Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via.

Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

III Year B.Tech. ECE- II Sem L/T/P/C

3/-/-/3
OPEN ELECTIVE - III
(R20A0453) ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION
COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1) To study overview of Embedded Systems, Robots, Microprocessors &Microcontrollers.

2) To study in detail about Robotics and sensors.
3) To study about AVR RISC Microcontroller architecture in detail.
4) To study about ARM Processor in detail.
5) To study about Artificial Intelligence in Robotics.

UNIT -I
Introduction to Embedded System Design, Categories of ES, Overview of Embedded System Architecture, Recent
Trends in Embedded Systems, Hardware Architecture of Embedded System, Real-time Embedded Systems,
Robots and Robotics, Microprocessors and Microcontrollers, Microcontroller or Embedded Controller

UNIT - II
Robotics: Classification of Robots, Links and Joint, Degree of freedom, Motors-DC motors, Stepper Motors, Servo
Motors; Power Transmission-Type of Gears, Robotic Sensors, Applications of Robot, S/w used for Robot
programming.
UNIT- III
The AVR RISC microcontroller architecture: Introduction, AVR family architecture, register file, Pin
diagram of AVR, memory organization, I/O ports, timers, USART, Interrupt structure.
UNIT-IV
ARM Processor: Fundamentals, Registers, current program status register, pipeline concept, Interrupt and the
vector table.

UNIT V
AI IN ROBOTICS: Robotic perception, localization, mapping- configuring space, planning uncertain movements,
dynamics and control of movement, Ethics and risks of artificial intelligence in robotics.

TEXT BOOKS:
1) Subrata Ghoshal, "Embedded Systems & Robots", Cengage Learning
2) Stuart Russell, Peter Norvig, “Artificial Intelligence: A modern approch”, Pearson Education,
India2003.
3) ARM System Developer’s Guide: Designing and Optimizing System Software- Andrew N.
Sloss, Dominic Symes, Chris Wright, Elsevier Inc., 2007
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1) M.A. Mazidi, J.G. Mazidi, R.D. Mckinlay, "8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems", Pearson.
2) Dr. K.V.K. Prasad, "Embedded/Real-Time Systems: Concepts Design & Programming", Dreamtech.
3) Microcontrollers and applications, Ajay V Deshmukh , TMGH,2005

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students will be able to
1) Understand the overview of Embedded Systems, Robots,
Microprocessors &
Microcontrollers.
2) Understand in detail about Robotics and sensors.
3) Understand AVR RISC Microcontroller architecture in detail.
4) Understand about ARM Processor in detail.
5) Understand about Artificial Intelligence in Robotics.

UNIT-1

Introduction to Embedded Systems Design:

• Embedded system is an Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to

perform a specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware
(Software).
 • E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive
Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

• An embedded system can be a small independent system or a large combinational

system. It is a microcontroller-based control system used to perform a specific task of
operation.

• An embedded system is a combination of three major components:

• Hardware: It comprises of microcontroller based integrated circuit, power supply, LCD

display etc.

• Application software: Application software allows the user to perform varieties of

applications to be run on an embedded system by changing the code installed in an
embedded system.

• Real Time Operating system (RTOS): RTOS supervises the way an embedded system
work. It acts as an interface between hardware and application software which
supervises the application software and provide mechanism to let the processor run on
the basis of scheduling.
An Embedded system is configured to perform a specific dedicated application.
Characteristics of an Embedded System: The important characteristics of an embedded
system are:

• Speed (bytes/sec): Should be high speed

• Power (watts): Low power dissipation

• Size and weight: As far as possible small in size and low weight

• Accuracy (% error): Must be very accurate

• Adaptability: High adaptability and accessibility.

• Distributed: embedded systems may be part of larger systems.

