the power set P(A)?
(a) 8
(b) 15
(c) 16
(d) 17
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 𝑆 𝑜𝑟
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑃 𝑆 ,
𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑛
= 2𝑛
Example): The shaded region in the given figure is

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(b) A ∪ (B ∩ C)
(c) A − (B ∩ C)
(d) A − (B ∪ C)
Example:
Consider the following Venn diagram. If
n(E) = 42, n(A) = 15, n(B) = 12 and n(A ∪
B) = 22, then the area represented by
shaded portion in the above Venn
diagram, is
(a)25
(b)27
(c)32
(d)37
Example: What is the number of natural numbers less than or equal to 1000 which
are neither divisible by 10 nor 15 nor 25?

(a) 860
(b) 854
(c) 840
(d) 824
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

BY : Himani Rawat
Mathematics faculty, JMDI
Academy Dehradun
Cartesian Product of Two Sets :

𝐴 × 𝐵 = { 𝑎, 𝑏 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 }
B × 𝐴 = { 𝑏, 𝑎 : 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} 𝒂, 𝒃 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓

Example :𝐴 = 1,2,3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏

Then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = { 1, 𝑎 , 1, 𝑏 , 2, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑎 , (3, 𝑏)}

And B× 𝐴 = { 𝑎, 1 , 𝑏, 1 , 𝑎, 2 , 𝑏, 2 , 𝑎, 3 , (𝑏, 3)}
Practice Questions: ☺
(1). Let A ={a, b, c, d} and B = {x, y, z} . What is the number of elements in A × B.
(a) 6
(b) 7
(c) 12
(d) 6

(2) . If A = { 1,2 }, B= {2 , 3} and C = { 3, 4}, then what is the cardinality of

(A x B ) ∩ (A x C) ?
(a) 8
(b) 6
(c) 2
(d) 1
Important Points:
A = φ or B = φ, then A × B = φ.

If |A|=n and |B|=m , then A × B has (m x n) elements that is |A x B|=|B x A|=m x n

If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A.

For any three sets A B, and C, we have

(a) A × (B ∪ C )= (A × B) ∪ ( A x C)
(b) A × (B ∩ C )= (A× B)∩ ( A x C)
Relation from set A to set B
|A x B|=m x n
A relation R from A Ok…..so total no of
to B is a subset of Subsets of A x B is 𝟐𝒎× 𝒏
A × B. Total no of relations
If |A|=n and |B|=m, from A to B is 𝟐𝒎× 𝒏
Then |A x B|=m x n
 A relation R from A to B is a
subset of A × B.

𝑅: 𝐴 → 𝐵, Then 𝑅 = { 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏}

1
Example: 𝐴 = 1,2,3,4 , 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 a
2
b
𝑅 = { 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , (2, 𝑐)(3, 𝑎)} 3
c
4
Practice Questions:
(1) If A is a finite set having n elements, then the number of relations which can
be defined in A is ?
𝑛2
Ans: 2

(2) Let A = { x, y ,z } and B = {p ,q ,r ,s }, what is the number of distinct relations

from B to A?
(a) 4096
(b) 4094
(c) 128
(d) 126
Domain, Codomain, Range of a Relation:
If R is a relation from set A to set B Then
Domain = {𝑥: 𝑥𝑅𝑦 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}
Codomain = set B
Range = = {𝑦: 𝑥𝑅𝑦 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}

Example: If R is a relation from N to N such that xRy if y = 𝑥 2 and x < 5

Then R={(1,1),(2,4),(3,9),(4,16)}
Domain ={1,2,3,4}
Codomain = N
Range = {1,2,4,9}
Inverse Relation:
• 𝑅 −1 = 𝑏, 𝑎 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

Domain (𝑅−1 ) = Range R

and Range (𝑅 −1 ) =Domain ( R )
Relation on a set : Relation from same set to same
set is called relation on a set
Types of relation on a set:
(1). Identity Relation
(2). Reflexive Relation
(3). Symmetric Relation
(4). Transitive Relation.
(5). Equivalence Relation.( Reflexive Relation + Symmetric Relation+ Transitive
Relation)
Identity Relation :
Let A be a set.
Then, the relation I on A such that I= { 𝑎, 𝑎 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} on A is called the identity
relation on A.

Example : 𝐴 = 1,2,3
Then 𝑅 = 1,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 is identity relation on A.
Reflexive Relation:
A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive, if every element of A is related to
itself.

Example: 𝐴 = 1,2,3
Then 𝑅 = 1,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 , 1,2 , (1,3) is Reflexive relation on A.
But R’= 1,1 , 3,3 , 1,2 , (1,3) is not reflexive as (2,2) is not in R.
Symmetric Relation :

Relation on a set A is called symmetric iff

𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏𝑅𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑅𝑏

Anti-symmetric relation:
Relation on a set A is called anti-symmetric iff
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑅𝑎, 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∀ 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
Transitive Relation :
A relation on a set A is called transitive iff
𝑎Rb and bRc => aRc , ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴

Equivalence Relation:
A relation which is Reflexive + symmetric + Transitive is called equivalence relation.

universal relation on a non-empty set A is A x A

Properties of Relation on a set A
𝑛2
(1) If any set has n elements, then total number of relation is 2 .
𝑛 2 −𝑛
2
(2) If any set has n elements, then total number of reflexive relation is .
(3) The universal relation on a non-empty set is always reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
(4) The identity relation on a non-empty set is always reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
(5) The identity relation on a non-empty set is always anti-symmetric.
(6) If R and S are two equivalence relations on set A, then R ∩ S is also an
equivalence relation on A.
(7) The inverse of an equivalence relation is an equivalence relation.
Function / Mapping :
A function f is defined as a relation between two sets, A(the domain) and B(the
codomain), such that:
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
For every x ∈ A, there exists a unique y ∈ B, such that y=f(x).

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 , is a function then
Domain =𝐴 (set of all inputs) Functioning
Codomain =𝐵
occurs when
every input has a
Range = set of all images/outputs
unique output ☺
Examples:
It is not a function as D has no output and C has two different outputs. 
A a

B b

C c

D d

E e
Examples:
It is a function as for each input from first set there is a unique output in set B. ☺
A a

B b

C c

D d

E e
Domain and range of a function defined from set A to
set B
Domain: If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function/mapping , then it maps every element of set A to
a unique element of set B. In this case, all elements of set A are the inputs,
meaning the domain of the function is simply set A (the set of all inputs).

Range : If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function/mapping, Then the set of all images(or outputs) of

elements of set A in set B is called the range of function.
Example:
If A = {1,2,3}, B={1,2,3,4…,10} and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 such that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2
Then Domain = A
Codomain = B
And Range = {1,4,9}
Definition of domain and Range of real valued function
(Natural domain and range of real valued functions)

The domain of a function is the set of all Domain

input values (usually represented as x)
for which the function is well-defined.

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function/mapping, Then
the set of all images(outputs/values of y) of elements of domain called the range
of function.
Range
Linear Function: f(x)=ax+b or y = ax+b
y
Domain: All real numbers
Codomain: All real numbers
Range : All real numbers y=ax+b

x
Quadratic Function: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2

• Domain: All real numbers.

• Codomain: All real numbers.
• Range: [0,∞) ,since squares of real numbers are non-negative
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 2 − 1)
Domain(set of all possible values of x/inputs for which f(x) is defined)
=R (all real numbers)

Since 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 1 ≥ −1 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ −1
Hence range ( set of all values of f(x)) of the function f is −1, ∞
Modulus functions:
(1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
Domain = R (Set of all real numbers)
Since 𝑥 ≥ 0 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹
Range = 𝟎, ∞ (𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔)

(2) 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 − 𝟐 + 𝟕
Domain = R (Set of all real numbers)
Range = Since 𝑥 − 2 + 7 ≥ 7 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, ⇒ 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝟕, ∞
Graphs of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆 𝒙 and 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙

(0,1 )

(1,0 )

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
Domain = −∞, ∞ Domain = 0, ∞
Range = 0, ∞ Range = −∞, ∞
 𝑥
Domain and Range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥
Ans: Domain = R-{0}
Range ={-1,1}

Domain & Range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 , [.] is greatest integer function.

Ans: Domain = R
Range = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3…}

Domain and range of 𝑓 𝑥 = 5

Domain: R
Range : {5}
To define Domain / possible values of inputs
or x , remember the following points:

𝟏
(1). is defined/real valued only for those
𝒇 𝒙
values of x , for which 𝒇 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎.

(2). 𝒇 𝒙 is real/defined for those vales of

x for which 𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎.

(3). Log(f(x)) is defined only for 𝐟 𝒙 > 𝟎

(4). 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (f(x)) is defined only for

−𝟏 ≤ 𝐟 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏
 1
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

1
At 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑓 0 = = not defined
0
….not getting any output for the
input 0 ,
therefore Domain = 𝑹 − {𝟎}
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = log(𝑥 − 1)
Since log is defined for positive values only
⇒𝑥−1>0⇒𝑥 >1
Hence domain of the function f is (1, ∞)
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1

𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 1,
⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = [1, ∞)
 1
Example 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = (0, ∞)

log(−𝑥)
Example 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+2

𝑓𝑜𝑟 log(−𝑥) , −𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < 0,

1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 , 𝑥 + 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > (−2)
𝑥+2

⇒ −2 < 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = (−2,0)

 𝑥−1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Then, Dom (𝑓) =? (JMDI Booklet question)
𝑥−4
(a) [1,∞]
(b) [4,∞[
(c) ] − ∞, 1] ⋃]4, ∞[
(d) None of these

𝑥−1
Solution : ≥ 0 , 𝑥 ≠ 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ] − ∞, 1] ⋃]4, ∞[
𝑥−4

+
+
-
1 4
Practice Questions:
The domain of function 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 is
(a) R
(b) ( − ∞ ,1)
(c) ( 1, ∞)
(d) (2 /3 , ∞)

Solution : 𝑓 𝑥 is defined iff 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 ≥ 0

4
Since 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 = 3(𝑥 2 − 𝑥) +5
3
4 4 4 2 2 4 2 2 11 11
=3 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + − +5=3 𝑥− − +5=3 𝑥− + ≥ ≥0
3 9 9 3 3 3 3 3
Hence Domain = R (all real numbers )
 1
The domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 −𝑥
Solution :
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 is defined only when 𝑥 − 𝑥 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑥

which is possible only for negative values of x.

∴ Domain of f is ( − ∞ ,0 ).
 1
The domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−|𝑥|
Answer : 𝜙
Linear Function: f(x)=ax+b or y = ax+b
y
Domain: All real numbers
Codomain: All real numbers
Range : All real numbers y=ax+b

x
Range of Real valued functions:
The range of a function refers to the set of all possible output values (𝑓 𝑥 values)
that the function can produce for its domain (the set of input values).

𝑥+1
(1). Find range and domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−3
Domain: R – {3}
Range: R- {1}

2𝑥+1
(2) Find range and domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =
5𝑥+3
Domain: R – {-3/5}
Range: R- {2/5}
 1
3. Find range and domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =
5𝑥+3
Domain: R – {-3/5}
Range: R- {0}
 45𝑥−7
Find range and domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =
5𝑥+3
Range: [0, ∞)- {3}
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 where f(x) is linear in x :
𝒇 𝒙 Domain Range

𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 7 𝟕 [0, ∞)
− ,∞
𝟑

𝑓 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 [−1, ∞) [0, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 5−𝑥 (−∞, 5] [0, ∞)

𝑓 𝑥 = 2 − 9𝑥 𝟐 [0, ∞)
−∞,
𝟗

𝑓 𝑥 = 7𝑥 [𝟎, ∞) [0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 where f(x) is linear in x :
𝒇 𝒙 Domain Range

1 𝟕 (0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 = − ,∞
3𝑥 + 7 𝟑

1 (−1, ∞) (0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 =
1+𝑥

1 (−∞, 5) (0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 =
5−𝑥

1 𝟐 (0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 = −∞,
2 − 9𝑥 𝟗

1 (𝟎, ∞) (0, ∞)
𝑓 𝑥 = 7𝑥
Function of type y = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Parabola:
(1) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)

(2) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)

(3) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)2 +5
Domain: R
Range: [5, ∞)
(4) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +2x+3
Domain: R
Range: [2, ∞)

(5) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)

(6) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)2 +5
Domain: R
Range: [5, ∞)
Circle ,Parabola and Ellipse based Domain and Range Problems
Circle:
𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2

Domain 1 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = −1,1
Range : Since 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ 0
(0,1)
And 𝑦2 =1− 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑦2+ 𝑥2=1⇒𝑥= 1 − 𝑦2 Range [0,1]
⇒ 1 − 𝑦 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1
Range [0,1]
(-1,0) (0,0) (1,0)

Domain [-1,1]
𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥2

Domain 9 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 9 ⇒ −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = −3,3
Range : Since 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ 0
(0,3)
And 𝑦2 =9− 𝑥2 ⇒𝑦2 +𝑥2 =9⇒𝑥= 9 − 𝑦2 Range [0,1]
Range(outputs or values of y)= [0,3]

(-3,0) (0,0) (3,0)

Domain [-1,1]
Hyperbola:

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 16

Domain 𝑥 2 − 16 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≥ 16 ⇒ −4 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 4 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = −∞, −4 ∪ [4, ∞)

Range : Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 16 ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ 0
And 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 16 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 16 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 16
Range [0, ∞) (-4,0) (4,0)
Hyperbola:

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 16

2 2 4 4
Domain 3𝑥 − 16 ≥ 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 ≥ 16 ⇒ − ≥ 𝑥 ≥ ⇒
3 3
4 4
𝐷𝑓 = −∞, − ∪ [ , ∞)
3 3
Range : Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 16 ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ 0
And 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 2 − 16 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 16 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 −
4
,0
4
,0
3 3

𝑦 2 + 16
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
3
Range [0, ∞)
Ellipse:

𝑦 = 5 − 6𝑥 2

5 5
Domain 5 − 6𝑥 2
≥0⇒5≥ 6𝑥 2⇒ ≥𝑥≥−
6 6
5 5
𝐷𝑓 = − ,
6 6 √5,0

Range : Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 16 ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ 0 5 5
− ,0 ,0
2 2 𝑥2 𝑦2 6 6
And 𝑦 + 6𝑥 = 5 ⇒ 5 + =1
5 0,0
6
Range [0,5)
√5,0
Domain and range using the concept of Limit(for
indeterminant forms ) :
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 −4
Range: lim =4
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
Range 𝑹 − {4}
 Some More Examples on Range
𝑓 𝑥
(𝑦 = type functions where both f(x) and g(x) are not linear )
𝑔 𝑥
 𝑥2
Qus: What is the range of the function where x ∈R ? (JMDI booklet questions)
1+𝑥 2
(a) [0, 1)
(b) [0, 1]
(c) (0, 1)
(d) (0, 1]

𝑥2
Solution :y =
1+𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 = 0
𝑦 𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 𝑦−1 +𝑦 =0⇒ 𝑥2 =− =
𝑦−1 (1 − 𝑦)

𝑦
⇒𝑥=±
1−𝑦
𝑦
x will be defined only if ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 1 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ [0,1)
1−𝑦
 3
Qus: What is the domain range of the function f x = where x ∈R ?
2−𝑥 2
Ans: Domain: 𝑹 − { 𝟐, − 𝟐}
Range :
3
f x =
2 − 𝑥2

3
⇒y=
2 − 𝑥2

2𝑦 − 3
⇒𝑥=±
𝑦
2𝑦−3 3
x will be defined only if ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ −∞, 0 ∪ [ , ∞)
𝑦 2
 1
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = Then Range (g) = ? (JMDI booklet question )
1−𝑥 2
(a) −∞, 𝟎 ∪[1, ∞[
(a) ] − ∞, 1]
(b) [−1,1]
(c) None of these
1 2 1
Solution: 𝑦 = ⇒1−𝑥 =
1−𝑥 2 𝑦
1
⇒ 1 − = 𝑥2
𝑦
𝑦−1
⇒𝑥=
𝑦
𝑦−1
⇒ ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝒚 ∈ −∞, 𝟎 ∪ [𝟏, ∞)
𝑦
 1
The range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + , is : (JMDI Booklet)
𝑥
(a) [2, ∞[
(b) [−2,2]
(c) ] − ∞, −2]
(d) None of these

𝑥 2 +1
Solution: 𝑦= ⇒ 𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥
−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
Now 𝑥 =
2𝑎
X is defined when
⇒ 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑦 2 − 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ −∞, −2 ∪ [2, ∞)
Domain and range of trigonometric functions:
Domain and Range of inverse trigonometric functions:
Function Domain Range (Principal Value Branch )

sin−1 𝑥 [-1,1] 𝜋 𝜋
[− , ]
2 2

cos −1 𝑥 [-1,1] [0, 𝜋]

tan−1 𝑥 (−∞, ∞ ) = 𝐑 𝜋 𝜋
− ,
2 2

co𝑡 −1 𝑥 (−∞, ∞ ) (0, 𝜋)

cosec −1 𝑥 (−∞, ∞ )-(-1,1) 𝜋 𝜋

− , − {0}
2 2

sec −1 𝑥 (−∞, ∞ )-(-1,1) 𝜋

0, 𝜋 − { }
2
 𝜋
Qus: Range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝜋 + sin 2𝑥 + is ?
4
Ans: [ 2𝜋 − 1 , 2𝜋 + 1 ]
Qus: The domain of the given function log 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ?
Solution : log 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ≥ 1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 1

𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋
⇒𝑥= , , …
2 2 2

4𝑛 + 1
⇒𝑥= 𝜋, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3,4 … …
2
Types of function:
• One-One/Injective function.
• Many-One function.
• Onto/Surjective function.
• Into function.
• One-One and Onto function.(Bijective function)
One-one function/Injective function :
If no two different elements in the domain map to the same element in the
codomain, Then function is called one-one function.

A 1

B 2

3
C
4
D
5 Not a one-one function, as
B and C have same images.
Onto functions/Surjective function:
A function where every element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one
element from the domain.

A 1
Codomain=Range
B 2

3
C
4
D
Not a onto function, as in
5 codomain 1 and 2 are not
mapped by any elements of
domain.
Bijective Function
(one-one and onto function)
If A and B are two sets
and there exists a
bijective mapping from
set A to set B, then
|A|=|B|
A
1
B
2
C 4

D 5
Example:
𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑵, 𝑓 𝑛 = 2𝑛
Is one-one but not onto .
Range= set of all even numbers.
Codomain = N
Codomain and range are not equal hence function is not onto.

Example:
𝑓: 𝒁 → 𝒁, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
Is one-one and onto .

Example:
𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑵, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
Is one-one and but not onto .
Example:
𝑓: 𝒁 → 𝒁, 𝑓 𝑥 = |𝑥|
Is neither one-one nor onto .

Example:
𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑵, 𝑓 𝑥 = |𝑥|
Is one-one and onto .

Example:
𝑓: 𝒁 → 𝒁, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
Is neither one-one nor onto

Example:
𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑵, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
Is one-one but not onto .
 Assignment (Domain and Range)
Find domain and range of the following functions?
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 7 − 9𝑥
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 4
1
3. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3
𝑥+5
4. 𝑓 𝑥 = 19𝑥−3
5. 𝑓 𝑥 = 81 − 𝑥 2
6. 𝑓 𝑥 = 25𝑥 2 − 49
7. 𝑓 𝑥 = 25 − 𝑥 2
9𝑥+6
8. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+5

9. 𝑓 𝑥 = 25 − 𝑥 2
Inverse of a function:
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)

Example : 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑥
𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑥

1−𝑦
⇒ 𝑥=
3

1−𝑦 1−𝑥
𝑓 −1 𝑦 = or 𝑓 −1 𝑥 =
3 3
Composition of functions:
𝒇𝒐𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒐𝒇

Example 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ,

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑒 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 )2 = 𝑒 2𝑥 ,
2 𝑥2
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 =𝑒

𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2 )2 = 𝑥 4
Practice Questions:
1+𝑥 3𝑥+𝑥 3
𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 ?
1−𝑥 1+3𝑥 2
a. −f( x)
b. 3[f(x)]
c. 𝑓 𝑥 3
d. −3[ f(x )]

3𝑥+𝑥3
3𝑥+𝑥 3 1+
1+3𝑥2 1+𝑥 3 1+𝑥 3
Solution: 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 = log 3𝑥+𝑥3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = log = 3𝑓(𝑥)
1+3𝑥 2 1− 1−𝑥 3 1−𝑥
1+3𝑥2
(2) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 10, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑔 −1
𝑖𝑠 ?

𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 − 1 = 3𝑥 2 + 7

2 2 𝑦−7 𝑦−7
Let y = 3𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒𝑥= = (𝑓𝑜𝑔)−1 (𝑦)
3 3

−1
𝑦−7
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑦 ==
3

−1
𝑥−7
𝑂𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 =
3
Inverse of a function:
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)

Example : 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑥
𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑥

1−𝑦
⇒ 𝑥=
3

1−𝑦 1−𝑥
𝑓 −1 𝑦 = or 𝑓 −1 𝑥 =
3 3
Composition of functions:
𝒇𝒐𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒐𝒇

Example 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ,

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑒 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 )2 = 𝑒 2𝑥 ,
2 𝑥2
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 =𝑒

𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2 )2 = 𝑥 4
Practice Questions:
1+𝑥 3𝑥+𝑥 3
𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 ?
1−𝑥 1+3𝑥 2
a. −f( x)
b. 3[f(x)]
c. 𝑓 𝑥 3
d. −3[ f(x )]

3𝑥+𝑥3
3𝑥+𝑥 3 1+
1+3𝑥2 1+𝑥 3 1+𝑥 3
Solution: 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 = log 3𝑥+𝑥3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = log = 3𝑓(𝑥)
1+3𝑥 2 1− 1−𝑥 3 1−𝑥
1+3𝑥2
(2) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 10, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑔 −1
𝑖𝑠 ?

𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 − 1 = 3𝑥 2 + 7

2 2 𝑦−7 𝑦−7
Let y = 3𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒𝑥= = (𝑓𝑜𝑔)−1 (𝑦)
3 3

−1
𝑦−7
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑦 ==
3

−1
𝑥−7
𝑂𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 =
3
Progression

By
Himani Rawat
Mathematics Faculty JMDI
Academy Dehradun
Arithmetic Progression(A.P.):

An Arithmetic Progression (AP) is a sequence of numbers in which the difference

between consecutive terms is constant. This difference is called the common
difference (d).
General Form of an AP:
The general form of an arithmetic progression is:
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, …,a + (n-1)d
Where:
a is the first term,
d is the common difference.
Examples:
1,3,5,7,9…. In any A.P. 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 …
The common difference
2,0,-2,-4,-6,-8,… d is
d = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1
10,20,30,40,… = 𝑎3 − 𝑎2
= 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1
Important Formulas in AP:
General Term of an A.P. (nth term)
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑

Sum of first n terms in an A.P.

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛
2
Examples :
If First term of an A.P. is 3, and Common difference (d) is 5.
Find:
The 10th term.
The sum of the first 10 terms.
Consecutive terms in A.P. (When their sum is
given)
Three consecutive terms: 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑

Four consecutive terms: a − 3𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑

Five consecutive terms: 𝑎 − 2𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑

Six consecutive terms: 𝑎 − 5𝑑 , 𝑎 − 3𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 5𝑑

Arithmetic Mean:
Arithmetic
Mean
b/w 4 and 6
Arithmetic mean 𝟒+𝟔
= =𝟓
𝟐

𝒂+𝒃
between a and b =
𝟐 That means
4,5,6 are in A.P.
Properties:
If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃. , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
(1) 𝑎1 + 𝑘, 𝑎2 + 𝑘, 𝑎3 + 𝑘 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃.
(2) 𝑎1 − 𝑘, 𝑎2 − 𝑘, 𝑎3 − 𝑘 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃.

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝐴. 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛

(3) 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃.
(4) 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃
Geometric Progression
A Geometric Progression (GP) is a sequence of numbers in which each term after
the first is obtained by multiplying the previous term by a fixed, non-zero number
called the common ratio (r).

The general form of a geometric progression is:

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 … .

Where:
a is the first term,
r is the common ratio
Important Formulas in G.P.:
General Term of a G.P. (nth term)
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Sum of first n terms in a G.P.

𝑎 1 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = ,= , 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟 1−𝑟

𝑎 𝑟𝑛 − 1 𝑟𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎
𝑆𝑛 = = , 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 > 1
𝑟−1 𝑟−1

𝑎
If |r| < 1 Sum of infinite terms in a G.P. 𝑆∞ = ,
1−𝑟
Examples
3,9,27,81… In any G.P. 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 …
The common ratio r is
10,20,40,80…
𝑎2
r=
𝑎1
1 1 1 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛
1, , , , … = =
2 4 8 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛−1
3 3
6,3, , …
2 4
Consecutive terms in G.P. (When their product is
given)
𝑎
Three consecutive terms: , 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟
𝑟

a 𝑎
Four consecutive terms: , , 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 3
𝑟3 𝑟

𝑎 𝑎
Five consecutive terms: 2 , ,𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2
𝑟 𝑟

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Six consecutive terms: , 3 , , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 5
𝑟5 𝑟 𝑟
Geometric Mean:

Geometric mean

between a and b = 𝒂𝒃
Properties:
If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃. , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
(1) 𝑘𝑎1 , 𝑘𝑎2 , 𝑘𝑎3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
(2) , , … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃.
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝐺. 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛

(3) 𝑎1 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏3 … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
(4) , , … . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺. 𝑃.
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
Harmonic Progression:
A Harmonic Progression (HP) is a sequence of numbers where the reciprocals of
the terms form an Arithmetic Progression (AP).

the sequence 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , … is a harmonic

progression if:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
, , , … forms an arithmetic progression.
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
Examples:
1 1 1 1
, , , ,…
8 10 12 14

1 1 1 1
, , , ,…
10 20 30 40
Harmonic Mean:
Harmonic
Mean
b/w 4 and 6
Harmonic Mean =
𝟐×𝟒×𝟔
=
𝟒𝟖
𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟒+𝟔 𝟏𝟎
between a and b = 𝟐𝟒
𝒂+𝒃 =
𝟓

So
𝟐𝟒
4, ,6 are
𝟓
in H.P.
Relation between A.M., G.M. and H.M.
If for two
terms
𝟐 a and b
𝑮. 𝑴. = 𝑨. 𝑴 × 𝑯. 𝑴
G.M. is 36
and H.M. is
𝑨. 𝑴. ≥ 𝑮. 𝑴 ≥ 𝑯. 𝑴 49 then A.M.?
If 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 … . . 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑮. 𝑷.
⇒ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒂𝟏 , 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂𝟐 , 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂𝟑 … . . are in A.P.
Some Important formula
• Sum of first n natural numbers:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +⋯+ 𝑛 =
2

• Sum of squares of first n natural numbers:

2 2 2 2 2 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯+ 𝑛 =
6

• Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers:

𝑛 𝑛+1 2
3 3 3 3 3
1 + 2 + 4 +5 + ⋯n =
2
What is the value of 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - ………. + 101 ?
(a) 51
(b) 55
(c) 111
(d) 100

Solution: 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + ⋯ . +101
Question Series
Level-Easy questions
(1) The arithmetic mean between 14 and 18 is :
(a) 16
(b) 15
(c) 17
(d) 32

(2) If 18, a, b, - 3 are in A.P., then

(a) 𝑎 = 11, 𝑏 = −4
(b) 𝑎 = −11, 𝑏 = 4
(c) 𝑎 = 11, 𝑏 = 4
(d) None of these
(3) 23rd term of the A.P. 7,5,3,1,…. Is
(a) – 51
(b) 53
(c) 37
(d) – 37
Solution: 𝑎23 = 𝑎 + 22𝑑 = 7 + 22 × −2
= 7 − 44
= −37
(4) How many two-digit numbers are there which are divisible by 7 ?
(a) 14 (b) 15 (c) 13 (d) 12
Solution:
Two-digit numbers which are divisible by 7 are
14,21,….,98 ⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 98 ⇒ 98 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ⇒ 98 = 14 + 7𝑛 − 7 ⇒ 𝑛 = 13
(5) Find sum of two-digit numbers which are divisible by 11 ?
(a) 500 (b) 798 (c) 945 (d) 495
Solution: Two-digit numbers which are divisible by 11 are 11,22,33,….99
9 × 10
𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 11 + 22 + 33 + ⋯ + 99 = 11 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 9 = 11 ×
2
= 11 × 45 = 495
Level (Difficult):
(1) What is the nth term of sequence 25 - 125, 625, -3125, ………. ?
Solution:
(2) If 3rd, 8th, and 13th terms of a GP are p, q and r respectively, then
which one of the following is correct ?
(a) 𝐪𝟐 = 𝐩𝐫
(b) r 2 = pq
(c) 2q = p + r
(d) 0
Solution :
(3) What is the fourth term of an AP of n terms whose sum is n(n + 1)?
(a) 6
(b) 8
(c) 20
(d) 0
Solution :
Quadratic Equations

BY : Himani Rawat
Mathematics faculty,
JMDI Academy Dehradun
General form of quadratic equation in one variable:

𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

Methods of solution/finding roots of a given quadratic equation :

(1) By linear factorization :
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥−𝛼 𝑥−𝛽 =0
𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝛽

(2) Quadratic Formula

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant.

Formation of a quadratic equation when two roots
𝜶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷 of equation are given
𝑥−𝛼 𝑥−𝛽 =0

⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0

⇒ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎

Note : Complex and Irrational roots always occur in conjugate pairs.

Example: If one root of a quadratic equation is 𝟏 + 𝟐, Then another
root will be 𝟏 − 𝟐 ,
Nature of the Roots of a Quadratic Equation

Roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
are 𝑥 =
2𝑎

(i) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 , then the quadratic equation has two real and distinct roots.
(ii) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the quadratic equation has two equal and real roots i.e.
α=β= −b /2a .
(iii) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the quadratic equation has two distinct complex
roots(Conjugate pair of complex numbers),
(iv) Irrational and complex roots always occur in conjugate pair.
Relation between roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation :
If roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are α and β

Then the relations between roots α and β and coefficients a, b and c are

𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 =−
𝑎
𝑏
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = −
𝑎
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎 𝑐
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
𝑎
Relation between roots and coefficients of a cubic equation :

If roots of the quadratic equation ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 are α, β and 𝛾.

Then the relations between roots α , β and 𝛾 and coefficients a, b, c and d are

𝑏
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 =−
𝑎
𝑏
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = −
𝑎
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 =
𝑎
𝑑
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −
𝑎
−𝑑
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
𝑎
 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2
− 2 𝛼𝛽

(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 − 𝛽 2 + 4 𝛼𝛽

(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 4 𝛼𝛽

𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 3
− 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽 )

1 1 𝛼+𝛽
+ =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽

𝛼 2 𝛽 + 𝛽2 𝛼 = 𝛼𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽

𝛽 (𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 ) 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2 𝛼𝛽
𝛼+ = =
𝛽 𝛼 𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽
 Example: What is the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 −
143 = 0
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕:
(a) 170 𝒃
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −
𝒂
(b) 180 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝜶𝜷 =
𝒄
𝒂
(c) 190 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝜶 + 𝜷 = 𝜶 + 𝜷 − 𝟐𝜶𝜷

(d) 290
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,

⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −2, 𝛼𝛽 = −143
the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation

⇒ 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = 4 + 286 = 290

Example
If 4𝑥 − 6 .2𝑥 + 8 = 0 , then the values of x are
(a) 1, 2
(b) 1, 1 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝟐𝒙 = 𝒚
Or check the options
(c) 1, 0
(d) 2, 2

Solution: Let 𝟐𝒙 = 𝒚
⇒ (2𝑥 )2 − 6 .2𝑥 + 8 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 −6 𝑦 + 8 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 − 4 𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 8 = 0
⇒ 𝑦−4 𝑦−2 =0
⇒ 𝑦 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2
⇒ 2𝑥 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 = 2
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1
Example: If α and β are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0, then what is
𝛼10 +𝛽 10
𝛼 −10 +𝛽 −10
(a) 4096 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕:
𝒄
(b) 2048 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝜶𝜷 =
𝒂
(c) 1024
(d) 512

Solution:
𝛼𝛽 = 2
𝛼10 +𝛽 10 𝛼10 +𝛽 10 𝛼10 +𝛽 10 10
Now = = 𝛼10 +𝛽10
= 𝛼𝛽 = 210 = 1024
𝛼 −10 +𝛽 −10 1/𝛼10 +1/𝛽 10
𝛼10 𝛽10
Example: The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 = 0
(a) are imaginary
(b) are distinct and real
(c) are equal and real 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕:
Check the sign of 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
(d) Cannot be determined

Solution: Comparing 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 = 0, with 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −8, 𝑐 = 16
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 64 − 64 = 0

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the quadratic equation has two equal and real roots.
Example: If the sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is 3 and the product is 2,
then the equation is ?

𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕:
Use the formula
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎

Solution:𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟎
Example: What is the difference in the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 9 = 0?
(a) 2
Hint:
(b) 3
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 4 𝛼𝛽
(c) 5
Or
(d) 8
find the roots and then
difference b/w them
Solution:

Let α and β are the roots of the given equation

𝛼 + 𝛽 = 10 , 𝛼𝛽 = 9
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 4 𝛼𝛽
⇒ (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 10 2 − 4 × 9 = 64
⇒ 𝛼−𝛽 =8
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
(i) If the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are both positives, then the signs of a and c
should be a like and opposite to the sign as b.
(ii) If the roots of are of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 opposite signs, then the sign of a is
opposite to the sign of c.
(iii) If the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign,
then b = 0.
(iv) If the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are reciprocal of each other, then c = a.
(v) It roots are negative, then a, b, c are of same sign.
(vi) The condition that the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 may be in the
ratio m:n, 𝑚𝑛𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑐(𝑚 + 𝑛)
If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
1 1
and , are the roots of the equation c𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
α β

I am a shortcut ☺

Think and
solve ☺
If α and β are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then what is the
value of 𝛼 −1 + 𝛽 −1 ?
Example):
If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑞 = 0 and 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are the roots of
𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0, then what is the value of (𝛽 + 𝛾)(𝛽 + 𝛿)
(a) p+ r
(b) p + q
(c) q + r
(d) p – q
Logarithm and Exponential
Definition of log function:
,
If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
And 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 (Exponential form)
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑦 ( logarithmic form)

Example : 103 = 1000

⇒ 3 = log10 1000,

23 = 8
⇒ 3 = log 2 8
Practice Questions :
log16 2 =?
Let

log16 2 = 𝑥
⇒ 2 = 16𝑥
⇒ 2 = 24𝑥
⇒ 1 = 4𝑥
1
⇒𝑥=
4
1
log16 2 =
4
 Domain and range of
Exponential and log functions
Exponential Function:
If 𝑎 > 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , is an exponential function

Domain 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹
Range : since for any 𝑎 > 0 , 𝑎 𝑥 > 0
⇒𝑓 𝑥 >0
Hence range is set of all positive real numbers= (0, ∞)
Logarithm Function:
If 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥

⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑎 𝑦 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑹

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 (0, ∞)

and Range is set of all values of y = R

Exponential Function:
If 𝑎 > 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , is an exponential function

Domain 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹
Range : since for any 𝑎 > 0 , 𝑎 𝑥 > 0
⇒𝑓 𝑥 >0
Hence range is set of all positive real numbers= (0, ∞)
 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒙 and 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐚 𝒙
Domain = −∞, ∞
Domain = 0, ∞
Range = 0, ∞
Range = −∞, ∞
e is the base of natural logarithm
(Napier logarithm)

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒙
Log of negative integers are not defined, log0 is not defined
Graphs of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆 𝒙 and 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙

(0,1 )

(1,0 )

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
Domain = −∞, ∞ Domain = 0, ∞
Range = 0, ∞ Range = −∞, ∞
Properties of log function
1. log 𝑎 1 = 0
2. log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1
3. log 𝑎 (𝑚𝑛) = log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
4. log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑚 − log 𝑎 𝑛
𝑛
5. log 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚
log𝑏 𝑚 log 𝑚
6. log 𝑎 𝑚 =
log𝑏 𝑎
=
log 𝑎
1
7. log 𝑎 𝑏 = log 𝑎
𝑏
𝑝 𝑝
8. log 𝑛 𝑚 = log 𝑛 𝑚
𝑞
𝑞
9. log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
10. 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
Examples:
(1). 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 log 36 216
Solution:
3 3 3
log 62 6 = log 6 6 =
2 2

(2) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 log 25 625

Solution:
4 4
log 52 5 = log 5 5 =2
2
Complex Numbers
Topics :
• Imaginary Numbers • Inverse of a complex number
• Representation of imaginary numbers • Argument/Amplitude of a complex
number
• Powers of 𝜄
• Shortcuts to determine Argument of a
• Complex Numbers complex number
• Algebra of complex Numbers • Polar form of a complex Number
• Complex Plane/Argand plane • Locus and some shortcuts
• Modulus of a Complex Number • Cube roots of Unity
• Conjugate of a complex number • Square root of a complex number
Imaginary Numbers:
Let 𝑥 2 = −1
In real number system square of any number can’t be negative,
Hence 𝑥 = −1 is an imaginary number.

Similarly −5, −7 , −15 , −25, −16 , −1115 , −23, are

imaginary numbers.
Representation of imaginary numbers
−1 = 𝑖 (𝑖𝑜𝑡𝑎)

−4 = 4 . −1 = 2𝑖

−16 = 4 𝑖

−7 = 7 𝑖

Hence any number in the form of 𝒃 𝒊 , 𝒃𝝐𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 is an imaginary

number .
Powers of 𝜄
•𝜄
• 𝜄2 = −1
• 𝜄3 = −𝜄
• 𝜄4 = 1
4𝑛
𝜄 =1
Complex Numbers :
Real Number + Imaginary Number
𝐳 = 𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃

Examples:
3
2 + 6𝑖, −8 + 3𝑖, + 6𝑖, 7 + 𝑖,
2

2 + 0𝑖 = 2, 0 + 4𝑖 = 4𝑖, −3 − 3𝑖
Equality of two Complex Numbers :
𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃 = 𝒄 + 𝒊𝒅,
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 = 𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝒅

Examples:
x + y + 𝑥𝑖 = 2 + 3𝑖,
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2, 𝑥 = 3,
⇒ 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = −1
Real and imaginary parts of Complex Numbers :
Real Number + Imaginary Number
𝐳 = 𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃

Real part = Re(z) = a

Imaginary part = Im(z) = b

Examples:
2 + 6𝑖,

Re(z) = 2
Im(z) = 6
Algebra of complex Numbers :
Sum of complex numbers:
(𝒂𝟏 +𝜾𝒃𝟏 ) + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜾𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜾 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐
Example 𝟐 + 𝟒𝜾 + 𝟑 + 𝟓𝜾 = 𝟓 + 𝟗𝜾

Difference of complex numbers:

(𝑎1 +𝜄𝑏1 ) − 𝑎2 + 𝜄𝑏2 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 + 𝜄 𝑏1 − 𝑏2
Example 𝟐 + 𝟒𝜾 − 𝟑 + 𝟓𝜾 = −𝟏 − 𝜾

Product of complex Numbers:

(𝑎1 +𝜄𝑏1 ) 𝑎2 + 𝜄𝑏2 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝜄 𝑏1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑎1

Division of complex Numbers :

(𝑎1 +𝜄𝑏1 ) (𝑎1 +𝜄𝑏1 ) 𝑎2 − 𝜄𝑏2 𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝜄 𝑏1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑎1
= × =
𝑎2 + 𝜄𝑏2 𝑎2 + 𝜄𝑏2 𝑎2 − 𝜄𝑏2 𝑎22 + 𝑏22
Complex Plane/Argand plane :
The complex plane (or Argand plane) is a two-dimensional plane used to represent
complex numbers graphically.

b
O
𝑎
Modulus of a Complex Number:

The distance of a complex number represented in complex plane from origin

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 • 𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏

b
O
𝑎
Properties of modulus of complex numbers:
𝑧1 𝑧1
• =
𝑧2 |𝑧2 |
• 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2
• |𝑧 𝑛 | = 𝑧 𝑛
• |𝑧| = |𝑧|ҧ
• 𝑧 𝑧ҧ = 𝑧 2
Conjugate of a complex number:
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 ഥ𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝜄𝑏

Example: 𝑧 = −2 + 3𝜄 ⇒ 𝑧ҧ = −2 − 3𝜄

Properties of conjugate:
(1) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧2
(2) 𝑧ҧ + 𝑧 = 2𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝜄𝑦
and 𝑧 − 𝑧ҧ = 2𝜄𝑦
(3) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧2
(4) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 − 𝑧2
Inverse of a complex number:
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏

1 𝑎 − 𝜄𝑏 𝑎 − 𝜄𝑏 𝑧ҧ
𝑧 −1 = = = 2 2
= 2
𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏 (𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝜄𝑏) 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑧
Argument/Amplitude of a complex number:
the angle θ between the positive real axis and the line representing the complex
number in the complex plane.

arg 𝑧 = 𝜃
• 𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑏
r=|z|
b
O
𝑎
Shortcuts to determine Argument of a
complex number:
Measurement of argument in Anti-clockwise direction:

𝒚 𝒚
𝜽=𝝅 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 • (a , b) 𝜽= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒙 𝒙

𝒚 𝒚
𝜽 = 𝝅 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒙 𝒙
Shortcuts to determine Argument of a
complex number:
Measurement of argument in Anti-Clockwise (for first and second quadrant),
clockwise direction(3rd and 4th quadrant):

𝒚 𝒚
𝜽=𝝅 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 • (a , b) 𝜽= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒙 𝒙

𝒚 𝒚
𝜽 = −𝝅 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝜽= −𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒙 𝒙
Argument of complex numbers lying on Axes
Argument of a complex number lying on positive x-axis = 00 𝑜𝑟 0 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
Example: z = 1 = 1 + 0𝜄 = (1,0)

Argument of a complex number lying on negative x-axis = 1800 𝑜𝑟 𝜋

Example: z = −11 = −11 + 0𝜄 = −11,0

𝜋
Argument of a complex number lying on positive y-axis = , 𝑜𝑟 900
2
Example: z = 𝜄 = 0 + 𝜄 = (0,1)

3𝜋 −𝜋
Argument of a complex number lying on negative y-axis = 𝑜𝑟 2700 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2
900
Example: z = −2𝜄 = 0 − 2𝜄 = (0, −2)
Properties:
• a𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 𝑧2 = arg( 𝑧1 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 )

𝑧1
• a𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧1 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 )
𝑧2

• a𝑟𝑔 𝑧ҧ = −𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧)

• a𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2

• a𝑟𝑔 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑛 arg( 𝑧)

𝑧
• a𝑟𝑔 = 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧)
𝑧ҧ
Polar form of a complex Number:

If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝜄𝑏
𝑟 = 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = arg(𝑧)

Then 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) • 𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = (𝑟, 𝜃)

Is called polar form of the complex number. r=|z|
b
O
𝑎
Practice Questions
Complex Number Modulus Argument Polar Form

𝑧 =1−𝜄 1 𝟕𝝅 𝟕𝝅
𝑧 = 12 + −1 2 = 1+1 −1
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − tan − 𝒛 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝜾 𝐬𝐢𝐧
⇒ 𝑧 = (1, −1) 1 𝟒 𝟒
= 2 Or
𝜋 7𝜋
⇒ 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − = 𝝅 𝝅
4 4 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 − + 𝜾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −
7𝜋 𝜋 𝟒 𝟒
0r ⇒ 𝜃 = − 2𝜋 − 4 = − 4

1+𝜄 1+𝜄 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝜄 − 𝐴𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝜄 𝝅 𝝅

𝑧= 𝑧 = =1 𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 − + 𝜾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −
1−𝜄 1−𝜄 = tan−1 1 − 𝜋 − tan−1 1 𝟐 𝟐
𝜋
=−
2

1 + 3𝜄 1+ 3𝜄 2 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 1 + 3𝜄 − 𝒛
𝑧= 𝑧 = 1−𝜄
= 2
= 2 𝝅 𝝅
1−𝜄 𝐴𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝜄 = tan−1 3 − = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −
𝟔
+ 𝜾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −
𝟔
𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
𝜋 − tan−1 1 = 3 − 2 = 6
Locus (some shortcuts)
𝑧−𝑛𝑖
• = 1, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑧+𝑛𝑖

𝑧−𝑚
• = 1, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑧+𝑚

𝑧−(𝑚+𝑛𝑖)
• = 1, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒.
𝑧+(𝑚+𝑛𝑖)

𝑧−𝑛𝑖
• = 3, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒.
𝑧+𝑛𝑖

𝑧−𝑚
• = 2, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒.
𝑧+𝑚

𝑧−(𝑚+𝑛𝑖) 1
• = , 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 .
𝑧+(𝑚+𝑛𝑖) 4
Cube roots of Unity:
1
If 𝑥 3 = 1 = 𝑥 = 1
3

1 ,𝜔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 2
⇒ 𝑥3 − 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 − 1 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
are cube
roots of 1 or
−1 ± 3𝜄
𝑥 = 1,
2
unity
−1 + 3𝜄 2
−1 − 3𝜄
𝜔= ,𝜔 =
2 2
Properties :

1×𝜔×𝜔 2=1
1 +𝜔 + 2
𝜔 = 0
3
𝜔 =1
Square root of a complex number:
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝜄𝑦

⇒ 𝑥 + 𝜄𝑦 = (𝑝 + 𝜄𝑞)

Similarly, 𝑥 − 𝜄𝑦 = (𝑝 − 𝜄𝑞)

𝑧 +𝑥 𝑧 −𝑥
𝑝=± , q=±
2 2
Binary Numbers

BY : Himani Rawat
Mathematics Faculty
JMDI Academy , Dehradun
DECIMAL SYSTEM:
In the decimal system, we use 10 digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Since, 10 basic symbols are used in this system to form any number, so its base or
radix is 10

Numbers in Decimal System : 725,7816,89746,5230,…

Binary SYSTEM:
In the decimal system, we use two digits 0, and 1.
Since, 02 basic symbols are used in this system to form any number, so its base or
radix is 02,

Numbers in binary System : 1010,11011,0101,……,

Decimal to Binary Conversion:
• Steps:
1.Divide the decimal number by 2.
2.Write down the remainder (either 0 or 1).
3.Take the quotient and divide it by 2 again, repeating this process.
4.Continue dividing until the quotient becomes 0.
5.The binary representation is the sequence of remainders read from bottom to
top
 Let’s convert 13 into binary.

1. 13 ÷ 2 = 6, remainder 1
2. 6 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder 0
3. 3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder 1
4. 1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder 1

Reading the remainders from bottom to top gives you: 1101.

So, 13 in decimal = 1101 in binary

Solved Example :

• 12 in binary number system?

Quotient remainder

2 12
2 06 0
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1

Therefore 12 10 = 1100 2
Fractional Decimal to Binary:

Convert the integer part (the whole number) of the decimal to binary using
the method we discussed earlier.

Convert the fractional part (the decimal portion) by multiplying it by 2 and

keeping track of the integer part of the result at each step
.
Step 1. Convert the integer part (6):
Divide 6 by 2:
• 6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0 Let’s convert
• 3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
• 1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1 6.375 into
So, the integer part 6 is represented as 110 in binary. binary.
Step 2. Convert the fractional part (0.375):
Multiply 0.375 by 2:
• 0.375 × 2 = 0.75 → the integer part is 0 (record this).
• Take the fractional part (0.75) and multiply by 2:
• 0.75 × 2 = 1.5 → the integer part is 1 (record this).
• Take the fractional part (0.5) and multiply by 2:
• 0.5 × 2 = 1.0 → the integer part is 1 (record this).
So, the fractional part 0.375 is represented as .011 in binary.
Final Binary Representation:
Putting it all together, we get:
Integer part: 110 and Fractional part: .011
Thus, 6.375 in decimal is 110.011 in binary.
Solved Example:
Write 0.25 in binary number system?

Integer part
(1) 0.25 × 2 = 0.50 0
(2) 0.50 × 2 = 1.00 1

⇒ 0.25 10 = 0.01 2
Solved Example:
Write 0.75 in binary number system?

(1) 0.75 × 2 = 1.50 1

(2) 0.50 × 2 = 1.00 1

⇒ 0.75 10 = 0.11 2
Binary to Decimal

• Write down the binary number and assign powers of 2 to each digit from right to left,
starting at 0.

• Multiply each binary digit (0 or 1) by its corresponding power of 2.

• Sum all the values to get the decimal equivalent.

Solved Example:
Convert binary to decimal
(1) 1010 2

Solution: 1 0 1 0
(23 22 21 20 )

8+2=10
Binary number with a decimal point (floating point
binary) to decimal
Step 1: Convert the Integer Part to Decimal.

Step 2: Convert the Fractional Part to Decimal.

Multiply each digit in the fractional part by decreasing negative powers of 2.
Solved Example:
Convert binary to decimal
(1) 10101.101 2

Solution: 1 0 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
(24 23 22 21 20 . 2−1 2−2 2−3 )

1 1
10101.101 2 = 16 + 4 + 1 + + = 21.625
2 4
Binomial Theorem
 1
1. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑦

2. 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

4
4. 𝑥 + 𝑦 =?


Binomial Theorem for Any Positive Integer n : ☺
𝑎+𝑏 𝑛 = n C0 an + n C1 a𝑛−1 𝑏 + 𝑛 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + … + 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 𝑏 𝑛

Example:
𝑎 + 𝑏 5= 5 C0 a5 + 5 C1 a4 𝑏 + 5 C2 a3 𝑏 2 + … … . + 5 𝐶5 𝑏 5

Total number of terms in the expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 =𝑛+1

General term ((n+1)th term or 𝑇𝑟+1 ) in the expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛

𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
Practice Questions:
(1) How many terms are there in the expansion of 4 + 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 10
?
Ans: 21

(2) The 5th term in the expansion of 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 5 is :

Ans : 80 𝑥 2 𝑦 4
(1) 𝑛 𝐶 𝑟 = 𝑛 𝐶 𝑛−𝑟

(2) 𝑛 𝐶 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝐶 0 = 1

(3) 𝑛 𝐶 1 = 𝑛 𝐶 𝑛−1 = 𝑛

(4) 𝑛 𝐶 𝑟 = 𝑛 𝐶 𝑛−𝑟

(5) 𝑛 𝐶 0 + 𝑛
C1 + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝑛
Middle Term:
Middle term in the expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 is

𝑛
(1) If n is even , Then + 1 𝑡ℎ term is the middle term ,
2

𝑛+1 𝑛+3
(2) If n is odd then , Then 𝑡ℎ and 𝑡ℎ terms are middle terms.
2 2
Solved Questions:
Find middle term in the expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 10
Ans : 10/2 +1 = 6th term is the middle term
𝑇6 = 𝑇𝑟+1 = 10 𝐶5 𝑎5 𝑏 5

Find middle term in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)23

23+1 23+3
Ans : = 12𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 13𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑙𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
2 2
 No of terms in the expansion of
𝑎+𝑏 𝑛+ 𝑎−𝑏 𝑛

If n is odd If n is even
𝑛+1 𝑛
+1
2 2

No of terms in the expansion of

𝑎+𝑏 𝑛− 𝑎−𝑏 𝑛

If n is odd If n is even
𝑛+1 𝑛
2 2
Solved Questions:
(1) No of terms in the expansion of 𝑎+𝑏 10 + 𝑎−𝑏 10

Ans : 6
11 11
(2) No of terms in the expansion of 𝑎+𝑏 + 𝑎−𝑏
Ans : 6
(3) No of terms in the expansion of 1+𝑥 20 − 1−𝑥 20

Ans: 10
50 50
(4) No of terms in the expansion of 𝑎+𝑏 + 𝑎−𝑏
Ans : 26
(5) No of terms in the expansion of 𝑎+𝑏 101 − 𝑎−𝑏 101

Ans : 51
PERMUTATION AND
COMBINATION
Factorial Notation:
2! = 2 × 1
3! = 3 × 2 × 1
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

Note: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5 × 4! 𝑜𝑟 5 × 4 × 3!

Or in general 𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 !
Properties of factorial Notation:
(1) 𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 !
(2) 𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 2 !
(3) 0! = 1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLAL OF COUNTING

I have to travel from Dehradun to Delhi

The journey is:
Dehradun………………………TO………………DELHI …….TO ……..DEHRADUN (RETURN)

Available transport ) Bus , Train , Car , Airlines

Total no of ways in which journey can be planned :
DEHRADUN TO DELHI DEHRADUN RETURN journey PLAN TOTAL WAYS

BUS BUS-BUS
BUS TRAIN BUS-TRAIN 4
CAR BUS-CAR
AIRLINES BUS-AIRLINES
TRAIN BUS TRAIN-BUS
TRAIN TRAIN-TRAIN 4
CAR TRAIN-CAR
AIRLINES TRAIN-AIRLINES
CAR BUS CAR-BUS
TRAIN CAR-TARIN 4
CAR CAR-CAR
AIRLINES CAR-AIRLINES
AIRLINES BUS AIRLINES-BUS
TRAIN AIRLINES-TRAIN 4
CAR AIRLINES-CAR
AIRLINES AIRLINES-AIRLINES
DEHRADUN TO DELHI DEHRADUN RETURN journey PLAN TOTAL WAYS

BUS TRAIN BUS-TRAIN 3

CAR BUS-CAR
AIRLINES BUS-AIRLINES
TRAIN BUS TRAIN-BUS
CAR TRAIN-CAR 3
AIRLINES TRAIN-AIRLINES
CAR BUS CAR-BUS
TRAIN CAR-TARIN 3
AIRLINES CAR-AIRLINES
AIRLINES BUS AIRLINES-BUS
TRAIN AIRLINES-TRAIN 3
CAR AIRLINES-CAR
Fundamental Principle of Counting

If one event can occur in m ways and another event can occur in n ways, then the
total number of ways both events can occur together is:

𝑚×𝑛

Example :
If you have 3 shirts and 4 pants, then the total number of outfit combinations you
can make is:
3×4=12
Extension of fundamental principal of counting:
If there are k independent events, where:
The first event can happen in m₁ ways,
The second event can happen in m₂ ways,
The third event can happen in m₃ ways,
…and so on up to k events,
Then the total number of ways all events can happen is:

𝑚1 × 𝑚2 × 𝑚3 … × 𝑚𝑘
Example
If there are a total of 7 batches and each batch has 40 students, and every student
is assigned 3 assignments, then the total number of assignments is?
 How many two digit numbers can be formed using the digits 2,3,4,5,
(1) When digits can not be repeated
(2) when digits can be repeated

Ans (1) the possible numbers are 23, 24, 25

32, 34,35
Four choices(2,3,4,5) Three choices
42,43,45
52,53,54
Or BY FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPAL OF COUNTING
There are 4 choices for the ten's digit.
For each of these choices, there are 3 possible choices for the unit's digit.
Therefore, the total number of such two-digit numbers is:
4 (choices for the ten’s digit)×3 (choices for the unit’s digit)=12
(2). When digits can be repeated 22, 23, 24, 25
32,33, 34,35
42,43,44,45
52,53,54,55

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPAL OF COUNTING :

For the first digit of the two-digit number, you have 4 choices (2, 3, 4, 5).
For the second digit of the two-digit number, you also have 4 choices (2, 3, 4, 5).
Thus, the total number of two-digit numbers you can form is:
4 (choices for the first digit)×4 (choices for the second digit)=16
4 CHOICE (2,3,4,5) 4 CHOICE(2,3,4,5)
Example:
In how many ways can the letters of the word 'ROSE' be arranged? Or, how many 4-
letter words can be formed using the letters of 'ROSE’ when no letter can be
repeated ?
4 CHOICES 3 CHOICE 2 CHOICE 1 CHOICE

4 ×3 ×2 ×1 equals 24

In the arrangement of the word 'ROSE,' we have 4 different choices for the first
position. After fixing the first position, we have 3 choices for the second position.
Similarly, for the third position, we have 2 choices, and for the fourth position, we
have only 1 choice.
Hence total number of arrangements = 24.
Practice Questions (level-Easy)

1.Using all the letters of the word GIFT how many 4 letters distinct words can be
formed?
A. 22 words B. 24 words C. 256 words D. 200 words

2. Find out how many distinct three-digit numbers can be formed using all the
digits of 1, 2, and 3.
A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7

3. Find out how many distinct three-digit numbers can be formed using the digits
0, 2, and 3.
A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7
4. In how many different ways can five friends sit for a photograph of five chairs in a row?
A. 120 ways B. 24 ways C. 240 ways D. 720 ways

5. In how many different ways can the letters of the word MAGIC can be arranged?
A. 24 ways B. 120 ways C. 240 ways D. 720 ways
6. In how many ways can the letters of the word BEAUTY be arranged?
A. 360 B. 5! C. 6! D. 7!

7. For the above word, if the vowels are always together than how many types of arrangement can be possible?
A. 4! * 3! B. 6! C. 4! D. 4! * 3

7. For the above word, if the all vowels are not together than how many types of arrangement can be possible?
A. 4! * 3! B. 6! C. 4! D. 6!- 4! * 3!
 Think and
Solve ……

if there are total 5 flights available from City A to city B and total 10 flights
available from city B to C , in how many ways the journey can be planned?
How many two digit numbers can be formed using the digits 2,3,4,5,6 When digits can be
repeated
= 5 × 5 = 25

How many three digit numbers can be formed using the digits 2,3,4,5,6 When digits can be
repeated
= 5 × 5 × 5 = 125

How many three digit numbers starts with 5 can be formed using the digits 2,3,4,5,6 When
digits can not be repeated
= 1 × 4 × 3 = 12

How many two digit numbers can be formed using the digits 2,3,4,5,6 When digits can not be
repeated
5×4×3×2×1 5! 5!
=5×4= = = = 𝑃 5,2 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑃2
3×2×1 3! 5−2 !

In general :
𝑛
𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
Fundamental principle of addition
If there are m ways for doing one work and n ways doing another work, then ways
of doing either of the two works = m + n. Here, the two works are independent of
each other.
Permutation :

• The various ways to arrange a certain group of data.

• The rearranging of elements of a data is called the process of

permuting.

• Order of elements matters.

Types of Permutation

Permutation can be classified in three different categories:

• Permutation of n different objects (when repetition of objects is
not allowed)
• Repetition ( where repetition is allowed)
• Permutation when some or all objects are not distinct.
• Circular Permutation.
Examples: when repetition is allowed

The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time, where

repetition is allowed, is 𝑛𝑟 .

Example
How many 3 digit number can be formed using the digits 1,2,3, 4,7. When
repetition is allowed ?

Solution : 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
A security code consists of 8 digits. How many different codes can be created if
each digit can be any number from 0 to 9, and repetition is allowed?
Answer: 98

How many ways can a student answer a 10-question true/false quiz, where each
question can be either true (T) or false (F), ?
for each question, there are 2 choices, and for 10 questions, the total number of
possible ways the student can answer the quiz is:
210 =1024
How many numbers are there between 99 and 1000, having at least one of their digits 7?
Solution:
Numbers between 99 and 1000 are all three-digit numbers.
Total number of 3 digit numbers having at least one of their digits as 7 = (Total numbers of three-digit
numbers) – (Total number of 3 digit numbers in which 7 does not appear at all)
= (9 × 10 × 10) – (8 × 9 × 9)
= 900 – 648
= 252
How many words can be formed using all the letters of the word ‘NATION’, so that
all the three vowels should never come together?

(a) 354
(b) 348
(c) 288
(d) None of these

How many words can be formed using all the letters of the word ‘NATION’, so that
all the three vowels should always come together?

(a) 74
(b) 72
(c) 88
(d) None of these
How many words can be formed from letter of the word ‘DAUGHTER’ so that the
vowels always come together ?
(a) 720
(b) 726
(c) 4320
(d) None

How many words can be formed from letter of the word ‘DAUGHTER’ so that the
vowels never come together ?
Permutation when repetition is not allowed:
The formula for permutation of n objects for r selection of objects is
given
OR
Or number of ways of arranging r things from n things when
repetition is not allowed
𝑛!
𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !

How many 3 digit number can be formed using the digits 1,2,3, 4,7. When
repetition is not allowed ?
5×4×3×2×1 5!
Solution: 5 × 4 × 3 = = = 𝑃(5,3)
2×1 5−3 !
Permutation when some or all objects are not distinct.

The number of permutations of n objects, where 𝑝1 objects are of one kind, 𝑝2 are
of the second kind, …, 𝑝𝑘 are of kth kind and the rest, if anything left, are of a
different kind is given by :

𝑛!
𝑝1 !𝑝2 ! ….𝑝𝑘 !
Examples
How many different ways can the letters of the word BALLOON be arranged?
Total letters: 7 (B, A, L, L, O, O, N)
Frequency of L = 2, O = 2, and the rest are 1 each.
Using the formula:
7!
=1260
2!2!
So, there are 1,260 distinct ways to arrange the letters of "BALLOON".
How many ways can the letters of the word SUCCESS be arranged?
7!
Answer:
3!×2!

How many distinct ways can the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI be arranged?
 How many different permutations can be made out of the letters of the word
‘TESTBOOK’?

A) 8! 4!
8!
B)
2!2!
C) 8! 2!×3!
D) None of these
Circular Permutation:

A circular permutation refers to an arrangement of objects in a circle

If there are n distinct objects, the number of ways to arrange them in a
circle (circular permutation) is:
(n−1)!
This formula works because fixing one object breaks the rotational
symmetry, and the remaining n−1 objects can be arranged in (n−1)!
ways.
You are arranging 10 different flags around a circular pole. How many unique
arrangements can you create?

Solution: For 10 distinct flags, the number of unique arrangements is:

(10−1)!=9! =362880
If 8 children are playing musical chairs and need to sit in a circle after the game,
how many different seating arrangements are possible?
Answer: 7!
The formula for selecting and arranging r objects from n distinct objects in a circle
is:
𝑛!
𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 ! 𝑟
Examples:
If you want to arrange 4 flags from 6 distinct flags around a circular pole, the
number of circular permutations would be:
6!
𝑃 6,4 = there would be 90 unique ways to arrange 4 flags
6−4 !×4
from 6 around a circular pole.
In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be seated alternately around a circular table?
Ans 4! × 5!
Practice Questions:
What is the number of ways that 4 boys and 3 girls can be seated, so that boys and
girls sits alternate?
(a) 12
(b) 72 Hint : The only possible
(c) 120 arrangement is B G B G B G B

(d) 144
The number of permutations that can be formed from all the letters of the word
‘BASEBALL’ is

(a) 540
(b) 1260
(c) 3780
(d) 5040
What is the number of diagonals which can be drawn by joining the angular points
of a polygon of 100 sides?

(a) 4850
(b) 4950
(c) 5000
(d) 10000
In how many ways can the letters of the word ‘GLOOMY’ be arranged so that the
two O’s should not be together?

(a) 240
(b) 480
(c) 600
(d) (d) 720
What is the number of different messages that can be represented by three
0’s and two 1’s?

(a) 10
(b) 9
(c) 8
(d) 7
 What is the number of four-digit decimal numbers ( < 1) in which no digit is
repeated?

(a) 3024
(b) 4536
(c) 5040
(d) None of these
Combination :

• The combination is a way of selecting items from a collection,

such that (unlike permutations) the order of selection does not
matter.

• Total number of selections.

• In combination order doesn’t matter.

(Example: in permutation abc and bca are different but in
combination these two selections are same.)
• The formula for combination, which is the number of ways to choose r objects
from n distinct objects where the order does not matter, is given by:

𝑛!
𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 =
𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 !