 • Reliability(probability that the system works properly for a specific period of time): Must
be reliable over a long period of time

• So, an embedded system must perform the operations at a high speed so that it can be
readily used for re al time applications and its power consumption must be very low and
the size of the system should be as for as possible small and the readings must be
accurate with minimum error. The system must be easily adaptable for different
situations.

Embedded Systems vs General Computing systems:

CATEGORIES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
Embedded systems can be classified into the following 4 categories based on their functional
and performance requirements.
Based on the Functional Requirements:
1) Stand alone Embedded systems: A stand-alone embedded system works by itself. It is a
selfcontained device which does not require any host system like a computer. It takes either
digital or analog inputs from its input ports, calibrates, converts, and processes the data, and
outputs the resulting data to its attached output device, which either displays data, or controls
and drives the attached devices.
EX: Temperature measurement systems, digital cameras, and microwave ovens, washing
machines are the examples for this category
2) Real time embedded system: An embedded system which gives the required output in a
specified time or which strictly follows the time deadlines for completion of a task is known as
a Real time system. i.e. a Real Time system, in addition to functional correctness, also satisfies
the time constraints.
a) Hard real time E.S: A Real time system in which, the violation of time constraints will
cause critical failure and loss of life or property damage or catastrophe is known as a
Hard Real time system. The hardware and software of hard real-time systems must allow a
worst case execution (WCET) analysis that guarantees the execution be completed within a
strict deadline. The chip selection and RTOS selection become important factors for hard
real-time system design.
Ex: Deadline in a missile control embedded system , Delayed alarm during a Gas
leakage , car airbag
control system , A delayed response in pacemakers ,Failure in RADAR functioning etc.
b) Soft Real time E.S: A Real time system in which, the violation of time constraints will
cause only the degraded quality, but the system can continue to operate is known as a Soft
real time system. In soft real-time systems, the design focus is to offer a guaranteed
bandwidth to each real-time task and to distribute the resources to the tasks. Ex: A
Microwave Oven, washing machine, TV remote etc.
3) Networked embedded systems: The networked embedded systems are related to a
network. The connected network can be a Local Area Network (LAN) or a Wide Area Network
(WAN), or the Internet. The connection can be either wired or wireless. The networked
embedded system is the fastest growing area in embedded systems applications. The
embedded web server is suczh a system where all embedded devices are connected to a web
server and can be accessed and controlled by any web browser. Ex: A home security system is
an example of a LAN networked embedded system where all sensors (e.g. motion detectors,
light sensors, or smoke sensors) are wired and running on the TCP/IP protocol.
3) Mobile embedded systems: The portable embedded devices like mobile and cellular phones,
digital cameras, MP3 players, PDA (Personal Digital Assistants) are the example for mobile
embedded systems. The basic limitation of these devices is the limitation of memory and other
resources.
Based on the Performance Requirements:

• Small scale embedded systems: Embedded systems which are simple in application needs
and where the performance requirements are not time critical fall under this category. An
embedded system supported by a single 8–16 bit Microcontroller with on-chip RAM and
ROM designed to perform simple tasks is a Small scale embedded system. A small scale
embedded system may or may not contain an operating system.
Eg: mp3 player, digital camera

• Medium scale embedded systems: Embedded systems which are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware requirements. An embedded system supported by 16–32 bit
Microcontroller /Microprocessor with external RAM and ROM or digital signal
processors that can perform more complex operations is a Medium scale embedded
system.
Eg: Routers used in networking
• Large scale embedded systems: An embedded system supported by 32-64 bit
processors/controllers or Reconfigurable system on chip (RSoC) or multicore processors
which can perform distributed jobs is considered as a Large scale embedded system.
 Complex Embedded systems usually contain a high performance RTOS for task scheduling ,
prioritization and management.
Eg: Airline traffic control system

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS:

Overview of embedded systems architecture :

Every embedded system consists of customized hardware components supported by a
Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is the heart of a microprocessor (µP) or
microcontroller (µC).
A microcontroller is an integrated chip which comes with built -in memory, I/O ports,
timers, and other components.
Most embedded systems are built on microcontrollers, which run faster than a custom -
built system with a microprocessor, because all components are integrated within a single
chip.
Operating system plays an importa nt role in most of the embedded systems. But all the
embedded systems do not use the operating system.
The systems with high end applications only use operating system. To use the operating
system the embedded system should have large memory capability. So, this is not possible
in low end applications like remote systems, digital cameras, MP3 players, robo t toys etc.
The architecture of an embedded system with OS can be denoted by layered structure as
shown below.
• The OS will provide an interface between the hardware and application software.
• In the case of embedded systems with OS, once the application software is loaded into
memory it will run the application without any host system.

• Coming to the hardware details of the embedded system, it consists of the following
important blocks.

• CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• RAM and ROM

• I/O Devices
• Communication Interfaces

• Sensors etc. (Application specific circuitry)

 of the RAM also varies from a few bytes to KB or MB depending on the application.

Recent Trends in Embedded Systems:

• With the fast developments in semiconductor industry and VLSI technology ,one can find
tremendous changes in the embedded system design in terms of processor speed ,
power , communication interfaces including network capabilities and software
developments like operating systems and programming languages etc.
• Processor speed and Power :With the advancements in processor technology ,the
embedded systems are now a days designed with 32,64 bit processors which can work in
real time environment. These processors are able to perform high speed signal processing
activities which resulted in the development of high definition communication devices like
3G mobiles etc.

• Also the recent developments in VLSI technology has paved the way for low power battery
operated devices which are very handy and have high longetivity. Also , the present day
embedded systems are provided with higher memory capabilities ,so that most of them
are based on tiny operating systems like android etc

• Communication interfaces : Most of the present day embedded systems are aimed at
internet based applications. So,the communication interfaces like Ethernet, USB, wireless
 LAN etc.have become very common resources in almost all the embedded systems. The
developments in memory technologies also helped in porting the TCP/IP protocol stack
and the HTTP server software on to the embedded systems. Such embedded systems can
provide a link between any two devices anywhere in the globe.
• Operating systems : With recent software developments ,there is a considerable growth in
the availability of operating systems for embedded systems. Mainly new operating systems
are developed which can be used in real time applications. There are both commercial
RTOSes like Vx Works , QNX,WIN-CE and open source RTOSes like RTLINUX etc. The Android
OS in mobiles has revolutionized the embedded industry.
•
Programming Languages : There is also a remarkable development in the programming
languages. Languages like C++, Java etc. are now widely used in embedded application
programming. For example by having the Java virtual machine in a mobile phones ,one can
download Java applets from a server and can be executed on your mobile. In addition to
these developments, now a days we also find new devices like ASICs and FPGAs in the
embedded system market. These new hardware devices are popular as programmable
devices and reconfigurable devices.
Hardware Architecture of Embedded System

Central Processing Unit:

• A CPU is composed of an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), a Control Unit (CU), and many internal
registers that are connected by buses.
• The ALU performs all the mathematical operations (Add, Sub, Mul, Div), logical operations
(AND, OR), and shifting operations within CPU. The timing and sequencing of all CPU
operations are controlled by the CU, which is actually built of many selection circuits
including latches and decoders. The CU is responsible for directing the flow of instruction
and data within the CPU and continuously running program instructions step by step.

• For embedded system design, many factors impact the CPU selection, e.g., the maximum
size (number of bits) in a single operand for ALU (8, 16, 32, 64 bits), and CPU clock
frequency for timing tick control, i.e. the number of ticks (clock cycles) per second in
measures of MHz .
• The CORE in the embedded system may be a general purpose processor like a
microcontroller or a special purpose processor like a DSP (Digital signal processor). But any
CORE consists of an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), a Control Unit (CU), and many internal
registers that are connected by buses.
• In an embedded system, the CPU may never stop and run forever .The CPU works in a cycle
of fetching an instruction, decoding it, and executing it, known as the fetch-decodeexecute
cycle. The cycle begins when an instruction is fetched from a memory location pointed to
by the PC to the IR via the data bus.
• When data and code lie in different memory blocks, then the architecture is referred as
Harvard architecture. In case data and code lie in the same memory block, then the
architecture is referred as Von Neumann architecture.