𝑃(𝑛,𝑟)
Or 𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 =
𝑟!
Properties :

1. 𝐶 𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑟)
Example: 𝐶 10,4 = 𝐶 10,6
2. 𝐶 𝑛, 0 = 1 = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑛)
3. 𝐶 𝑛, 1 = 𝑛 = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑛 − 1)
4. 𝐶 𝑛, 0 + 𝐶 𝑛, 1 + 𝐶 𝑛, 2 + 𝐶 𝑛, 3 + ⋯ + 𝐶 𝑛, 𝑛 = 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛−1
5. 𝐶 𝑛, 2 =
2!
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
6. 𝐶 𝑛, 3 = , ………
3!
7.
Practice Questions:

A teacher needs to choose 5 students from a class of 20 to form a project

team. How many different teams can be formed?

How many ways can 6 books be selected from a shelf containing 15 books?

In how many ways can 4 flowers be picked from a garden with 12 different
types of flowers?

How many ways can you select a basketball team of 6 players from a group of
12 players if 3 specific players cannot all be in the same team?
Given 5 line segments of lengths 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 units. Then the number of triangles
that can be formed by joining these lines are ?
Solution : 5 𝐶 3 − 3
 The numbers of ways in which 5 boys and 4 girls sit around a table so that all
the boys sit together is:
A) 9!
B) 5!5! C
C) 4!5!
D) None of these
Question Series:
How many 5-digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the digits 0 to 9, if
each number starts with 67 and no digit appears more than once.
Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word ALLAHABAD.
How many numbers greater than 1000000 can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 0,
2, 4, 2, 4?
 Find the number of ways in which letters of the word Eraser can be arranged so
that vowels occupy even place only.
A) 144
B) 72
C) 9
D) 18
 In how many ways can a committee consisting of 3 men and 2 women can be
formed form 7 men and 5 women?
A) 45
B) 350.
C) 700
D) 4200
 In a small village, there are 87 families, of which 52 families have at most 2
children. In a rural development programme, 20 families are to be chosen for
assistance, of which at least 18 families must have at most 2 children. In how many
ways can the choice be made?
Determine the number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards, if
there is exactly one ace in each combination
The number of ways to select 1 Ace from 4 Ace cards is 4C1

⇒ More 4 cards are to be selected now from 48 cards (52 cards – 4 Ace cards)

∴ The number of ways to select 4 cards from 48 cards is 48C4

Number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if there is exactly one ace in
each combination = 4C1 × 48C4

= 4 × [48!/(44! 4!)]

= 4 × [(48 × 47 × 46 × 45 × 44!)/ (44! × 24)]

= 4 × 2 × 47 × 46 × 45

= 778320
A group consists of 4 girls and 7 boys. In how many ways can a team of
5 members be selected if the team has

(i) no girls

(ii) at least one boy and one girl

(iii) at least three girls

(ii) at least one boy and one girl

1 boy and 4 girls = 7C1 × 4C4 = 7 × 1 = 7

2 boys and 3 girls = 7C2 × 4C3 = 21 × 4 = 84

3 boys and 2 girls = 7C3 × 4C2 = 35 × 6 = 210

4 boys and 1 girl = 7C4 × 4C1 = 35 × 4 = 140

Total number of ways the team can have at least one boy and one girl = 7 + 84 +
210 + 140

= 441
No girls
Total number of ways the team can have no girls = 4C0 × 7C5
= 1 × 21
= 21
At least three girls
Total number of ways the team can have at least three
girls = 4C3 × 7C2 + 4C4 × 7C1
= 4 × 21 + 7
= 84 + 7
= 91
 Matrix &
determinant

BY:
Himani Rawat
Mathematics Faculty
JMDi Academy, Dehradun
 Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in
rows and columns.

General Form of a Matrix

A matrix A with m rows and n columns (an m × n matrix) is written as
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
. . … .
. . … .
. . … .
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛
Rows and Columns of Matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
. . … .
Rows
. . … .
. . … .
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

Columns
 Types of Matrix :
Based on Size and Shape
1.Row Matrix – A matrix with only one row
Example: 𝐀 = [𝟐 𝟓],
𝐁 = [𝟏𝟏 𝟓 −𝟕]

2.Column Matrix – A matrix with only one column.

−2
Example: −5
6
3.Square Matrix – A matrix with the same number of rows and columns.
5 3 2
Examples −3 8 76
2 −5 1

4. Rectangular Matrix – A matrix where the number of rows and columns are not
equal
5 8
9 7
1 2
Based on Element Properties
1.Diagonal Matrix – A square matrix where all non-diagonal elements are zero.
2 0 0
Example: 0 32 0
0 0 15

2. Scalar Matrix – A diagonal matrix where all diagonal elements are the same

9 0 0
Example: 0 9 0
0 0 9
3. Identity Matrix (Unit Matrix) – A diagonal matrix where all diagonal
elements are 1.

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
Example: 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

4. zero (Null) Matrix – A matrix where all elements are zero.

0 0 0
Example: 0 0 0
0 0 0
Addition and Subtraction :
• Two matrices A and B can be added or subtracted only if they have the same
dimensions.
• Rule: 𝐴𝑖𝑗 + 𝐵𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑖𝑗 similarly for subtraction.

1 5 33 9 4 1 10 9 34
Example: + =
6 2 1 1 5 2 7 7 3

1 5 33 9 4 1 −8 1 32
Similarly, Subtraction: − =
6 2 1 1 5 2 5 −3 −1
Scalar Multiplication
• If k is a scalar(number) and A= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is a matrix, then

𝑘𝐴 = [𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]

Example: 5 8 25 40
𝐴 = 9 7 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 5𝐴 = 45 35
1 2 5 10

Properties:
1.Distributive : : k(A+B)= kA+kB

1.Multiplicative Identity: 1⋅A=1⋅A=A

Matrix Multiplication
• Two matrices A and B can be multiplied only if the number of columns of A
matches the number of rows of B.

• If A is of size m × n ,B is of size n × p , the resulting matrix C=AB is of size

m × p.

2 3
1 3 1
Example : 1 5
2 5 2 2×3
2 3 3×2

1×2+3×1+1×2 1×3+3×5+1×3 7 21
= =
2×2+5×1+2×2 2×3+5×5+2×3 13 37 2×2
Properties:

1.Distributive: A(B+C)=AB+ AC

2.Not necessarily commutative: AB≠BA in general.

3.Multiplication with Identity: AI = IA = A (where I is the identity matrix)

Transpose of a Matrix
If A is a matrix, its transpose 𝐴𝑇 is obtained by interchanging rows and columns.

𝑇
4 7 9 4 0 7
0 1 8 = 7 1 5
7 5 2 9 8 2

𝑇 2 7
2 11 5
= 11 8
7 8 19
5 19

Note : if order of a matrix A is m x n then order of it’s transpose is n x m.

Properties of Transpose of a Matrix
• If A is a matrix, its transpose 𝐴𝑇 is obtained by interchanging rows and columns.
• Properties:

• (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴

• 𝐴+𝐵 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇

• 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇

• 𝑘𝐴 𝑇 = 𝑘𝐴𝑇
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices:
1. Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is called symmetric if:
𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 , This means that the element at position (i,j) is equal to the element at
position (j,i) or 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 .

1 2 3
𝐴= 2 4 5 is a symmetric matrix , as 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 .
3 5 6
2. Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix AAA is called skew-symmetric if:

𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴 ,This means that the element at position (i,j) is the negative of the
element at position (j,i)
Or 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖

Also, all diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix must be zero, since for
diagonal elements,𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0

0 3 5
Example: −3 0 8 is a skew symmetric Matrix.
−5 −8 0
Every square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
symmetric matrix:

𝐴+𝐴𝑇 𝐴−𝐴𝑇
𝐴= +
2 2

The first term is symmetric.

The second term is skew-symmetric

Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of a square matrix A is a scalar value denoted as det(A)

𝒂 𝒃
For a 2×2 matrix det of = 𝒂𝒅 − 𝒃𝒄
𝒄 𝒅

For a 3 x 3 matrix :

1 5 3
1 0 2 , Expanding the determinant along row -1
4 8 5
0 2 1 2 1 0
=1 −5 +3
8 5 4 5 4 8
Properties of Determinants:
Determinant of Identity Matrix (always 1 )
In = 1

1. Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

If A is an upper or lower triangular matrix, then its determinant is the product of its
diagonal elements.
2 3 6
Example: Upper Triangular Matrix 0 5 7 = 2 × 5 × 8 = 80
0 0 8
12 0 0
Lower Triangular matrix 4 1 0 = 12 × 1 × 3 = 36
2 4 3
2. Row or Column Exchange Property
Swapping two rows or two columns of a matrix multiplies the determinant by -1.

𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓
𝟕 𝟖 𝟏 =− 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 (Interchanging 2nd and 3rd rows)
𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟕 𝟖 𝟏

3. Linear Property
If a row (or column) of a matrix is multiplied by a scalar k, then the determinant is
also multiplied by k

𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝒌×𝟐 𝟑 𝟓
𝒌 𝟕 𝟖 𝟏 = 𝒌×𝟕 𝒌×𝟖 𝒌×𝟏 = 𝒌×𝟕 𝟖 𝟏
𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝒌 × 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑
 𝒌×𝟐 𝒌×𝟑 𝒌×𝟓 𝟐 𝟑 𝟓
𝒌×𝟕 𝒌×𝟖 𝒌 × 𝟏 = 𝒌𝟐 𝟕 𝟖 𝟏
𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 𝟑

NOTE : det 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑛 det[𝐴] , 𝑛 × 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.

4. Determinant of a Product
det(AB)=det(A)⋅det(B)
The determinant of a product of two matrices equals the product of their
determinants.
det 𝐴𝑛 = det 𝐴 𝑛

5. Determinant of an Inverse Matrix

If A is an invertible matrix, then
1
det 𝐴−1 =
det 𝐴
or
1
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|
6. Determinant of a Transpose Matrix
det 𝐴𝑇 = det 𝐴 , The determinant remains unchanged when a matrix is
transposed.

7. Determinant of a Singular Matrix

A matrix is singular if its determinant is zero, meaning it does not have an inverse.

8. Zero Determinant:
If a matrix has two identical rows or columns, its determinant is zero.

−1 2 5
2 8 9 = 0 (𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
−1 2 5
9. If an entire row OR an entire column of a determinant is zero, then the
determinant is zero.
Examples:
−1 0 5
2 0 9 =0
−1 0 5
21 5 5
9 6 5 =0
0 0 0
11.

𝑎+𝑚 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑚 𝑏 𝑐
𝑑+𝑛 𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 + 𝑛 𝑒 𝑓
𝑔+𝑙 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑙 ℎ 𝑖

𝑎+𝑚 𝑏+𝑛 𝑐+𝑙 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑚 𝑛 𝑙

𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 + 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
12.
Adding/Subtracting a Multiple of One Row (or Column) to Another Row (or
Column)

Examples:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 + 𝑎12 + 𝑎13 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎21 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎23 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝐶1 → 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 + 𝑎32 + 𝑎33 𝑎32 𝑎33

Some more Examples of elementary operations

𝐶1 → 𝐶1 + 2𝐶3
𝐶2 → 𝐶1 − 𝐶3
Minors and cofactors

A minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ​, which is the determinant of the submatrix that
remains when the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column are removed.

𝑖+𝑗
Cofactor 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = −1 𝑀𝑖𝑗
Example:
6 9 2 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
0 1 3 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
−1 7 6 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎11 𝑎12 6 9
Minor 𝑀23 = 𝑎 𝑎 = = 51 (determinant of the submatrix that
31 32 −1 7
remains when the 2𝑛𝑑 row and the 3𝑟𝑑 column are removed).

2+3 5
𝑎11 𝑎12 6 9
Cofactor =A23 = −1 𝑀23 = −1 𝑎31 𝑎32 = − −1 7 = −51
Cofactor Matrix:
The cofactor matrix is the matrix where each element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ​ is replaced by its
corresponding cofactor 𝐴𝑖𝑗 .

Cofactor matrix of matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13
is 𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴23
Inverse of a Matrix:
The inverse of a square matrix 𝐴 is another matrix, denoted as 𝐴−1 , that when
multiplied by 𝐴 results in the identity matrix 𝐼 (of the same dimension as A). In
other words:

𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼

matrix that has an inverse is called non-singular or invertible,

if a matrix does not have an inverse, it is called singular.

Formula for the Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix

𝑎 𝑏
For a 2x2 matrix 𝐴 = the inverse is given by:
𝑐 𝑑
−1
1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 =
𝐴 |𝐴| −𝑐 𝑎
Where 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐

𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐼𝑓𝐴 = , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 =
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎
Conditions for Inverses :

Matrix A is invertible or non-singular if and only if 𝐴 ≠ 0

If 𝐴 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 Matix is singular, meaning it does not have an inverse.

Inverse of a Matrix (General Case for n × n)

𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴31

1 1
𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴 = 𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴32
𝐴 |𝐴| 𝐴 𝐴23 𝐴33
13

The adjugate matrix (Adjoint (A)) is the transpose of the cofactor matrix

𝑇
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13 𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴31
Or Adjoint (A) = 𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23 = 𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴32
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴23 𝐴13 𝐴23 𝐴33
Properties:
• 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼

𝑛−1
• 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐴 , 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛 × 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.

• 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐵 . 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴

−1
• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1

• 𝐴−1 −1 =𝐴
Solution of system of linear equations:
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

−1
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1
Or 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑑2
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3
Nature of solution :
• 𝐴 ≠ 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .

• 𝐴 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 0,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 .

• 𝐴 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 . 𝐵 ≠ 0,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .
Example:
• 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3,
6𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5

4 −2 𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑦 =
6 −3 5

⇒ 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

𝐴 =0
−3 2 3 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 . 𝐵 = = ≠ 0,
−6 4 5 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Elementary row and column operations

Elementary row and column operations are basic operations used to manipulate
matrices, primarily in the context of solving systems of linear equations or finding
the inverse of matrices.
Elementary row operations:
Elementary Row Operations
There are three types of elementary row operations

(1) . Row Switching (Swap)

𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑗

Example: 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 3 7 33 2 1
33 2 1 → 1 3 7
8 5 4 8 5 4
(2) Row Multiplication (Scaling)

𝑅𝑖 𝑘𝑅𝑖

Example: 𝑅1 3𝑅1

1 3 7 3 9 21
33 2 1 → 33 2 1
8 5 4 8 5 4

(2) Row Addition (Replacement)

𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗

Example: 𝑅2 2𝑅2 − 𝑅1

6 4 2 6 4 2
3 2 1 → 0 0 0
8 5 4 8 5 4
Solution of system of linear equations:
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

−1
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1
Or 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑑2
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3

OR Use Elementary Row operation to solve the system.

STRAIGHT LINES

By :
Himani Rawat
Mathematics Faculty JMDI Academy
Distance Formula :
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be the coordinates of two points on the
coordinate plane

By Pythagoras’s Theorem,

PQ2 = PT2 + QT2

= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
PQ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2
Hence distance between P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) the coordinates of
two points on the coordinate plane is :

PQ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2
Q. Find the distance between the two points A(1, 2) and B(-2, 2).
COLLINEAR POINTS
points that lie on the same straight line

PQ+QR=PR

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 2 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 2
find out whether the points P(1, 2), Q(2, 3), and R(3, 4) are collinear points or not?
Section Formula:

Internal Section Formula:

• External Section Formula:
Mid Point Formula:

m:n = 1:1

If 𝐴 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

Then Co-ordinates of mid point B :

𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑥= ,𝑦 =
2 2
Shortcuts:

• Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 divided by x-axis in ratio

𝑦1
−( )
𝑦2

• Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 divided by y-axis in ratio

𝑥1
− ( ).
𝑥2
• Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 divided by a line
𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
ax+by+c=0 in ratio -( ).
𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏𝑦2 +𝑐
• Negative ratio means division is external.
Area of the Triangle
Area of parallelogram

Area of
parallelogram ABCD D C

=2 x (Area of triangle ABD)

A B
 Centroid of the Triangle :

The point where all three

medians of the triangle intersect.
Formula of Centroid :

The centroid always lies on a median and

divides it in the ratio of 2: 1 .
This is also called the centroid theorem.

☺
(Co-ordinates of
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟑
Centroid G are ): 𝒙 = ,𝒚 =
𝟑 𝟑
Orthocentre of a triangle
The orthocentre is the intersecting point of all the altitudes of the
triangle.
Circumcenter
• The circumcentre is the intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of
sides of a triangle.

• In geometry, the circumscribed circle or circumcircle of a triangle is

a circle that passes through all three vertices. The center of this circle is
called the circumcentre
of the triangle
Relation between centroid, orthocenter, and
circumcenter:

• The centroid, orthocenter, and circumcenter of a triangle are all collinear.

• The centroid divides the line between the orthocenter and the circumcenter in a
2:1 ratio.

o G c
2 : 1
Incenter of a triangle:
Every line divides the x-axis into two parts: the positive direction and the negative
direction

negative part positive part

Inclination: Angle made by a line with the positive direction x-axis .

Inclination of line parallel to y-axis= 𝟗𝟎𝟎

SLOPE OF A LINE :
• If 𝜃 , is inclination of a line then , slope of line is defined as

m = tan 𝜃
Slope of parallel lines:

slopes of parallel lines are always equal

Slopes of perpendicular lines :Product of slopes of
two perpendicular lines is always -1.
Slope of a line passing through two points:
Q. Find the slope of a line whose coordinates are (2,9) and (4,1)?
COLLINEAR POINTS
• Slope of PQ = Slope of QR

𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑦3 −𝑦2
=
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥3 −𝑥2
Non-Collinear points:
Three or more points are collinear if they do not lie in the same straight line

B
A
slope of AB ,BC and AC are different.
on joining ABC we will get a Triangle.
C
Equations of a line : 1. Point-slope form): A line whose slope
is 'm' and that passes through a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

slope of 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑚

P1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

slope=m

P(𝑥, 𝑦)
Equations of a line through origin: A line whose slope is 'm' and
that passes through a point (0,0)

slope of 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑚

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙

slope=m

P(𝑥, 𝑦)
Two Point Form of the Equation of a Line
Slope of P1P = Slope of P1P2

𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Hence equation of the line

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Intercept Form:
By two-point form equation,
𝑏−0
𝑦−0 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)
0−𝑎

𝑏
𝑦=− 𝑥−𝑎
𝑎

Hence equation of the line is

𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
Slope-Intercept form
From point-slope form
𝑦−𝑐 =𝑚 𝑥−0

Hence equation of line is:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
 LINES SLOPES Y-INTERCEPT OF
THE LINE
8
y = 4x + 8 4

y=-9-3x -3 -9

𝟏 𝟏 5
𝒚= 𝒙+𝟓
𝟐 𝟐

𝒚 = −𝟑𝒙 +
𝟕 −𝟑 𝟕
𝟖
𝟖
EQUATIONS OF LINES PARALLEL OF AXIS
• Equation of a line parallel to x-axis
𝑦=𝑏

Examples
y = 5 , y = -7 , y = 3
Qus. Find equation of a line passing through (3,4)
and parallel to y-axis
Equation of a line parallel to y-axis
Equation of a line parallel to y-axis
𝑥=𝑎

Examples
x = 5 , x = -7 , x = 3
General Equation of line : 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
• If the given line is Ax + By + C = 0
⇒ By = −Ax − C
A C
⇒y= − x −
B B
Comparing with y = mx+c
A
m= −
B

A
Hence slope of line Ax+By+C=0 is −
B
 A
slope of line Ax+By+C=0 is −
B

LINES SLOPES
8X+5Y+ 6 = 0
-3X+2Y = 5
2X + 8Y = 99
Y + 6X + 77 = 0
2Y – 9X = 0
Find equation of a line which is perpendicular to the line x+y-16=0 and passing
through (3,4).

Find equation of a line which is parallel to the line 2x+y+6=0 and passing through
(0,4).

Find equation of a line which is parallel to the line 3x+4y+6=0 and passing through
(3,4).
• Find equation of a line which is parallel to the line 3x+4y+6=0 and passing
through (3,4).

• Write co-ordinates of any four points lying on the line 2x +y =6.

• Draw the following lines:

𝑦=6
𝑦 = −2
x= 10
𝑥=2
• Find the distance of a point (2,3) from the line 6x+y+8=0

• Find the distance of a point (0,3) from the line x+2y-4=0

• Find the distance between two parallel lines x + 2y + 6 = 0 and x+ 2y+ 9 = 0.

• Find the distance between two parallel lines 3x + 12y -7 = 0 and 3x+ 12y - 4 = 0.
Concurrent lines :Two or more lines in a plane passing
through the same point are concurrent lines.

the point
of concurrency.
Or intersection point
(can be obtained by
solving any two
equations )
To find the point of concurrency solve the equations of line .
The angle bisector theorem states that "The bisector of
any angle inside a triangle divides the opposite side into
two parts proportional to the other two sides of the
triangle which contain the angle.
Conic Section
Conic sections or sections of a cone are the curves
obtained by the intersection of a plane and cone.
General equation of conic section:
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝟐𝒉𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
Circle:
A circle is a set of all points in a plane
that are equidistant from a fixed point (Centre O).

r
r
r •O
r
r
r
(h,k) are the coordinates of the centre O of the circle.
r is the radius of the circle.
(x,y) are the coordinates of any point P on the circle.
As 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 r
2 2
⇒ 𝑥−ℎ + 𝑦−𝑘 =𝑟 • O(h,k)
⇒ 𝑥−ℎ 2 + 𝑦−𝑘 2 = 𝑟2

The equation of a circle in a 2D plane

2 2
Is 𝑥−ℎ + 𝑦−𝑘 = 𝑟2
When origin (0,0) is the centre of the circle.

r is the radius of the circle.