• Von Neumann Architecture:

• The Von Neumann architecture was first proposed by a computer scientist John von
Neumann. In this architecture, one data path or bus exists for both instruction and data. As
a result, the CPU does one operation at a time. It either fetches an instruction from
memory, or performs read/write operation on data. So an instruction fetch and a data
operation cannot occur simultaneously, sharing a common bus.
•
Von-Neumann architecture supports simple hardware. It allows the use of a single,
sequential memory. Today's processing speeds vastly outpace memory access times, and
we employ a very fast but small amount of memory (cache) local to the processor.

Harvard Architecture:

• Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data using internal
data buses, allowing simultaneous access to both instructions and data.
Memory:
• Embedded system memory can be either on -chip or off -chip.
• On chip memory access is much fast than off -chip memory, but the size of on -chip
memory is much smaller than the size of off -chip memory.
• The ROM, EPROM, and Flash memory are all read -only type memories often used to store
code in an embedded system.
• The embedded system code does not change after the code is loaded into memory. The
ROM is programmed at the factory and cannot be changed over time.
• The newer microcontrollers come with EPROM or Flash instead of ROM.
• Most microcontroller development kit s come with EPROM as well.
• EPROM and Flash memory are easier to rewrite than ROM. EPROM is an Erasable
Programmable
• The size of EPROM ranges up to 32kb in most embedded systems.
• Flash memory is an EPROM which can be programmed from software so that the
developers don‘t need to physically remove the EPROM from the circuit to re -program it.
• It is much quicker and easier to re -write Flash than other types of EPROM.
• When the power is on, the first instruction in ROM is loaded into the PC and then the CPU
fetches the instruction from the location in the ROM pointed to by the PC and stores it in
the IR to start the continuous CPU fetch and execution cycle. The PC is advanced to the
address of the next instruction depending on the length of the current instr uction or the
destination of the Jump instruction.
• Most of data is stored in Random Access Memory (RAM) and code is stored in Read
Only Memory (ROM).

• This is due to the RAM constraint of the embedded system and the memory
organization. The RAM is readable and writable, faster access and more expensive
volatile storage, which can be used to store either data or code.

• Once the power is turned off, all information stored in the RAM will be lost.

• The RAM chip can be SRAM (static) or DRAM (dynamic) depending on the
manufacturer. SRAM is faster than DRAM, but is more expensive
I/O Ports:

• The I/O ports are used to connect input and output devices. The common input
devices for an embedded system include keypads, switches, buttons, knobs, and all
kinds of sensors (light, temperature, pressure, etc).

• The output devices include Light Emitting Diodes (LED), Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD),
printers, alarms, actuators, etc. Some devices support both input and output, such as
communication interfaces including Network Interface Cards (NIC), modems, and
mobile phones
Communication Interfaces:

• To transfer the data or to interact with other devices, the embedded devices are
provided the various communication interfaces like RS232, RS422, RS485,USB,
SPI(Serial Peripheral Interface ) ,SCI (Serial Communication Interface) ,Ethernet etc.
Application Specific Circuitry:

• The embedded system sometimes receives the input from a sensor or actuator. In such
situations certain signal conditioning circuitry is needed. This hardware circuitry may
contain ADC, Op-amps, DAC etc.
ADC & DAC:

• Many embedded system application need to deal with non-digital external signals such
as electronic voltage, music or voice, temperature, pressures, and many other signals
in the analog form.

• The digital computer does not understand these data unless they are converted to
digital formats.
 • The ADC is responsible for converting analog values to binary digits.

• The DAC is responsible for outputting analog signals for automation controls such as DC
motor.

• In addition to these peripherals, an embedded system may also have sensors, Display
modules like LCD or Touch screen panels, Debug ports c,ertain communication peripherals
like I2C, SPI, Ethernet, CAN, USB for high speed data transmission. Now a days various
sensors are also becoming an important part in the design of real time embedded systems.
Sensors like temperature sensors, light sensors, PIR sensors, gas sensors are widely used in
application specific circuitry.
Power supply:
•
Most of the embedded systems now days work on battery operated supplies.
Because low power dissipation is always required. Hence the systems are designed to work
with batteries Clock:
The clock is used to control the clocking requirement of the CPU for executing instructions
and the configuration of timers.

• The watchdog timer is a special timing device that resets the system after a preset time
delay in case of system anomaly. The watchdog starts up automatically after the system
power up.
• One need to reboot the PC now and then due to various faults caused by hardware or
software. An embedded system cannot be rebooted manually, because it has been
embedded into its system. That is why many microcontrollers come with an on-chip
watchdog timer which can be configured just like the counter in the regular timer. After a
system gets stuck (power supply voltage out of range or regular timer does not issue
timeout after reaching zero count) the watchdog eventually will restart the system to bring
the system back to a normal operational condition.
Real Time Embedded Systems
• A real-time embedded system is a particular version of an embedded system that works on
the basis of real-time computing represented by a dedicated type of operating system —
RTOS.

• Its working principles are as follows:

• Quick response to external factors: an embedded system must work within fixed time
constraints.
• Predictability: an embedded system must be deterministic or predictable, meaning that no
deviations are allowed.
• The deadline is above all: meeting the deadline is more important than other performance
characteristics.
 • Operational failures may lead to catastrophe: if a task does not meet time limits, it
negatively affects users and may even lead to fatal results.

Categories of Real -Time Embedded Systems:

Real-time embedded systems fall into three categories —
• soft,
• firm and
• hard
depending on the acceptability of violation of time constraints:
• Hard — timing constraints must not be violated. For such built -in systems, it’s crucial that
the deadline is met in all cases. No errors are acceptable as they will lead to harmful
effects and the device will totally lose its operation value. An air defense system that needs
to detect and intercept an attacking missile within milliseconds has this type of embedded
system. Its failure jeopardizes human lives . Other examples are airplane sensors or self -
driving car control systems.
 • Firm — exceeding the deadline is occasionally permitted, though it is
undesirable.
Operating failures of firm real-time systems don’t result in harmful effects.
But devices lose their performance value because of such failures.
Manufacturing robots refer to this category.

• Soft — exceeding the deadline is acceptable. Response failures of soft real-

time systems diminish user experience, but they don’t reduce the
performance value at once. If such a system fails to meet a deadline, it will
either recover or gradually diminish its operation. For example, TV router
boxes and gaming consoles refer to soft real-time embedded systems. Time
lags in their operation may happen, but they have either insignificant or no
consequences. Physical Constraints:

• These refer to hardware components, the required characteristics of the

device itself and external environmental factors. Embedded engineers
usually have to create a product that should satisfy the following conditions:

• Definite device size

• Spatial constraints for device installation

• Limited memory and power consumption

• Certain environmental conditions for device operation (temperature,

humidity, pressure) Timing Constraints:
The very essence of real-time systems is that they must respond to events within
predefined time limits. The most severe challenge for developers is to create a
system capable of meeting the deadline under any conditions. They must do
accurate calculations and build the appropriate task scheduling system to succeed.
Task Scheduling

• For real-time systems, it’s crucial to organize data processing strictly

following timing constraints. Real-time operating systems comprise
scheduling algorithms that are responsible for managing these constraints.
Thus, quick responses to events directly depend on which scheduling
algorithm you choose for your real-time embedded solution.