(x,y) are the coordinates of any point P on the circle.
r
The equation of Circle • O(0,0)
Is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
 General equation of Circle :

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
General equation of Circle : 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑔 2𝑓 𝑐
Or 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + = 0 …….(1)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

The equation of a circle in a 2D plane

2 2 2 r
is 𝑥 − ℎ + 𝑦 − 𝑘 = 𝑟
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝒉 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚𝒌 = 𝒓𝟐 • O(h,k)
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝒉 −𝟐𝒚𝒌 + 𝒉𝟐 +𝒌𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟎…..(2)

On comparing eq(1) and (2)

𝒈 𝒇 𝒄
𝒉= − ,𝒌 = − , 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 = ,
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
𝒈 𝒇 𝒇𝟐 +𝒈𝟐 −𝒄𝒂
Or 𝒉 = − ,𝒌 = − ,𝒓 = ,
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
Centre and radius of the circle :

In General equation of Circle : 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑔 𝑓 𝒇𝟐 +𝒈𝟐 −𝒄𝒂
• Centre ℎ, 𝑘 = − ,− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝒓 = ,
𝑎 𝑎 𝒂
• In General equation of Circle 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 =0

If 𝑎 = 1

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

Center ℎ, 𝑘 = −𝑔, −𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝒓 = 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄

Concentric Circles:

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 ••Type

Type
• (−𝑔, −𝑓 )
equation
here.
here.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0
 2 2
In the circle, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

𝒓= 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄

• If 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄 > 0 , (real circle)

• If 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄 = 0 , (point circle of point)
• 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄 < 0,(Imaginary circle)
Equation of Circle when diametrically opposite points
are given :
• 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 = 0
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

Type equation here.

(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
• Tangent to the circle and its properties

•P
• Point of contact
900

•M • Centre

•N

PM=PN(length of
tangents are same)
Equation of tangent to the circle :

Equation of tangent
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 2𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 )
+ 2𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0
Length of tangent from a point:

Equation of circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑦 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

PM = 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔𝑥1 + 2𝑓𝑦1 + 𝑐

Intercepts made by the circle

y-intercept

x-intercept
Intercepts made by the circle
• x-intercept=|𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |= 2 𝑔2 − 𝑐

x-intercept=|𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |= 2 𝑔2 − 𝑐

𝑥1 𝑥2
x-intercept
When x-intercept is 0
• x-intercept=|𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |= 2 𝑔2 − 𝑐 = 0

⇒ 𝑔2 = 𝑐

x-intercept=0
Intercepts made by the circle
• 1): y-intercept
𝑦2
y-intercept=|𝑦2 − 𝑦1 |= 2 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
y-intercept

𝑦1
When y-intercept is 0
• y-intercept=|𝑦2 − 𝑦1 |= 2 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 = 0

⇒ 𝑓2 = 𝑐
Note:

• To find where circle cuts x-axis or x-intercept put y=0 in the equation of circle and
solve the new equation.

• To find where circle cuts y-axis or y-intercept put x=0 in the equation of circle
and solve the new equation.
Equation of a circle which touches the co-ordinate axis

• 𝑥−𝑎 2 2 = 𝑎2
+ 𝑦−𝑎 a • O(a,a)

a
No of
common tangents
in two
circles 3

4
2
Some Important Conditions
𝑟2 𝑟1
• O’ • O

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝑂𝑂′
𝑟2 𝑟1
• O’ • O

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 < 𝑂𝑂′

𝑟2
• O’ • O
𝑟1

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 > 𝑂𝑂′
CIRCLE (Summary)
• General equation of conic section:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
• The equation of a circle in a 2D plane
2 2
With centre at (h , k) and radius r 𝑥 − ℎ + 𝑦−𝑘 = 𝑟2

• General equation of Circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

Centre ℎ, 𝑘 = −𝑔, −𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑟 = 𝑓 2 + 𝑔2 − 𝑐

• Equation of Circle when diametrically opposite points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 are given : 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 = 0

• Equation of tangent from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 2𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 ) + 2𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0

• Length of x-intercept=|𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |= 2 𝑔2 − 𝑐

• Length of y-intercept=|𝑦2 − 𝑦1 |= 2 𝑓 2 − 𝑐

• Concentric Circle:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0
Eccentricity :
In conic sections, eccentricity (e) is a measure of how much a conic deviates from
being circular. It is defined as the ratio of the distance of a point on the conic from
its focus to the distance from the directrix.
Mathematically

distance from focus

𝑒=
distance from 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
 Eccentricity

P
M

Directrix

F(Focus)

Suppose that, for some constant e, PF = ePM

PM= the perpendicular distance of P from the line,

All the points P satisfying this equationPF = ePM lie on a curve called the locus, and e is called Eccentricity of that
locus.
curves of particular types, depending upon the value
of the constant e

• if e = 1 then the curve is a parabola .

• if 0 < e < 1 then the curve is an ellipse

• if e > 1 then the curve is a hyperbola.

•Parabola

P
M

Directrix

axis of parabola
F(Focus)

PF = PM
if e = 1 then the curve is a parabola .
Parabola with vertex (0,0) and axis x-axis.

P(x,y)
M (variable point)
Directrix

O(0,0) F(a,0) x-axis , axis of

X = -a

Vertex (Focus) parabola

IN Parabola PF = PM
⇒ 𝑥−𝑎 2+ 𝑦−0 2 =𝑥+𝑎

⇒ 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
Parametric Equation of Parabola with vertex (0,0) and axis x-axis.

P(x,y)
M (variable point)
Directrix

O(0,0) F(a,0) x-axis , axis of

X = -a

Vertex (Focus) parabola

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡
Or x= -a
Or y= -a

Or y = a

Or x= a
Parametric Equation of Parabolas
𝟐 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕 , 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕

𝒚𝟐 = − 𝟒𝒂𝒙 𝟐
𝒙 = −𝒂𝒕 , 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕
𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟒𝒂𝒚 𝐲 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 , 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕

𝟐 𝟐
𝒙 = −𝟒𝒂𝒚 𝐲 = −𝒂𝒕 , 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕
LATUS RECTUM OF PARABOLA

Latus Rectum = 4a
O(0,0) F(a,0)
Directrix

Vertex
X = -a

(Focus)
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒉𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 ,

represents an equation of parabola if

∆= 𝒂𝒃𝒄 − 𝟐𝒇𝒈𝒉 − 𝒂𝒇𝟐 − 𝒃𝒈𝟐 − 𝒄𝒉𝟐 ≠ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒂𝒃

the equation of the parabola referred
to the new axes will become
𝑦 ′2 = 4𝑎𝑥′

As y′ = y−α, x′ = x−β

the equation of (translated) parabola is

y−α 2 =4a(x−β)
In the equation of parabola 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ 2
= 4𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′

1. Vertex ): x-x’=0 and 𝒚 − 𝒚′ = 𝟎

or
x=x’ and 𝒚 = 𝒚′

1. Focus 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ = 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 0
0r (𝒂 + 𝒙′ , 𝒚′)

3. Directrix):
x-x’ = -a,
𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝒙′ − 𝒂
Ellipse: In an ellipse PF = e (PM ) and 0 < e < 1 , PM > PF

• M • P(x,y)
(variable point)

•
𝑭(Focus)
• M • P(x,y)
(variable point)

• • •
𝑭𝟏 (Focus) C(Centre) 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

Directrix
Directrix
 ellipse can also be defined as , the locus of all those points in a
plane such that the sum of their distances from two fixed points
(foci) in the plane, is constant.

𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 + 2 = 1 𝑜𝑟
𝑎 𝑏
2
𝑥 𝑦2
2
+ 2=1
𝑏 𝑎

𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 2𝑎
 Minor Axis

Latus Rectum
Major Axis
• • •
𝑭𝟏 (Focus) Centre 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

Latus Rectum
(Is a chord of ellipse passing through Focus
and perpendicular to the major axis of the
ellipse )
Standard Ellipse
Minor Axis

• (0,b)
Co-vertex

2a (Major Axis)
• (-a,0) • • • 𝑭𝟐 𝒄, 𝟎 • (a,0) Vertex
𝑭𝟏 (−𝒄, 𝟎) (0,0)Centre (Focus)

(Minor
Axis)
(Focus)

2b
• (0,-b)
Co-vertex

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Ellipse (When centre is shifted to (𝜶, 𝜷), and major axis
is parallel to x-axis)

• 𝐹1 • (𝛼, 𝛽) • 𝐹2
Centre

• O(0,0)

(𝒙−𝜶)𝟐 (𝒚−𝜷)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Note
• Center of the ellipse is mid point of the line segment joining Foci .

• Distance between Foci = 2c

• Distance between Vertices = 2a

What are the values of 'a' and 'b' in the equation of ellipse 16x2 + 25y2 =
1600.
 • (0,a)

• 𝑭𝟏 (Focus)

2a (Major Axis)
Minor Axis(2b)
• (-b,0) • • (b,0)
(0,0)Centre

• 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

• (0,-a) 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐
Directrix of ellipse 𝑎
Minor Axis 𝑥=
𝑒
𝑎
𝑥=−
𝑒

Major Axis
• (-a,0) • • (a,0)
(0,0)Centre

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 𝑎
y= 𝑒
• (0,a)

• (-b,0) • • (b,0)
(0,0)Centre

• (0,-a)
𝑎
y= − 𝑒
 𝑥2 𝑦2
Formulas: + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎 > 𝑏 , then
1. Vertex 𝑎, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−𝑎, 0)
2. Length of major Axis = 2𝑎,
3. Length of minor axis = 2𝑏
4. Distance between Foci =2𝑐
𝑏2
5. 𝑒 = 1 − 2
𝑎
6. 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
7. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
8. Focus 𝑐, 0 , −𝑐, 0
𝑎 𝑎
9. Equations of directrix 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −
𝑒 𝑒
2𝑏2
10. Length of Latus Rectum =
 𝑥2 𝑦2
Formulas: + =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
𝑎 > 𝑏, then
1. Vertex 0, 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0, −𝑎)
2. Length of major Axis = 2𝑎
3. Length of minor axis = 2𝑏
4. Distance between Foci =2𝑐
𝑏2
5. 𝑒 = 1−
𝑎2
6. 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
7. Focus 0, 𝑐 , 0, −𝑐
𝑎 𝑎
8. Equations of directrix 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − .
𝑒 𝑒
2𝑏2
9. Length of Latus Rectum = .
𝑎
10. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Parametric Equation of
Minor Axis
Ellipse
• (0,b)
Co-vertex • (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

• (-a,0) • • • • (a,0) Vertex

𝑭𝟏 (Focus) (0,0)Centre 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

• (0,-b)
Co-vertex
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒙 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒚 = 𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
 • (0,a)

• 𝑭𝟏 (Focus)
•
𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

• (-b,0) • • (b,0)
(0,0)Centre

• 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐
• (0,-a) 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃,
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
HYPERBOLA:

Conjugate Axis
• (0,b)

Transverse Axis
• (-c,0) • (c,0)
𝑭𝟏 (Focus) 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

• (0,-b)

𝒂
Directrix 𝒙 =
𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Directrix 𝒙 = −
𝒆 𝒆 − =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Standard equation of hyperbola with center 𝜶, 𝜷 and
transverse axis parallel to x-axis
y-axis

• 𝑭𝟏 (Focus) • (𝜶, 𝜷) • 𝑭𝟐 (Focus)

x-axis
• (𝟎, 𝟎)

(𝒙−𝜶)𝟐 (𝒚−𝜷)𝟐
− =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Formulas for Hyperbola −
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
=𝟏

1. Vertex 𝑎, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−𝑎, 0)

2. Length of Transverse Axis = 2𝑎,
3. Length of Conjugate axis = 2𝑏
4. Distance between Foci =2𝑐
𝑏2
5. 𝑒 = 1 + 2
𝑎
6. 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
7. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
8. Focus 𝑐, 0 , −𝑐, 0 or 𝑎𝑒, 0 , −𝑎𝑒, 0
𝑎 𝑎
9. Equations of directrix 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −
𝑒 𝑒
2𝑏2
10. Length of Latus Rectum =
𝑎
2 2
11. 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2𝑎
12. Distance between directrix =
𝑒
HYPERBOLA: Conjugate Axis

• (0,c)
𝑭𝟏 (Focus)

𝒂
• (0,a) Directrix 𝐲 =
𝒆
Transverse Axis
• (-b,0) • (0,0) • (b,0)
Centre
𝒂
• (0,-a) Directrix 𝐲 = −
𝒆

• (0,-c)
𝑭𝟐 (Focus)
𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
− =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
Formulas for Hyperbola: − =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
1. Vertex 0, 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0, −𝑎)
2. Length of Transverse Axis = 2𝑎,
3. Length of Conjugate axis = 2𝑏
4. Distance between Foci =2𝑐
𝑏2
5. 𝑒 = 1 + 2
𝑎
6. 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
7. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
8. Foci 0, 𝑐 , 0, −𝑐 or 0, 𝑎𝑒 , 0, −𝑎𝑒
𝑎 𝑎
9. Equations of directrix y = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −
𝑒 𝑒
2𝑏2
10. Length of Latus Rectum =
𝑎
2 2
11. 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 2
2𝑎
12. Distance between directrix =
𝑒
Note:

• Center of the Hyperbola is mid point of the line segment joining Foci .

• Distance between Foci = 2c

• Distance between Vertices = 2a

TRIGONOMETRY

By:
Himani Rawat
JMDi Academy Dehradun
Degree and Radian Measure

1 radian = angle subtended by an arc of

length equal to the radius of the circle at R unit
the centre of circle.
Angle subtended by arc length s at the centre
of the circle of radius r:
Angle subtended by arc length r unit at the centre = 1 radian
1
Angle subtended by arc length 1 unit at the centre = radian
𝑟
𝑠
Angle subtended by arc length s unit at the centre = radian
𝑟

𝒔
𝜽=
𝒓
 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

𝒔
𝜽=
𝒓
If 𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 , then 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅
 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏
𝝅
𝟏𝟎 = 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏
𝟏𝟖𝟎

𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟎
1 Radian =
𝝅

Degree 𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎

Measure

Radian 0 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟐𝝅
Measure 𝟔 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎′ (𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔)

𝟏′ = 𝟔𝟎′′ 𝟔𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔/𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒔 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

Right Angles Triangle
Pythagoras Theorem

𝑃2 + 𝐵2 = 𝐻2
Pythagoras Triplets

5 5 13 10 9 15
4 6

3 12 8 12

25
8 17 20 25 7
16 15

24
15 12 20
Trigonometric Ratios
S.no Property Mathematical value
𝑃
1 sin A Perpendicular/Hypotenuse =
𝐻
𝐵
2 cos A Base/Hypotenuse =
𝐻
𝑃
3 tan A Perpendicular/Base =
𝐵
𝐵
4 cot A Base/Perpendicular =
𝑃
𝐻
5 cosec A Hypotenuse/Perpendicular =
𝑃
𝐻
6 sec A Hypotenuse/Base =
Relation Between Trigonometric
Ratios:

S.no Identity Relation

sin 𝐴
1 tan A
cos 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
2 cot A
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

1
3 cosec A
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

1
4 sec A
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
Reciprocal Relation Between
Trigonometric Ratios:
1
• c𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐴 = ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 1
sin 𝐴

1
• 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐴 = ⇒ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 1
cos 𝐴

1
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = 1
cot 𝐴
Trigonometric Identities

1. sin2A + cos2A = 1

2.tan2A + 1 = sec2A

3.cot2A + 1 = cosec2A
Some Useful shortcuts
• 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + tan 𝜃 = 𝑚
1
⇒ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − tan 𝜃 =
𝑚
1
⇒ 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 𝑚 +
𝑚

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑚
1
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − cot 𝜃 =
𝑚
1
⇒ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑚 +
𝑚
Trigonometric functions as a circular function:

• Let P(x , y) be an arbitrary point on the

circumference of unity circle.
P
Angle AOP = θ

𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 𝑥
1 O A
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 𝑦
1
=(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)
 𝜋 𝜋
• 0,1 = cos , sin
2 2

𝜃
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋) • −1,0 • 1,0 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛0)
or(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋)

3𝜋 3𝜋
• 0, −1 = cos , sin
2 2
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1
−1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1 • 0,1

• 𝑥, 𝑦 = (cos 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

• −1,0 • 1,0

• 0, −1
• sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 , where n is an integer . Example 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜋 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛13𝜋 = 0

• 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 , where n is an integer

𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 111𝜋
• cos 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 2𝑛 + 1 , where n is an integer. Example: cos = cos = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =0
2 2 2 2

𝜋
• cot 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 2𝑛 + 1 , where n is an integer
2

• cos𝜃 = −1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟. Example: cos 𝜋 = cos 9𝜋 = cos(1123𝜋) = −1

• cos𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.

Example: cos 2𝜋 = cos 92𝜋 = cos(112𝜋) = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = cos(−𝜃)
sin −𝜃 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

−𝜃

𝑥, −𝑦 = (cos −𝜃 , sin −𝜃 )
Even- Odd Identities:
• sin(-θ) = -sinθ
• cos(-θ) = cosθ

• tan(-θ) = -tanθ
• cot(-θ) = -cotθ

• sec(-θ) = secθ
• cosec(-θ) = -cosecθ
Signs of T-ratios in quadrants

(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)=(-,+) (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)=(+,+)

(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)=(-,-) (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)=(+,-)

Periodic Identities

• sin (π/2 – A) = cos A

• cos (π/2 – A) = sin A
• sin (π/2 + A) = cos A
• cos (π/2 + A) = – sin A
• sin (3π/2 – A) = – cos A
• cos (3π/2 – A) = – sin A
• sin (3π/2 + A) = – cos A
• cos (3π/2 + A) = sin A
Continue….

•sin (π – A) = sin A
•cos (π – A) = – cos A
•sin (π + A) = – sin A
•cos (π + A) = – cos A
•sin (2π – A) = – sin A
• cos (2π – A) = cos A
•sin (2π + A) = sin A
• cos (2π + A) = cos A
Continue….
•tan (π/2 – A) = cotA
•cot (π/2 – A) = tan A
•tan (π/2 + A) = -cot A
• cot (π/2 + A) = – tan A
•tan(3π/2 – A) =cot A
•cot (3π/2 – A) = tan A
•tan (π – A) = - tan A
•cot (π – A) = – cot A
•tan 𝜋 + 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
•tan 2𝜋 − 𝐴 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
3𝜋
•tan + 𝐴 = −cot 𝐴
2
Sum and Difference Identities
• sin(x+y) = sin(x)cos(y) + cos(x)sin(y)
• sin(x-y) = sin(x)cos(y) – cos(x)sin(y)

• cos(x+y) = cos(x)cos(y) – sin(x)sin(y)

• cos(x-y)=cos(x)cos(y) + sin(x)sin(y)

tanx+tany
• tan x + y =
1−tanx tany
tanx−tany
• tan x − y =
1+tanx tany
Product Identities:
• 2sinx cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]

• 2cosx cos y = [cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)]

• 2 sin x sin y = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]

 Angles
(In 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°
Degrees)

Angles
(In 0° π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
Radians)

sin 0 1/2 1/√2 √3/2 1 0 -1 0

cos 1 √3/2 1/√2 1/2 0 -1 0 1

tan 0 1/√3 1 √3 ∞ 0 ∞ 0

cot ∞ √3 1 1/√3 0 ∞ 0 ∞

cosec ∞ 2 √2 2/√3 1 ∞ -1 ∞

sec 1 2/√3 √2 2 ∞ -1 ∞ 1

Trigonometry Ratios Table

 Double Angle Identities
𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙
•sin (2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x) =
𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙

•cos (2x) = cos2(x) – sin2(x)

= 2 cos2(x) – 1
=1 – 2sin2(x)
𝟏−𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙
=
𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙

𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙
•tan (2x) =
𝟏−𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙

•[sec (2x) = sec2 x/(2 – sec2 x)

•cosec (2x) = (sec x • cosec x)/2
Triple Angle Identities:
• sin 3x=3sin x – 4sin3x

• cos 3x=4cos3x – 3cos x

3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−tan3 𝑥
• tan 3x ​=
1−3 tan2 𝑥

cot3 𝑥−3𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
• cot 3𝑥 =
3 cot2 𝑥−1
Half Angle Identities:
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
• sin2 𝑥=
2
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+1
• cos 𝑥 =
2
2 1−cos(2𝑥)
• tan 𝑥 =
1+cos(2𝑥)
Sum to Product Identities:
𝒙+𝒚 𝒙−𝒚
• sinx + siny = 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐 𝟐

𝒙+𝒚 𝒙−𝒚
• sinx − siny = 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙+𝒚 𝒙−𝒚
• cosx + cosy = 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙+𝒚 𝒙−𝒚
• cosx − cosy = − 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
General Solution:
𝑛 𝜋 𝜋
• 𝐼𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝛼, then 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + −1 𝛼 , 𝛼 ∈ [− , ]
2 2
• 𝐼𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = c𝑜𝑠 𝛼, then 𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 𝛼 is called the principal angle . 𝛼
, 𝛼 ∈ [0 , 𝜋]
𝜋 𝜋
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼, Then 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝛼, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 ∈ (− , )
2 2
• sin2 𝑥 = sin2 𝛼, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 ± 𝛼
• cos2 𝑥 = cos2 𝛼, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 ± 𝛼
• tan2 𝑥 = tan2 𝛼, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 ± 𝛼
Properties of Triangle
 A
In any Triangle side opposite to
largest angle is the largest side ,
B
and side opposite to smallest
angle is the smallest side. C

If 𝐴𝐵 < 𝐴𝐶 < 𝐵𝐶
(∠𝐶) < (∠𝐵) < (∠𝐴)
Properties of Triangle
A
The sine rule :
AB=c AC=b
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

sin 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 B BC=a C

Or = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

Or = , = , =
𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
The cosine rule :
𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 A
cos 𝐴 = ∫
2𝑏𝑐 AB=c AC=b
𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑏2
cos 𝐵 =
2𝑎𝑐

𝑎2 +𝑏2 − 𝑐2 B BC=a C
cos 𝐶 =
2𝑎𝑏
Area of Triangle : B

𝟏 c a
Area of Triangle = 𝒃𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝑨)
𝟐
𝟏
Area of Triangle = 𝒂𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑩
𝟐 A
𝟏
Area of Triangle = 𝒂𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝑪) C
𝟐 b
Height and Distance
Angle of Elevation:

The angle formed between the line of sight and the horizontal when looking
upward is called the angle of elevation. Object

Observer
Angle of depression
The angle formed between the line of sight and the horizontal when looking
downward is called the angle of depression.
Observer

Object
Shadow and angle elevation of Sun :

Pole
h

Shadow

h
Use this shortcut:

Pole
h

Shadow

h
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

BY: Himani Rawat

JMDi Academy , Dehradun
Function
• A function/mapping provides a unique output/image for each
input/element in its domain.
Example:
Not a function
One –One and Many one function
One-to-one (Injective): Each Many-to-one: Multiple
element of the domain maps to elements of the domain may
a unique element in the map to the same element in
codomain. the codomain.