• There are preemptive and non- preemptive algorithms, and software

engineers can choose from several popular types.
 • Priority scheduling. This algorithm prioritizes all tasks and puts forward the
task with the highest priority to be performed first by the processor. A
preventive version of the algorithm stops a running task if there is another
one with a higher priority in the queue. A non-preventive version doesn’t
stop running tasks, but a higher priority task will be the next in the line. This
approach doesn’t suit tasks with equal priority.

• Round-robin scheduling. This is a preventive scheduling algorithm that

doesn’t prioritize tasks. Instead, it allocates an equal time interval (e.g., 500
ms) for each task, and the CPU processes them one by one. One task may go
several rounds to be completed. This approach is relatively easy and
straightforward.

• First come, first served (FCFS). This is a non-preventive algorithm that puts
tasks into the running state depending on the time they arrive. The process
is straightforward: the task that comes first is the first to utilize the
computing power. This algorithm ensures a high response time.

• Shortest job first (SJF). The non-preventive version of this algorithm

allocates tasks depending on their execution time: the task with the shortest
execution time is run next. The preventive variant can interrupt running
tasks if a task with a shorter remaining execution period arrives.
Robots and Robotics:

• A robot is a type of automated machine that can execute specific tasks with
little or no human intervention and with speed and precision. The field of
robotics, which deals with robot design, engineering and operation

• Robots can perform some tasks better than humans, but others are best left
to people and not machines.

• Robot: It is a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions

automatically, especially one programmable by computer.

• According to ISO It is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable,

multipurpose manipulator (robot with fixed base) programmable in three or
more axes, which can either be fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial
automation applications.
• According to RIA (Root Institute of America), It is reprogrammable multi-
Functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.

• Manipulator: Mechanical Hand. We model, design and develop the human

hand in the form of an artificial Hand. It is reprogrammable and
multifunctional.

• CNC: Computerized Numerical Control Machine-We can perform a variety of

tasks by changing the program. Similarly, the same Robot can be used to
perform variety of tasks by reprogramming it. But the level of
reprogrammability differs in CNC machine and Robot(more).

• Robotics: It is the science which deals with the issues related to design,
manufacturing and usage of robots.

• 3H’s of Human beings are copied into Robotics such as

• Hand-with Manipulator
• Head-with Intelligence

• Heart-with emotions
Machines that can replace human beings as regards to physical work and
decision making are categorized as Robots and their study as robotics.

• Czech writer ,Karel Capek in his drama introduced the word robot to the
world in1921.It is derived from the Czech word robota meaning “forced
labourer”.

• Isaac Asimov the well known Russian science fiction writer coined the word
Robotics in his story “Runaround” , published in 1942 to denote the science
devoted to the study of Robotics.

• The robot technology is advancing rapidly. Robots and robot like

manipulators are now commonly employed in hostile environment such as
at various places in an atomic plant for handling radio active materials.

• Robots are being employed to construct and repair space stations and
satellites.
• There are now increasing number of applications of robots such as in nursing
and aiding a patient. Microrobots are being designed to do damage control
inside human veins.

• One type of robot commonly used in the industry is a robotic manipulator or

simply a robotic arm.

• It is an open or closed kinematic chain of rigid links interconnected by

movable joints.

• In some configurations, links can be considered to correspond to human

anatomy as waist, upper arm, and forearm with joints at shoulder and
elbow.

• At the end of the arm, a wrist joint connects an end effector to the forearm.

• The end effector may be a tool and its a fixture or a gripper or any other
device to do work . The end effector is similar to the human hand with or
without fingers.
Motivation behind Robotics: To cope up with increasing demands of a dynamic
and competitive market, modern manufacturing methods should satisfy the
following requirements:

• Reduced Production Cost

• Increased Productivity

• Improved Product Quality Laws of Robotics:

 1)A robot should not injure a human being or through inaction allow a
human to be harmed.
2)A robot must obey orders given by humans except when that conflicts with
the first law.
3)A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the first
or second law.
The following are things robots do better than humans:

• Automate manual or repetitive activities in corporate or industrial settings.