Example: Example:
Onto and Into functions
Onto: Every element of the Into: A function that is
codomain is mapped to by not onto not all elements
some element of the of the codomain are
domain. covered.
Invertible Function
• A function is invertible if and only if it is one-one and onto .

Example 𝑓 −1
𝑓

1 a a 1
2 b 2
b
3 c 3
c
4 4

𝑓 is function but 𝑓 −1 is not a function , Hence 𝑓 is not a invertible function

For a function f to have an inverse, it must be both one-to-one (injective) and onto
(surjective),

Many one function …….can not be inventible. 

Into function ……………..can not be invertible.
Example:
f(x)= |x| , f is from set of real numbers to set of real numbers is neither one-one
nor onto.
Trigonometric function
• f(x)= sin(x) , if function is defined from set of real numbers to [-1,1] is not one-
one , hence is not invertible.
Is trigonometric ratios are invertible function

☺☺
yes if we restrict their domains
 𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏: − , → [−𝟏, 𝟏]
𝟐 𝟐

Now the function is invertible

domain is restricted,
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙

𝝅
− −𝟏
𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 : −𝟏, 𝟏 → [− , ]
𝝅 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
Principal domain and range
𝑓 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥

𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 : −𝟏, 𝟏 → [− , ]
𝟐 𝟐
 −1
𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥

𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 : −𝟏, 𝟏 → [𝟎, 𝝅]

 −1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥)

−𝝅 𝝅
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔) → [ , ]
𝟐 𝟐
 𝑓 𝑥 = −1
cot 𝑥

𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (−∞, ∞) → [𝟎, 𝝅]

 −1
𝑓 𝑥 = sec 𝑥
 −1
𝑓 𝑥 = cosec 𝑥
• Domain and Range of inverse trigonometric functions:
Function Domain Range (Principal Value Branch )

sin−1 𝑥 [-1,1] 𝜋 𝜋
[− , ]
2 2

cos −1 𝑥 [-1,1] [0, 𝜋]

tan−1 𝑥 [−∞, ∞ ] 𝜋 𝜋
− ,
2 2

co𝑡 −1 𝑥 [−∞, ∞ ] (0, 𝜋)

cosec −1 𝑥 [−∞, ∞ ]-(-1,1) 𝜋 𝜋

− , − {0}
2 2

sec −1 𝑥 [−∞, ∞ ]-(-1,1) 𝜋

0, 𝜋 − { }
2
• If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑦
• 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑦

1
Example: 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 =
2
−1 1
⇒ sin = 300
2
Formulas
𝜋 𝜋
• sin−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ [− , ]
2 2

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋]

𝜋 𝜋
• tan−1 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) =𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ (− , )
2 2

• cot −1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ (0, 𝜋)

−1 𝜋
• sec 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ 0, 𝜋 − { }
2

−1 𝜋 𝜋
• cosec 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ − , − 0
2 2
Formulas
• sin sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑥

• cos cos−1 𝑥 = 𝑥

• tan tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥

• cot cot −1 𝑥 = 𝑥

• sec sec −1 𝑥 = 𝑥

• cosec cos𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥
• 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠:

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− − − −
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2

0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
6 4 3 2
Some important formula
• sin−1 −𝑥 = − sin−1 𝑥 ,
• tan−1 −𝑥 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ,
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 −𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 x

• cos −1 −𝑥 = 𝜋 − cos −1 𝑥
• sec −1 −𝑥 = 𝜋 − se𝑐 −1 𝑥
• c𝑜𝑡 −1 −𝑥 = 𝜋 − c𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥
Find the principal values of the following
−1 1
• 1. sin (− )
2
−1 1
• 2. cos (− )
2
Trigonometric ratios in four quadrants
Formulas:
• sin (π/2 – A) = cos A
• cos (π/2 – A) = sin A
• sin (π/2 + A) = cos A
• cos (π/2 + A) = – sin A
• sin (3π/2 – A) = – cos A
• cos (3π/2 – A) = – sin A
• sin (3π/2 + A) = – cos A
• cos (3π/2 + A) = sin A

• sin (π – A) = sin A
• cos (π – A) = – cos A
• sin (π + A) = – sin A
• cos (π + A) = – cos A
• sin (2π – A) = – sin A
• cos (2π – A) = cos A
• sin (2π + A) = sin A
• cos (2π + A) = cos A
Continue…
• tan (π/2 – A) = cotA
• cot (π/2 – A) = tan A
• tan (π/2 + A) = -cot A
• cot (π/2 + A) = – tan A
• tan(3π/2 – A) =cot A
• cot (3π/2 – A) = tan A
• tan (π – A) = - tanA
• cot (π – A) = –cot A
• tan 𝜋 + 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
• tan 2𝜋 − 𝐴 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
3𝜋
• tan + 𝐴 = −cot 𝐴
2
 𝜋
• sec + 𝐴 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴
2
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜋 − 𝐴 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴
NCERT Questions
−1 1 𝜋
• Find the principal value of sin . Ans.
2 4

−1 1
• Find the principal value of sin (− ) Ans.
2
 −1 1
• sin
2
−1 3
• cos ( )
2
−1
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
• tan−1 (−√3)
1
• cos −1 −
2
• tan−1 (−1)
−1 2
• sec
3
• cot −1 √3
−1 2
• sec
3
• cot −1 √3
 −1 1
• cos (− )
2

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 − 2

1 1
• tan−1 1 + cos −1 − −1
+ sin (− )
2 2
−1 1 −1 1
• cos + 2 sin
2 2

Question : If sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 , then

then y ∈ ?

Question: tan−1 3 − sec −1 −2 =?

 −1 3𝜋
• Find the value of sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛
5

−1 13𝜋
• cos cos( )
6
 −1 7𝜋
• tan tan
6
Some more important formulas
1
• sin−1 𝑥 −1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
𝑥
−1 −1 1
• cos 𝑥 = sec
𝑥
−1 −1 1
• tan 𝑥 = cot
𝑥
 𝜋
• sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 =
2
−1 −1 𝜋
• tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥=
2
𝜋
• sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 =
2
 𝑥+𝑦
• tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = −1
tan ( )
1−𝑥𝑦

𝑥−𝑦
• tan−1 𝑥 − tan−1 𝑦 = −1
tan ( )
1+𝑥𝑦
• sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 ( 𝑥 1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑦 1 − 𝑥2 ,
𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤1

• sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 ( 𝑥 1 − 𝑦 2 ) −(𝑦 1 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤1

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑦 = cos−1 ( 𝑥 𝑦 − 1 − 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥 2)

𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤1

• 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 − cos−1 𝑦 = cos−1 ( 𝑥 𝑦 + 1 − 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥 2)

𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤1
 2𝑥
• 2 tan−1 𝑥 = sin−1
1+𝑥 2

1−𝑥 2
• 2 tan−1 𝑥 = cos −1
1+𝑥 2

2𝑥
• 2 tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1
1−𝑥 2
• 2 sin−1 𝑥 = sin−1 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
• 2 cos −1 𝑥 = sin−1 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
• 3 sin−1 𝑥 = sin−1 (3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 )
• 3 cos −1 𝑥 = cos −1 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥
 CALCULUS
Limit, Continuity and Differentiability
Limit at a point 𝒙 = 𝒂.
Left Limit:

lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙1
𝑥→𝑎
y= 𝒍𝟏

That is when x approaches 𝒙=𝒂

to point x=a from the left ,

the value of f(x) or y approaches to 𝑙1
Right Limit at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 :

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙2
𝑥→𝑎

That is when x approaches y= 𝒍

𝟐

to point x=a from the right ,

the value of f(x) or
y approaches to 𝑙2 𝒙=𝒂
Existence of limit
the limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎, exists if both the left-hand limit and
right-hand limit at 𝑥 = 𝑎 exist and are equal to each other.

Example :

Left limit ≠Right limit (at x=a) 𝑙1

𝑙2

x=a
Examples
Left limit at x=0
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Right limit at x=0

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

The function is defined at x=0 the value of function at x=0 is 0 ,

and limit also exists at x=0 and is equal to 0.
Examples

𝟒
The function is not defined at x=2 , but limit
exists at x=2 and is equal to 4.

limit at x=2 𝒙=𝟐

𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟐)
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim = lim = lim 𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟒
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝑥→2 𝒙−𝟐 𝑥→2
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
𝒚=
𝒙−𝟐
 Right limit at x=0
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 1 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
+1

-1
The function is not defined at x=2 , at x=0,
Left limit at x=0
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− −1 = −1
Left limit at x=0 is -1 , right limit at x=0 is 1,
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Limit doesn’t exit at x=0.
 1 1
Limit of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0,
𝑥 𝑥2
y-axis
y-axis

x-axis x-axis
(0,0) (0,0)

𝒙 → 𝟎+ , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 → +∞
𝒙 → 𝟎, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 → ∞
𝒙 → 𝟎− , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 → −∞ \
1 1
(1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0,
𝑥 𝑥2
Algebra of limits :
1) lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2) lim 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3) lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
4) lim = 𝑥→𝑎 , Provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

5) lim 𝑘1 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑘1 lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘2 lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
EVALUATION OF LIMITS
• DIRECT SUBSTITUTION
Example (1) 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝟒 (𝒙 + 𝟒) = 𝟒 + 𝟒 = 𝟖
𝒙+𝟒 𝟐
(2) 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→−𝟐 = = −𝟏
𝒙 −𝟐
𝝅
(3) 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

• FACTORIZATION)
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔 (𝒙−𝟒)(𝒙+𝟒)
𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝟒 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝟒 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝟒 𝒙 + 𝟒 = 𝟒 + 𝟒 = 𝟖
𝒙−𝟒 𝒙−𝟒
In such forms, the limit is indeterminate due to a certain factor occurring in the
expression (For example, in the limit above, (x – 4) occurs in both the numerator
0
and denominator and makes the limit indeterminate, of the form .
0
• RATIONALIZATION
In this method, the rationalization of an indeterminate expression leads to
determinate one. The following examples elaborate this method.

Example:
𝑥 2 +1−1 0
lim (of the indeterminate form )
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 +16 −4 0

𝑥 2 +1−1 𝑥 2 +1+1 𝑥 2 +16 +4

⇒ lim × ×
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 +16 −4 𝑥 2 +1+1 𝑥 2 +16 +4
(Rationalizing both the numerator and the denominator)
𝑥 2 +1−1 1 𝑥 2 +16 +4
⇒ lim 2 × ×
𝑥→0 𝑥 +16−16 𝑥 2 +1+1 1
𝑥 2 + 16 +4
8
⇒ lim = =4
𝑥→0 𝑥2 + 1 + 1 2
 Indeterminant forms
0
•
0
∞
•
∞
• ∞−∞
0
•
∞
• 1∞
• 00
• ∞0
Trigonometric Limits
sin 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥
• lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
=1= lim
𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
• lim = 1 = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 𝑥
• lim = 1 = lim −1 • lim = 1 = lim −1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑥
• lim = 1 = lim 𝑒 𝑥 −1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 • lim =1
1 1 𝑥→0 𝑥
• lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 = lim cos 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 −1
• lim = log 𝑒 𝑎
• 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥 = ∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 −1
• lim = 1 = lim −1 • lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 𝑥→0 −𝑥
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 𝑛
• lim 𝑚 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥 −𝑎 𝑚
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
• lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→0 𝑥−𝑎
L Hopital’s Rule
𝑓 𝑥 0 ∞
lim = 0𝑟
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 0 ∞

𝑓 𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥
lim = lim ′
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)
Continuity of a function at a point x = a
• the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at x=a, if both the left-hand limit and right-hand
limit at 𝑥 = 𝑎 exist and are equal to the value of function.

Left limit =Right limit (at x=a)= f(a)

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Differentiability:
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥
That is y is a function of x

𝑑𝑦
Derivative as rate of change: ( = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)
Then 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
𝛿𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
=
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
lim = lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
Examples
• Area of circle 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝐴
• = 2𝜋𝑟 represents rate of change of area with respect to radius of the circle.
𝑑𝑟
Derivative as Slope of tangent:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥))

𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥+𝛿𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) Secant

Slope of Secant PQ = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 (𝑥+𝛿𝑥−𝑥)

• Q(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥))

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓

lim = • P(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥))
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑃
𝛿𝑥

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓
or lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑑𝑥
Left hand Derivative and Right hand derivative at a
point x=c :
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥))

• Q(𝑐 − ℎ, 𝑓(𝑐 − ℎ)) Secant

• P(𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐))

• P(𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐))

Left hand derivative at x = c Right hand derivative at x = c

𝑓 𝑐 −𝑓(𝑐−ℎ) 𝑓(𝑐+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑐)
lim− lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
ℎ→0
Differentiable function:
the function 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at x=a, if both the left-hand derivative and
right-hand derivative at 𝑥 = 𝑎 exist and are equal to the value of function.

Left derivative=Right derivative (at x=a)

𝑓 𝑐 −𝑓(𝑐−ℎ) 𝑓(𝑐+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑐)
lim− = lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
Important formulas of derivatives
𝑑
• 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 •
𝑑
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 =
1
𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 • 𝑥=
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 •
𝑑 𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 • 𝐶=0
𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 • −1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = •
𝑑 1
=− 2
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1
• tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 • −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = − •
𝑑 1
=− 3
2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 −1 1
• secx = secx tanx •
𝑑𝑥
tan x =
1+𝑥 2 •
𝑑 1
=− 4
3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 −1 1 𝑑 1 4
• cot 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 • cot 𝑥 = − • =− 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 4 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 −1 1
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 • 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥 2 −1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −1 1
•
𝑑
𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 • 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2 −1
Algebra of derivatives

𝑑
• [𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 ] = [𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑔′ 𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
• 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 = [𝑓 ′ 𝑥 − 𝑔′ 𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
• 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
• 𝑘 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑔′ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1
Chain Rule of Differentiation:
𝑑
𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 ℎ 𝑥 𝑔′ ℎ 𝑥 ℎ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Product Rule of Differentiation:

𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Quotient Rule of Differentiation:
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 (𝑔 𝑥 )2
Derivative of Implicit functions:
If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0 can not be written in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑𝑦
Then to find 𝑑𝑥 , differentiate both sides of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, with respect to x.

Example: 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 0
On differentiating both sides of the above equation we get

𝑑 2 2
𝑑
(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑑 2
(𝑥𝑦) + 𝑦 + 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 + 2𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑦
Derivatives of functions in Parametric form:
• 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Then = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

Example: 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = tan 𝑡

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 sec 2 𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
Second order Derivative:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Then =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 5

𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑
= 5𝑥 4 = 5 × 4 𝑥 3 = 20 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
Some of the standard applications of derivatives are:
1. To find the rate of change of a quantity.
2. To determine where a function is Increasing and Decreasing .
3. For finding tangent and normal to a curve.
4. For approximation
5. For finding maxima and minima
6. For finding point of inflection
Differentiability:
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥
That is y is a function of x
𝒅𝒚
Derivative as rate of change: ( = 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)
Then 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
𝛿𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
=
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑦
lim = lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥
Derivative as Slope of tangent:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥))

𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥+𝛿𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) Secant

Slope of Secant PQ = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 (𝑥+𝛿𝑥−𝑥)

• Q(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥))

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓

lim = • P(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥))
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑃
𝛿𝑥

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓
or lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑑𝑥
 𝒅𝒚
= 𝒇′ 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
, 𝒂𝒕 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒇′ 𝒙𝟎
𝒅𝒙
= 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎

𝒅𝒙 𝟏
− , 𝒂𝒕 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 = −
𝒅𝒚 𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 )
= 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒕, 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 𝒊𝒔

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒕, 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 𝒊𝒔
= 𝒇′ 𝒙𝟎 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝟏
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) = −𝟏 =
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇′( 𝒙𝟎 )
Practice Questions:
(1) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.

2𝑥
(2) Given the curve 𝑦 = ​, find the equation of the tangent line at the point
(𝑥+1)
where 𝑥 = 3 .

(3) For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑥 2 + 1 , find the slope of the tangent and normal
line at 𝑥 = 1.

(4). The equation of the normal to the curve y=sin(x) at (0,0)

Rate of change:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
As 𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑠
= rate of change of distance s with respect to the time t.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
Similarly if 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . then 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 represents the rate of change of 𝑦 , with
𝑑𝑥
respect to x.

𝑑𝑦
and 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥0 , represents the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
at 𝑥0 .
Practice Questions:
(1) The volume of a cube is given by 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 , where x is the side length in
centimeters. Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to
𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 6𝑐𝑚 .
(2) The rate of change of volume of sphere with respect to it’s surface area when
radius is 4 cm.
𝑑𝑉
4 𝑑𝑉
Solution: 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 ⇒ = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
3 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
2 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝑟 𝑟
= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑚3 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚2 = 2𝑐𝑚3 /𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑟 2
8𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑡
Increasing and decreasing functions
• If function is increasing then at • If function is decreasing then at
any point of the graph of function any point of the graph of function
inclination of tangent is an acute inclination of tangent is an obtuse
angle . angle .

𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎 𝟗𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟏𝟖𝟎

⇒ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = +𝒗𝒆 , ⇒ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = −𝒗𝒆 ,
𝒅𝒚
Or slope of tangent
𝒅𝒚
𝒐𝒓 𝒇′ 𝒙 𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 Or slope of tangent 𝒐𝒓 𝒇′ 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Examples
(2) 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
(1) 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙
Domain = 0, ∞
Domain = −∞, ∞
Range = −∞, ∞
Range = 0, ∞
1
′ 𝑥 Since𝑓′ 𝑥 = > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈
Since 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥
−∞, ∞ 0, ∞
Hence 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 is an increasing Hence 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 is an increasing
function . function .
Graphs of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆 𝒙 and 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙

(0,1 )

(1,0 )

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 (Increasing function in (−∞, ∞)) 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 (Increasing function in (0, ∞))

Solution of linear equality containing linear
factors:
If 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒃 𝒙 − 𝒄 > 𝟎 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 < 𝒃 < 𝒄
Solution: 𝒙 ∈ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∪ (𝒄, ∞)

- +
+ -
a b c

If 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒃 𝒙 − 𝒄 < 𝟎 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 < 𝒃 < 𝒄

Solution: 𝒙 ∈ −∞, 𝒂 ∪ (𝒃, 𝒄)
Practice Questions
Consider the functions
(1) 1. 𝑒 −𝑥
(2) 𝑥 2 − sin 𝑥
(3) 𝑥 3 + 1
Which of the above functions increasing everywhere in [0,1]
Qus: The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 is
(a) Is always increasing.
(b) Is always decreasing.
(c) Increasing for certain range of x .
(d) None of the above.
Maxima and Minima

𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎4
𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑥 = 𝑎3 𝑥 = 𝑎5

𝑥 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 are points of local maxima and minima ,

𝑑𝑦
Slope of tangent on these points is zero , ⇒ 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
Practice Set:
(1). Find the minimum and maximum value of f x = 𝑥 + 3

Solution:
𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒. This
function has no maximum value.

(2). Find the minimum and maximum value value of f x = − 𝑥 − 4 .

Solution:
𝑥 − 4 ≥ 0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥 , ⇒ − 𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0,
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒. This function has no minimumn value.
(3).Find minimum and maximum value of f x = 𝑥| + 3

Solution: 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 3 ≥ 3
Hence 3 is the minimum value , function has no maximum value.

(4).Find the minimum and maximum value of f x = x 2 − 10

Solution: x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 10 ≥ −10
Hence -10 is the minimum value , function has no maximum value.

(5).Find the minimum and maximum value of f x = 𝑥 − 10 2

Solution: (x − 10)2 ≥ 0
Hence 0 is the minimum value , function has no maximum value.
Second Derivative Test To Find Maxima &
Minima
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 ,
At any point of local maxima or local minima 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0

On solving 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0, we get points of local maxima and minima (critical/

stationary points) of the function.

If c be a critical point of the function that means 𝒇′ 𝒄 = 𝟎

Then
(1) x= c, is a point of local minima, if 𝒇′′ 𝒄 > 𝟎
(2) x= c, is a point of local maxima, if 𝒇′′ 𝒄 < 𝟎
(3)𝒇′′ 𝒄 = 𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇′′′ 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒄 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.
What is the value of the function (x − 1) (x − 2)2 at its
maxima ?

𝑦 = (x − 1) (x − 2)2

𝑑𝑦 2
To find point of maxima lets solve =0⇒ 𝑥−1 2 𝑥−2 + 𝑥−2 =0
𝑑𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

4
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2,
3

𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 4 + 3 𝑥 − 2 = 6𝑥 − 10
Since 𝑓 ′′ 2 = 2 > 0, hence x=2 is a point of minima.
4 4
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′′ = −2 < 0, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = , is point of maxima
3 3

4 4 4 2
Maximum value of the function is 𝑓 = −1 − 2
3 3 3
Practice Questions:
The absolute maximum value of y = x3 – 3x + 2 in 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is
1. 0
2. 2
3. 4
4. 6
Q. The two parts of 50 such that product of the cube of the one and the square of
other is maximum?

Solution: x

50
50-x
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 50 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
let’s find the critical point of 𝑓 𝑥 ,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 50 − 𝑥 2 − 2 50 − 𝑥 𝑥 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 50 − 𝑥 150 − 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 0,50,30
X can not be 0 or 50
𝑓"(30) < 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 30
x=30 , 50-x = 20 is the answer.
Qus) The point (0,5) is closest to the curve 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝒚 at _____?
Hint

let 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑥 2 = 2𝑦, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 0,5

hence the distance 𝑥−0 2 + 𝑦−5 2 is minimum.
𝑥2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 =
2
𝑥2 2
⇒ 𝑥2 + −5 is minimum
2
2
𝑥2
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + − 5 is minimum
2
Integration
Integration/ Anti-Derivative
• Integration is the inverse operation of differentiation
𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔 𝑥

d
Example: (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶) = sec 2 𝑥
dx
2
Hence ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
Basic formulas of Integration :
1
𝑥 𝑛+1 • ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑥| + 𝐶
• ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
• ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
• ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 log 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝐶
• ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝐶
• ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝐶
• ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥| + 𝐶
1 −1
• ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥+𝐶
1+𝑥 2
1
• ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫
1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = −cot −1 𝑥 + 𝐶

1
• ∫ cot𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫
√(1−𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 = sin −1 𝑥 + 𝐶

• ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 • ∫
1
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
√(1−𝑥 )
𝑎𝑥
• ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 • ∫
1
𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 −cosec −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 2 −1
Algebra of Integration:
• ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• ∫ 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• ∫ 𝑘1 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘1 ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑘2 ∫ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Methods of Integration:

• Integration by Substitution.
• Integration using Partial Fractions.
• Integration by Parts.
• Using Trigonometric Identities/Formulas
Integration by Substitution:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
On Putting 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑡
⇒ 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡

Integration will be converted into

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑓 ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝐹 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
Then ∫ 𝑓 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑎

1
Example(1): ∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝐶
1 log 3𝑥+4
⇒ ∫ 3𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
3

Example(2): ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

sin(8𝑥+10)
⇒ ∫ cos(8𝑥 + 10)𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
8
Integration using trigonometric identities
•∫ cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
•∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
•∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
•∫ cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
•∫ sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
• ∫ 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integration of some Particular functions:
1 1 𝑥−𝑎
• ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶
2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1 1 𝑎+𝑥
• ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = log +𝐶
2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥
1 1 −1 𝑥
• ∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = tan +𝐶
a 𝑎
1
•∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
𝑥 2 −𝑎2
1
•∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
𝑥 2 +𝑎 2
1 −1 𝑥
•∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sin +𝐶
𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎
Integration by partial Fraction:
S.N. Form of the rational functions Form of the partial fraction

1. 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏)

2. 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑐)

3. 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
𝑥−𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 2

4. 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ 2+
𝑥 − 𝑎 2 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏)

5. 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
+ 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Shortcut :
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 − 𝑎 + log 𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑏 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥=𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥=𝑏

3𝑥−1 3×2−1 3× −5 −1
Example : ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 − 2 + log 𝑥 + 5 + C
𝑥−2 𝑥+5 2+5 −5−2

5 16
= log 𝑥−2 + log |𝑥 + 5| + C
7 7
Integration by parts:
𝒅
∫ 𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒙 ∫ 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 − ∫ [ 𝒇 𝒙 ∫ 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙] 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) × (integral of the second function) – Integral of
[(differential coefficient of the first function) × (integral of the second function)

Choose f(x) by ILATE rule ,

I=Inverse Trigonometric function
L= logarithmic function
A= algebraic function( polynomials )
T= Trigonometric ratios
E=Exponential function
Integral of type
𝑥 ′ 𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝐶
Examples:
1. ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝑪
𝟏
2. ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 + 𝑪
𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝒆𝒙
3. ∫ 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙

4. ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝑪

Integrals of some special types

𝒙 𝒂 𝟐
•∫ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 |𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 |
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙 𝒂 𝟐
•∫ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙 𝒂 𝟐 𝒙
•∫ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝒂
Definite Integral:
𝑏
A definite integral is denoted by∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , where a is called the lower limit of the
integral and b is called the upper limit of the integral.

If ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑏
Then ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
Even and odd functions
Even function:
If f −x = f x , Then f x is an even function.

Examples: 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 6 + 4𝑥 2 + 6

Odd function:
If f −x = −f x , then f x is an odd function.
Examples : 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 7 + 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥
Some Properties of Definite Integrals :
𝑏 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =- ∫𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
• ∫0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
• ∫−𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
= 0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
2𝑎 𝑎
• ∫0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 2𝑎 − 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) .
= 0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 2𝑎 − 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Some shortcuts :
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎
𝜋
3 1 𝜋 • ∫0 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑓(𝑎−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
• ∫0
2 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = × ×
4 2 2
𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 𝑏−𝑎
𝜋
8 7 5 3 1 𝜋 • ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑓(𝑎+𝑏−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
• ∫02 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = × × × ×
8 6 4 2 2
𝜋
7 6 4 2
• ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 7 × 5 × 3
2
𝜋
sin 𝑥 𝜋
𝜋
4 3 1 𝜋 Example: ∫0 sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 =
4
• ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4 × 2 × 2
2

𝜋
8 7 5 3 1 𝜋
• ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 8 × 6 × 4 × 2 × 2
2

𝜋
7 6 4 2
• ∫0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 7 × 5 × 3
2
 2𝑎 𝑎
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 2𝑎 − 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) .
0 0
= 0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 2𝑎 − 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 Example: (1)∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∫0 sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
2
𝜋
(2). ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑛6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
5 3 1 𝜋
=2 ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑛6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 6 × 4 × 2 × 2
2
𝜋
∫0 cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ,
𝜋
= 2 ∫0 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛,
2
Differential Equations
Definition:
An equation which involves variables as well as derivatives of the dependent
variable y with respect to the independent variable x, is called a differential
equation .

Examples:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 + 2𝑦,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
Solution of differential equation:
y = f x or f x, y = 0
is a solution of a given diffrential equation if it satisfies it .

Example ∶ y = ex + 7 is a solution of the the differential equation y" − y′ = 0

Order and degree of a differential equation
The order of a differential equation refers to the highest derivative of the
dependent variable with respect to the independent variable that appears in the
equation.

The degree of a differential equation is defined as the power of the highest order
derivative when the differential equation is expressed in its polynomial form (free
from radicals and fractions with respect to derivatives).
Steps to Determine the Degree:

1.Identify the order of the differential equation (highest derivative).

2.Ensure the equation is a polynomial in derivatives (no fractional powers, roots,
or transcendental functions like sine, exponential, etc., involving the derivatives).
3.Determine the exponent of the highest order derivative in its polynomial form.

Note:
Order is always determined first , the degree is determined based on the
polynomial form .
If the equation contains transcendental functions or non-polynomial terms
involving derivatives, the degree is not defined.
Differential Equation Degree Order
Example𝑦 ′ :− cos 𝑥 = 0
2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥 − =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
′′′ 2 𝑦′
𝑦 +𝑦 +𝑒 =0
𝑑2 𝑦
2
= sin 3𝑥 + cos 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑4 𝑦 ′′′
4
− sin(𝑦 )=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 3
= sin 𝑦 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
2 5
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ + sin 3𝑥 = 0
Formation of differential equation whose General
Solution is given:
The order of a differential equation = number of arbitrary constants present in the
solution of the differential equation.

To find differential equation corresponding to 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 . . . , 𝑐𝑛 ).

Step 1: Differentiate the given function w.r.t to the independent variable present in the
equation.

Step 2: Keep differentiating times in such a way that (n+1) equations are obtained.
Step 3: Using the (n+1) equations obtained, eliminate the constants (c1 , c2 … …. cn).
Examples :
(1)Find differential equation corresponding to the family of curve
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵 … . . (1)

Solution : no of arbitrary constants = 2(A and B)

Hence order of required differential equation =2

Differentiating, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵 with respect to

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝐴𝑥…..(2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
⇒ = 2𝐴 ….(3)
𝑑𝑥 2
Eliminating A using (3) and (2), we get the required differential equation.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
=𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree
Differential Equations:

(1) Differential equations with variables separable.

(2) Homogeneous differential equations.

(3) Linear differential equation.

Differential equations with variables separable:

used to solve first-order differential equations that can be written in the form

𝑑𝑦
=𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Examples:
𝑑𝑦
= sec 2 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑦

Integrating both sides:

∫ cosec 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ log 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑦 − cot 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶

Homogeneous function
A function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is called homogeneous function of degree n if and if

𝑓 𝑘𝑥, 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

Or a function F (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if

𝑦 𝑥
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑛 ℎ( ) .
𝑥 𝑦

Examples
2𝑥
𝐹1 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦2 + 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦 2 (1 + ),
𝑦

2𝑥
𝐹2 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 𝑦( − 3),
𝑦
𝑦
𝐹3 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos ,
𝑥
Homogeneous Differential Equation:
𝑑𝑦
A differential equation of the form = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ,
𝑑𝑥

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
Example: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑦
Solution of a homogeneous differential equation:
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑔( ) …..(equation 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

We make the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 ……..(equation 2)

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
we get = 𝑣 + 𝑥 ……….(equation 3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Substituting the value of from equation (3) in equation (1), we get
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑣+𝑥 =𝑔 𝑣 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑣 −𝑣 𝑥
𝑦
Integrating both side of (4), we get the solution on replacing v by
𝑥
Example:
Solve
𝑑𝑦
𝑥−𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
Solution : The given differential equation is homogeneous D.E.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
Solution: =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
Let 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥
⇒𝑣+𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑥

𝑑𝑣 1 + 𝑣
⇒ 𝑣+𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑣
𝑑𝑣 1 + 𝑣
𝑥 = −𝑣
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑣
Linear Differential Equations:
A Differential equation of the form
𝑑𝑦
+𝑃 𝑥 𝑦 =𝑄 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟 + 𝑃 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦

is called linear differential equation.

Solution of linear differential equation:
Differential equation linear in y Differential equation linear in x

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
+ 𝑷 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝑸(𝒙) + 𝑷 𝒚 𝒙 = 𝑸(𝒚)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚

Solution: Solution:

Step 1: Write the given differential equation in the form Step 1: Write the given differential equation in the form
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)where P, Q are constants or functions of x + 𝑃 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑦)where P, Q are constants or functions of x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
only only.

Step 2: Find integrating factor using formula 𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Step 2: Find integrating factor using formula 𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Step 3: Write the solution of the given differential equation as Step 3: Write the solution of the given differential equation as

𝑦. 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝐼. 𝐹.× 𝑄 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥. 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝐼. 𝐹.× 𝑄 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐶
Examples:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Qus: Solve + =𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Solution: The differential equation is linear in y.

1
∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 = 𝑒 log 𝑥 = 𝑥

Hence the solution is

𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥3
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = +𝐶
3
 𝑑𝑦
Solve : x + y + 1 =1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1
𝑑𝑥
⇒ =𝑥+𝑦+1
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
⇒ −𝑥 =𝑦+1
𝑑𝑦
Which is linear in x,
𝑃 𝑦 = −1, 𝑄 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 1
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ∫ −1 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑦
Solution : 𝑒 −𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐶 (Solve the integration using by part rule )
VECTORS

By:
Himani Rawat
Maths faculty
JMDI Academy Dehradun
Equal vectors:
y-axis
Equal vectors are 𝒂
vectors that have the
𝒂
same magnitude P
and direction.
𝒂

O x-axis

𝒂
z-axis
Vector Quantity : A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and
direction.

Unit vector : A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly one.

y-axis
෡ are unit vectors in the direction of x, y and z axis.
𝒊Ƹ , 𝒋,Ƹ 𝒌

𝒋Ƹ
𝒊Ƹ x-axis
෡
𝒌

z-axis
Position vector:
y-axis
In 2 ‘D’
In 3-D
y-axis
P(a,b) P(a,b,c)

𝑶𝑷
𝑶𝑷
b

x-axis
O a x-axis
O

z-axis
Position vector of point P(a , b ) Position vector of point P(a , b , c)
𝑶𝑷 = 𝒂𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝑶𝑷 = 𝒂𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃 𝒋+Ƹ c 𝒌
Magnitude/Length of a vector:
y-axis

In 2 ‘D’ In 3-D
y-axis
P(a,b) P(a,b,c)

𝑶𝑷
𝑶𝑷

x-axis
O x-axis
O

|𝑶𝑷| = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
z-axis |𝑶𝑷| = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
Type of vectors

Zero vector : is a vector that has a magnitude of zero and no specific direction. :
• In two dimensions : O(0,0)
• In three dimensions : O(0,0,0)

Unit vector : A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly one.

෡
Unit vector in the direction of vector a given vector, 𝒂 = 𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝒌

𝒂 ෡
𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝒌
ෝ=
𝒂 =
|𝒂| 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
 CO-INITIAL VECTORS :
vectors that originate from the same initial point or starting location in a
coordinate system.
𝒂

𝒄
Algebra of vectors:

• Addition of vectors
෡ + 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡ = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + (𝒃𝟏 +𝒃𝟐 ) 𝒋Ƹ + (𝒄𝟏 +
෡
𝒄𝟐 )𝒌

• Subtraction of vectors
෡ − 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡
= 𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + (𝒃𝟏 −𝒃𝟐 ) 𝒋Ƹ + (𝒄𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 )𝒌෡
Scalar and vector product of vectors :
Scalar product/ Dot product of two vectors:

𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜽 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃

OR
෡ . 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡ = 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 + (𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 ) + (𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 )

𝒂
m = is projection of
vector 𝒂 on vector 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
)𝜽 𝒃
Hence , 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃 projection of vector 𝒂 on vector 𝒃
Or 𝒂 projection of vector 𝒃 on vector 𝒂 (𝒂 . 𝒃)
𝑚=
|𝒃 |
Application:
𝒂.𝒃
(1) Angle between two vectors: = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 ,
𝒂 𝒃
(2) 𝒂 . 𝒂 = 𝒂 𝟐
(3) 𝒊Ԧ . 𝒊Ԧ = 𝒋Ԧ . 𝒋Ԧ = 𝒌 . 𝒌 = 𝟏
(3) 𝒂 . 𝒃 = 𝟎, 𝑰𝒇 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 are perpendicular to each other.

Qus:
෡ on the vector 𝒊Ƹ + 𝟐𝒋Ƹ + 𝒌
Find the projection of the vector 𝟐𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ + 𝟐𝒌 ෡.
Cross / Vector Product of vectors:
The cross product of two vectors is a mathematical operation that produces a third vector
perpendicular to the plane formed by the two input vectors.

𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒏 ෝ , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜽 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃, and 𝒏

ෝ is the unit vector
perpendicular to both 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃

𝒂×𝒃

𝒊Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒌
OR 𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌෡ × 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌෡ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
Applications:
(1) Area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝒂 × 𝒃
(2) If angle between 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 is 00 ⇒ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝟎.
(3) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = − 𝒃 × 𝒂
(4) 𝒊Ԧ × 𝒊 = 𝒋Ԧ × 𝒋 = 0
(3) Coplanar Vectors
𝒂 , 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 are coplanar if (𝒂 × 𝒃). 𝒄 = 𝟎 (scalar triple product is zero)
෡ , 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
Or if 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡ and 𝒄 = ൫𝒂𝟑 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟑 𝒋Ƹ +
෡൯, are coplanar , then
𝒄𝟑 𝒌

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 0
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Triangle Law of Vector Addition:

𝒂+ 𝒃

For any two vectors , we always have 𝒂 + 𝒃 > |𝒂 + 𝒃|

(triangle inequality).
Vector joining two points 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟐 ):
෡
Position vector of point P, 𝑶𝑷 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌

෡
Position vector of point Q, 𝑶𝑸 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟐 𝒌
by triangle rule of vector addition,

𝑶𝑸 = 𝑶𝑷 + 𝑷𝑸

෡
⇒ 𝑷𝑸= 𝑶𝑸 − 𝑶𝑷 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝒊Ƹ + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝒋Ƹ + (𝒛𝟐 −𝒛𝟏 )𝒌

෡
𝑷𝑸 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝒊Ƹ + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝒋Ƹ + (𝒛𝟐 −𝒛𝟏 )𝒌
Parallel vectors /collinear vectors:

Two vectors are parallel if they have the same or opposite direction

Mathematically if 𝒂 and 𝒃 are parallel vectors, 𝒂 = 𝒌𝒃

෡ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
Or 𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡ are parallel 𝒂
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒃
if = = 𝒄
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

𝒅
෡ 2𝒂 = 𝟒 𝒊Ƹ + 𝟔𝒋Ƹ + 𝟏𝟔𝒌
Example: 𝒂 = 𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ + 𝟖𝒌, ෡
෡
,−3𝒂 = −𝟔 𝒊Ƹ − 𝟗𝒋Ƹ − 𝟐𝟒𝒌,
෡ are vectors parallel to each other.
−𝒂 = −𝟐 𝒊Ƹ − 𝟑𝒋Ƹ − 𝟖𝒌
Perpendicular vectors:

Two vectors are perpendicular (or orthogonal) if the angle between them is 900 ,
which means their dot product is zero.

if 𝒂 and 𝒃 are perpendicular vectors,

𝒃
𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂| 𝒃|𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟗𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎
𝒂
OR
෡ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒌
𝒂𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝟏 𝒌 ෡ are
perpendicular, if
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟎
Direction Ratios:
The scalar components of a vector are its direction ratios, and represent its
projections along the respective axes.

In vector,
෡ , 𝒂, 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂, 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄.
𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄 𝒌
Direction Cosines:
y-axis

In 3-D

𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾, are P(a,b,c)
direction angles of vector 𝑶𝑷
𝑶𝑷
𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 , 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑛 = cos 𝛾, are
direction cosines of vector 𝑶𝑷 . O
𝜸 x-axis

z-axis
 ෡
Direction cosines of a vector: 𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄 𝒌

𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
𝒍= ,𝒎 = ,𝒏 =
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐

෡ is 𝐥𝒊Ƹ + 𝒎𝒋Ƹ + 𝒏 𝒌
Note(1). Unit vector in the direction of 𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄 𝒌 ෡
(2). 𝒍𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 + 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏
Section Formula :
The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points P and Q
whose position vectors are respectively, in the ratio m : n

(1) internally, is given by : • P

𝑚𝒃 + n 𝒂
• R
𝒎+𝒏 •Q

(2) externally, is given by

𝑚𝒃 − n 𝒂
𝒎−𝒏
Three-Dimensional
Geometry

BY:
Himani Rawat
Mathematics Faculty
JMDI Academy Dehradun
 y

Axes and planes 3-D

𝒙 − 𝒚 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆

x-z 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
z
x-coordinate = distance of the point
y
from y-z plane
𝒙 − 𝒚 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
y-coordinate = distance of the point
from x-z plane

z-coordinate = distance of the point

from x-y plane • (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

𝒚
x

x-z 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
z
Coordinates of a Point on an Axes:
• x-axis: coordinates (x,0,0)
• y-axis: coordinates (0,y,0)
• z-axis: coordinates (0,0,z)

Coordinates of a point Point on a Plane:

• xy-plane: (x,y,0)
• xz -plane: (x,0,z)
• yz-plane: (0,y,z)

Point at the Origin:

If a point lies on all three axes (intersection of the axes), its coordinates are (0,0,0)
This is called the origin
Co-ordinates of a point in 3-D
x-coordinate = distance of the point from y-z plane

y-coordinate = distance of the point from x-z plane

z-coordinate = distance of the point from x-y plane

Distance Formula :
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be the coordinates of two points on the
coordinate plane

By Pythagoras’s Theorem,

PQ2 = PT2 + QT2

= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
PQ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2
Distance between two points
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )

𝑑= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 2 )

• P(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 )

• P(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟐 )
Foot of perpendicular of a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 on axis:
Foot of perpendicular of a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 on the x-axis = 𝑥, 0,0

Foot of perpendicular of a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 on the y-axis = 0, 𝑦, 0

Foot of perpendicular of a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 on the z-axis = 0,0, 𝑧

 y

Distance of a point (a,b,c) from the x-axis

• (𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄)
= distance between points (a,b,c) and (a,0,0)

= 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
x

z
Distance of a point (a,b,c) from the y-axis

= distance between points (a,b,c) and (0,b,0)

= 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐

Distance of a point (a,b,c) from the z-axis

= distance between points (a,b,c) and (0,0,c)

= 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
Section Formula in 2-D:

Internal Section Formula:

External Section Formula in 2-D:
Section formula in 3 -‘D’

Internal Section Formula:

𝑚𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑥1
𝑥= • (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑦1
𝑦=
𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑧2 + 𝑛𝑧1
𝑧=
𝑚+𝑛
External Section Formula:

𝑚𝑥2 − 𝑛𝑥1
𝑥=
𝑚−𝑛
𝑚𝑦2 − 𝑛𝑦1
𝑦=
𝑚−𝑛
• (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
𝑚𝑧2 − 𝑛𝑧1
𝑧=
𝑚−𝑛
Mid Point Formula:

m:n = 1:1

If 𝐴 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )

Then Co-ordinates of mid point B :

𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2

𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 = ,
2 2 2
Shortcuts :

• x-z plane divides Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 in

𝑦1
−
𝑦2

• y-z plane divides Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 in

𝑥1
−
𝑥2

• x-y plane divides Line segment joining two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 in

𝑧1
−
𝑧2
The centroid always lies on a median and • (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )

divides it in the ratio of 2: 1 .

This is also called the centroid theorem.

☺ • (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 )
(Co-ordinates of
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟑 𝒛𝟏 +𝒛𝟐 +𝒛𝟑
Centroid G are ): 𝒙 = ,𝒚 = ,𝒛 = ,
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
Direction ratios/direction numbers and direction
cosines of a line
If the angles that the line makes with the x, y, and z-axes be 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 respectively.
Then, the direction cosines of the line are:
𝑙 = cos 𝛼 , 𝑚 = cos 𝛽 , 𝑛 = cos 𝛾
These are related by the equation:
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1

Direction Ratios: a , b, c are any three numbers proportional to the direction

cosines and do not necessarily sum to 1.
𝑎 = 𝑘𝑙, 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑚, 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑛
Relation between direction ratios and direction cosines :

𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
𝒍= ,𝒎 = ,𝒏 =
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐
Equation of a Line in Space :

A line is uniquely determined if

(i) it passes through a given point and has given direction, or
(ii) it passes through two given points.
Equation of a line through a given point 𝒂 and parallel to
given vector 𝒃.
Vector Equation :
𝒓−𝒂=λ𝒃 𝒃

Or 𝒓 = 𝒂 + λ 𝒃

Cartesian equation of the line 𝒂

෡
𝒓 = 𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝒌 𝒓
෡
𝒂 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌
𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝒋Ƹ + 𝒄𝒌෡

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Angle between Two-Lines:
In vector form
Angle between two lines 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ 𝒃𝟏 ,𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 + λ 𝒃𝟐
𝒃𝟏 . 𝒃𝟐
cos θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒃𝟏 |𝒃𝟐 |

In cartesian form :

𝒙−𝒙𝟏 𝒚−𝒚𝟏 𝒛−𝒛𝟏 𝒙−𝒙𝟐 𝒚−𝒚𝟐 𝒛−𝒛𝟐

Angle between two lines = = and = =
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐𝟐
Perpendicular and parallel lines:

If 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ𝟏 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 +λ𝟐 𝒃𝟐 are two parallel lines

than 𝒃𝟏 and 𝒃𝟐 are also parallel .
⇒ 𝒃𝟏 = 𝑘𝒃𝟐

If 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ𝟏 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 +λ𝟐 𝒃𝟐 are two perpendicular lines

than 𝒃𝟏 and 𝒃𝟐 are also perpendicular.
⇒ 𝒃𝟏 . 𝒃𝟐 = 0
It passes through two given points:

Vector Equation :
Or 𝒓 = 𝒂 + λ 𝒃 − 𝒂

Cartesian equation of the line

෡
𝒓 = 𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝒌 𝒂 𝒃
෡
𝒂 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌 𝒓
෡
𝒃 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟐 𝒌

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Distance between two skew lines :

Skew lines :
In mathematics, skew lines are lines in three-dimensional space that do not intersect and are not parallel. This means they lie in
different planes and have no points in common.

Key Properties of Skew Lines

1. Not Parallel
2. Do Not Intersect
3. Exist in 3D Space

𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ𝟏 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 +λ𝟐 𝒃𝟐

𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 . 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏
𝑑=
𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐
 𝒃𝟏 ×𝒃𝟐 . 𝒂𝟐 −𝒂𝟏
•𝑑=
𝒃𝟏 ×𝒃𝟐
Distance between two parallel lines :

𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ𝟏 𝒃 , 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 +λ𝟐 𝒃

𝒃 × 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏
𝑑=
𝒃
Coplanarity of two lines :

If two lines 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟏 + λ𝟏 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 +λ𝟐 𝒃 𝟐 are coplanar then

𝑎2 − 𝑎1 . 𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 = 0

𝒙−𝒙𝟏 𝒚−𝒚𝟏 𝒛−𝒛𝟏 𝒙−𝒙𝟐 𝒚−𝒚𝟐 𝒛−𝒛𝟐

Or = = and = = are coplanar then
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 =0
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
Plane:
Types of Equations of plane:
(1) Equation of plane in normal form.(normal to the plane and its distance from
origin is given)
(2) Equation of plane passes through a given point and perpendicular to a given
direction.
(3) Plane passes through three given non-collinear points.
Equation of plane in normal form.(normal to the plane and
its distance from origin is given)
Vector 𝑶𝑵 is perpendicular vector to the plane
from origin .(𝒏ෝ is the unit vector in the direction of 𝑶𝑵 )
P(x,y,z)
If | 𝑶𝑵 |=p ,Then 𝑶𝑵 =p𝒏ෝ .

Let P be any point on the plane. 900 ( N(a,b,c)

𝑶𝑷 = 𝒓

⇒ 𝑷𝑵 = 𝒓 − p𝒏ෝ (using Triangle low of

vector addition ) O(0,0,0)
Now 𝑷𝑵. 𝑶𝑵 = 𝟎 ⇒ p𝒏ෝ . 𝒓 − p𝒏ෝ = 𝟎

⇒ 𝒓. 𝒏ෝ = 𝒑
Hence equation of plane in normal form is
Vector equation:
𝒓. 𝒏ෝ = 𝒑
P(x,y,z)
Or 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝒅

Cartesian Equation: 900 ( N(a,b,c)

Or 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
a b c
Or 𝑥+ 𝑦+ 𝑧=𝑝
𝑎2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 𝑎2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 𝑎2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑝 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 O(0,0,0)
Cartesian Equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑
Equation of plane passes through a given point and
perpendicular to a given direction.

P(x,y,z)
Vector Form
𝒓 − 𝒂 . 𝑵=0
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )

Cartesian Form,
෡ 𝒓 = 𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝒌,
𝑵= A 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑩𝒋Ƹ + 𝑪𝒌, ෡ O(0,0,0)
𝑨 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 + 𝑩 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 + 𝑪 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟏 = 𝟎
Equation of plane passes through three non collinear point

Vector Form
𝒓 − 𝒂 . [ 𝒃 − 𝒂 × (𝒄 − 𝒂)]=0

Cartesian Form,
෡ 𝒂 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌,
𝒓 = 𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝒌, ෡
෡ 𝒄 = 𝒙𝟑 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟑 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟑 𝒌
𝒃 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟐 𝒌, ෡
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
O(0,0,0)
Eq of Plane: 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 0
𝑥3 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 𝑧3 − 𝑧1

1
Intercept form of equation of plane:
z
(0,0,c)

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
(a,0,0) x

(0,b,0)
y
Equation of plane passing through intersection of
two given points :
Vector Form:
Let 𝒓. 𝒏ෝ 𝟏 = 𝒑𝟏 and 𝒓. 𝒏ෝ 𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐 be two planes
The equation of plane passes through intersection of these planes is
𝒓. 𝒏ෝ 𝟏 + λ𝒏ෝ 𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 + λ 𝒑𝟐

Cartesian Form :
(𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 ) + λ(𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 ) = 0
Angle between Two Planes:
Angle between two planes 𝒓. 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒅𝟏 and 𝒓. 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐
=Angle between 𝒏𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝟐

𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐
Since cos 𝜃 =
|𝒏𝟏 | |𝒏𝟐 |

Or In Cartesian form: Angle between two planes

(𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 )

𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
cos 𝜃 =
𝑨𝟐𝟏 + 𝑩𝟐𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐𝟏 𝑨𝟐𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐𝟐
Distance of a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) from a plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0

𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶𝑧1 +𝐷

=
𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2
Probability

By: Himani Rawat

 Experiment

Random
Deterministic
(fix no of (fix outcome )
outcomes)
Random Experiment:
An experiment that can produce different outcomes, and the result is uncertain.

Example :
Tossing a Coin
Possible outcomes Head or Tail = {H, T}
Each time you flip the coin, you cannot predict whether it will land heads or tails.

Rolling a Die:
Possible outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
Sample Space: A set of all possible outcomes of an
experiment.
Example: Rolling a Die
sample space S = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}
Event: An event is a specific outcome or a set of
outcomes from a random experiment. It is a subset of the
sample space.
Example: Rolling a Die
sample space S = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}
Event E = getting an even number {2,4,6}
Probability of an event:
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸 𝑛 𝐸
𝑃 𝐸 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛(𝑆)

For example,
In the case of rolling a die, the probability of rolling an even number (Event A) is
3 1
P(A) = = .
6 2
Qus: For any two events A and B, which one of the following holds?

(a) P(A ∩ B)≤ P(A)≤ P(A ∪ B)≤ P(A) + P(B)

(b) P(A ∪ B)≤ P(A)≤ P(A ∩ B)≤ P(A) + P(B)
(c) P(A ∪ B)≤ P(B)≤ P(A ∩ B)≤ P(A) + P(B)
(d) P(A ∩ B)≤ P(B)≤ P(A) + P(B)≤ P(A ∪ B)
Some Important random Experiments and their
sample spaces:
Experiment:
Card-drawing experiment :
Drawing a card from a well from a well-shuffled deck of cards.

Dimond (13) K,Q,J,10 ,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,A

Red (26)

Heart(13) K,Q,J,10 ,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,A

Total cards(52)

Spade(13) K,Q,J,10 ,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,A

Black(26)

Club(13) K,Q,J,10 ,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,A

Face cards of Dimond
Example
A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of cards. The probability of getting a
queen of club or king of heart is?

Solution: let E = the drawn card is either queen of club or king of heart

𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸 2 1

𝑃 𝐸 = = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 52 26
Tossing a coin
Sample Space: S = 𝑯, 𝑻

Tossing two coins / tossing a coin twice

Sample Space: S = 𝑯𝑯, 𝑻𝑻, 𝑯𝑻, 𝑻𝑯

Tossing a coin thrice or tossing three coins simultaneously

Sample Space: S = 𝑯𝑯𝑯, 𝑯𝑯𝑻, 𝑯𝑻𝑯, 𝑻𝑯𝑯, 𝑻𝑻𝑯, 𝑻𝑯𝑻, 𝑯𝑻𝑻, 𝑻𝑻𝑻
Rolling a die
Sample space 𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6

Rolling Two dice

Sample space 𝑆 = { 1,1 , 1,2 , 1,3 , 1,4 , 1,5 , (1,6)
2,1 , 2,2 , 2,3 , 2,4 , 2,5 , 2,6
3,1 , 3,2 , 3,3 , 3,4 , 3,5 , (3,6)
4,1 , 4,2 , 4,3 , 4,4 , 4,5 , (4,6)
5,1 , 5,2 , 5,3 , 5,4 , 5,5 , (5,6)
6,1 , 6,2 , 6,3 , 6,4 , 6,5 , (6,6)}

Rolling Three dice

No of elements is sample space 6 × 6 × 6 = 216
 A 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) B
𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)

𝑷 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑨 + 𝑷 𝑩 − 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)
For any three events, A, B and C
P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − P(A ∩ B) − P(B ∩ C) − P(A ∩ C) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)

If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events,

P (A ∪ B ∪ C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C)
Mutually exclusive events :
events that cannot occur at the same time. If one event happens, the other cannot
happen or 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙 = {}

If A and B are mutually exclusive, 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 0

And P A ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵

Example:
𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,
𝐴 = 1,3,5 ,
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {2,4,6}
For two mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A) = 0.2 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.3.
What is P (A|(A ∪ B)) equal to?

(a) 1/2
(b) 2/5
(c) 2/7
(d) 2/3
Mutually exhaustive events :
union of these events represents the entire sample space.

If 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 … . 𝐴𝑛 are mutually exhaustive events, then their union equals the

sample space 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑆

Example:
𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 4,5,6
Then A and B are mutually exhaustive as A ∪ 𝐵 = S
Mutually exhaustive and Exclusive events :
If 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 … . 𝐴𝑛 are mutually exhaustive events, then their union equals the
sample space 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑆
If 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 … . 𝐴𝑛 are mutually exclusive events, 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴𝑗 = 𝜙

𝑃(𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐴𝑛 ) = 𝑃(𝑆)

⇒ 𝑃(𝐴1 ) + 𝑃(𝐴2 ) + 𝑃 𝐴3 + ⋯ 𝑃 𝐴𝑛 = 1
If S is the sample space of an experiment.

And E is an Event
Then 𝐸 ′ = 𝑆 − 𝐸

Example: 𝑆 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

𝐸 = 2,8
Then 𝐸 ′ = {1,3,4,5,6,7}

𝑃 𝐸′ = 1 − 𝑃 𝐸
Odds in Favour and Odds in Against:

If in a random experiment, total number of outcomes is n out of which m are

favorable to an event A,
𝑚
then odds in favor of A =
𝑛−𝑚
𝑛−𝑚
and odds against of A =
𝑚
Solved Example:
The odds in favour of an event are 4 : 9. Find the probability of occurrence of this
event.

Solution: Total number of outcomes = 4+9 = 13

and favourable number of cases = 4,
4
then P (E) =
13
Conditional Probability:

The conditional probability of E given that F has already occurred

𝑛(𝐸∩𝐹)
P(E|F) =
𝑛(𝐹)

And The conditional probability of F given that E has already occurred

𝑛(𝐸∩𝐹)
P(F|E) =
𝑛(𝐸)
Properties of conditional probability

Property 1:
P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1

Property 2:
If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event of S such that
P(F) ≠ 0, then P((A ∪ B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F) – P((A ∩ B)|F)

Property 3:
P(E′|F) = 1 − P(E|F)
Independent Events:
Two events are independent when the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of one
event does not influence the occurrence of the other.

That is 𝑃(𝐴 /𝐵)=𝑃(𝐴)

𝑃(𝐵/𝐴)=𝑃(𝐵)

𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵
Or 𝑃(𝐴 /𝐵)= =𝑃 𝐴 ⇒𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 𝑃 𝐵
𝑃(𝐵)

If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑃 𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 ∩ 𝐸3 … .∩ 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐸1 𝑃 𝐸2 𝑃 𝐸3 … 𝑃(𝐸𝑛 )
Example
A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.3 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.8. If A and B are
independent, then P(B) is ?
Solution:
𝑷 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑨 + 𝑷 𝑩 − 𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)
⇒ 𝑷 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑨 + 𝑷 𝑩 − 𝑷(𝑨)(𝑩)
⇒ 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝑷 𝑩 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝑷(𝑩)
⇒ 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑷 𝑩
𝟓
⇒𝑷 𝑩 =
𝟕
Properties of independent events:
If A and B are independent events. Then
• A and B’ are independent.
• A’ and B are independent.
• A’ and B’ are independent.
• If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence of at least
one of A and B is given by 1– P(A′) P(B′)

Or
𝑃 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ =𝑃 𝐴 𝑃(𝐵′)
𝑃 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴′ 𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ =𝑃 𝐴′ 𝑃(𝐵′)
 Two independent events A and B have P(A) = 1 / 3 and P(B) = 3 / 4.
What is the probability that exactly one of the two events A or B
occurs?
(a) 1/ 4
(b) 5 / 6
(c) 5 / 12
(d) 7 / 12 110.
Important Notations:
• 𝑃 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)

• 𝑃 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

• 𝑃 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑃(𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′)

Multiplication Theorem on Probability
E ∩ F or EF denotes the simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F.

P(E ∩ F)= P(E/F) P(F)

= P(F/E) P(E)

Multiplication rule of probability for more than two events If E, F and G are three
events of sample space
, P(E ∩ F ∩ G) = P(E) P(F|E) P(G|(E ∩ F)) = P(E) P(F|E)
P(G|EF)
Example
Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of 52 well
shuffled cards. What is the probability that first two cards are kings and the third
card drawn is an ace?
Solution:
4 3 4 2
P(KKA) = P(K) P(K|K) P(A|KK) = × × =
52 51 50 5525
Qus:
A coin is tossed three times. What is the probability of getting head and tail
alternately?
(a) 1/ 8
(b) 1/ 4
(c) 1/ 2
(d) 3 / 4
Example:
Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that either
both are red or both are kings?
Solution: Let 𝐸1 = Event of getting both red cards
𝐸2 = Event of getting both kings

⇒ 𝑃 𝐸1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 = 𝑃 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 = 𝑃 𝐸1 + 𝑃 𝐸2 − 𝑃(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 )

26 25 4 3 2 1 55
⇒ × + × − × =
52 51 52 51 52 51 221
Example
Two cards are drawn at random from a deck of 52 cards. The probability of these
two being aces is:

4 3 1 1 1
Solution × = × =
52 51 13 17 221

Solution:
Given, a coin is tossed three times.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Now, required probability = P(HTH ) + P(THT) = × × + × × =2/8 =1/4
2 2 2 2 2 2
Theorem of Total probability:

If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 … . , 𝐸𝑛 are mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive events of the

sample space S, That is 𝑆 = 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 …..∪ 𝐸𝑛 and 𝐸𝑖 ∩ 𝐸𝑗 = φ, i ≠ j, i , j = 1, 2, ...,n
and A be any event of the sample space, Then

𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟒
𝑬𝟏 𝑨
Type equation here.
𝑬𝟑 𝑬𝒏

𝑷 𝑨 = 𝑷 𝑬𝟏 𝑷(𝑨/𝑬𝟏 )+ 𝑷 𝑬𝟐 𝑷(𝑨/𝑬𝟐 )+ 𝑷 𝑬𝟑 𝑷(𝑨/𝑬𝟑 )+…+ 𝑷 𝑬𝒏 𝑷(𝑨/𝑬𝒏 )

Baye’s Theorem:

If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 … . , 𝐸𝑛 are pairwise disjoint and 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 … ∪ 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑆 ,and A is any event of

nonzero probability, then

𝑃 𝐸𝑖 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸𝑖 )
𝑃(𝐸𝑖 /𝐴)=
𝑃 𝐸1 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸1 )+𝑃 𝐸2 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸2 )+…+𝑃 𝐸𝑛 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸𝑛 )
Solved Example:
Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red and 6
black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to be
red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.

Solution:
Let 𝐸1 be the event of choosing the bag I, 𝐸2 the event of choosing the bag II and A
be the event of drawing a red ball.

1 5
×
2 11 35
𝑃(𝐸2 /𝐴)= 1 3 1 5 =
× + × 68
2 7 2 11
Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In
box I, both coins are gold coins, in box II, both are silver coins and in
the box III, there is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a
box at random and takes out a coin. If the coin is of gold, what is the
probability that the other coin in the box is also of gold?

2
Ans :
3
A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and reports
that it is a six. Find the probability that it is actually a six.

3
Ans:
8
 4
Probability that A speaks truth is ,a coin is tossed. A reports that a
5
head appears. The probability that actually there was head is
4
(A)
5
1
(B)
2
1
(C)
5
2
(D)
5
A card from a pack of 52 cards is lost. From the remaining cards of the pack, two
cards are drawn and are found to be both diamonds. Find the probability of the
lost card being a diamond.

𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝐴 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑

13 12 11
𝑃 𝐸1 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸1 ) × ×
52 51 50
𝑃(𝐸1 /𝐴 )= = 13 12 11 39 13 12 =11/50
𝑃 𝐸1 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸1 )+𝑃 𝐸2 𝑃(𝐴/𝐸2 ) × × + × ×
52 51 50 52 51 50
 An event in the probability that will never be happened is called as
1.Unsure event
2.Sure event
3.Possible event
4.Impossible event

What will be the value of P(not E) if P(E) = 0.07?

1. 0.90
2. 0.007
3. 0.93
4. 0.72
What is the probability of getting the sum as a prime number if
two dice are thrown?
1.5/24
2.5/12
3.5/30
4.¼

What is the probability of getting atleast one head if three

unbiased coins are tossed?
1.7/8
2.1/2
3.5/8
4.8/9
 In a box, there are 8 orange, 7 white, and 6 blue balls. If a ball is
picked up randomly, what is the probability that it is neither orange
nor blue?

1. 1/3
2. 1/21
3. 2/21
4. 5/21

A dice is thrown twice. What is the probability of getting two

numbers whose product is even?
1. 6/4
2.1/2
3.5/4
4.3/4
There are 4 white and 3 black balls in a box. In another box, there are 3 white and
4 black balls. An unbiased die is rolled. If it shows a number less than or equal to 3,
then a ball is drawn from the second box, otherwise from the first box. If the ball
drawn is black, then the probability that the ball was drawn from the first box, is

(a) ½
(b) 6/7
(c) 4/7
(d) 3/7