• Work in unpredictable or hazardous environments to spot hazards like gas

leaks.

• Process and deliver reports for enterprise security.

• Fill out pharmaceutical prescriptions and prep IVs.

• Deliver online orders, room service and even food packets during
emergencies.

• Assist during surgeries.

• Robots can also make music, monitor shorelines for dangerous predators,
help with search and rescue and even assist with food preparation.
Different Types of robots

• There are as many different types of robots as there are tasks.

1. Androids
Androids are robots that resemble humans. They are often mobile, moving around
on wheels or a track drive. According to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, these humanoid robots are used in areas such as caregiving and personal
assistance, search and rescue, space exploration and research, entertainment and
education, public relations and healthcare, and manufacturing.
2. Telechir
A telechir is a complex robot that is remotely controlled by a human operator for a
telepresence system. It gives that individual the sense of being on location in a
remote, dangerous or alien environment, and enables them to interact with it
since the telechir continuously provides sensory feedback.
3. Telepresence robot
A telepresence robot simulates the experience -- and some capabilities -- of being
physically present at a location. It combines remote monitoring and control via
telemetry sent over radio, wires or optical fibers, and enables remote business
consultations, healthcare, home monitoring, childcare and more.
4. Industrial robot

• The IFR (International Federation of Robotics) defines an industrial robot as

an
"automatically controlled, reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator
programmable in three or more axes." Users can adapt these robots to
different applications as well. Combining these robots with AI has helped
businesses move them beyond simple automation to higher-level and more
complex tasks.

• In 2019, there were over 390,000 industrial robots installed worldwide,

according to the IFR -- with China, Japan and the U.S. leading the way.
In industrial settings, such robots can do the following:

• optimize process performance;

• automate production to increase productivity and efficiency;

• speed up product development;

• enhance safety; and lower costs.

5.Swarm robot
Swarm robots (aka insect robots) work in fleets ranging from a few to thousands,
all under the supervision of a single controller. These robots are analogous to
insect colonies, in that they exhibit simple behaviors individually, but demonstrate
behaviors that are more sophisticated with an ability to carry out complex tasks in
total.
6. Smart robot
This is the most advanced kind of robot. The smart robot has a built-in AI system
that learns from its environment and experiences to build knowledge and enhance
capabilities to continuously improve. A smart robot can collaborate with humans
and help solve problems in areas like the following:

• agricultural labor shortages;

• food waste;

• study of marine ecosystems;

• product organization in warehouses; and

• clearing of debris from disaster zones.

Progressive Advancements in Robots
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers
Microprocessor

• The microprocessor is useful in very intensive processes. It only contains a

CPU (central processing unit) but there are many other parts needed to work
with the CPU to complete a process. These all other parts are connected
externally.

• Microprocessors are not made for a specific task as well as they are useful
where tasks are complex and tricky like the development of software, games,
and other applications that require high memory and where input and
output are not defined.

• Eg: Complex home security, Home computers, Video game systems

Microcontroller

• The microcontroller is designed for a specific task or to perform the assigned

task repeatedly. Once the program is embedded on a microcontroller chip, it
can’t be altered easily and you may need some special tools to reburn it.

• As per application, the process is fixed in microcontroller. Hence, the output

depends on the input given by the user or sensors or predefined inputs.

• e.g. Calculator, Washing Machine, ATM machine, Robotic Arm, Camera,

Microwave oven, Oscilloscope, Digital multimeter, ECG Machine, Printer
Differences between Microprocessor and Micro-controller
Microprocessor Microcontroller
 Brief overview

• Microprocessor consists of only a Central Processing Unit, whereas Micro

Controller contains a CPU, Memory, I/O all integrated into one chip.

• The microprocessor is useful in Personal Computers whereas Micro

Controller is useful in an embedded system.

• The microprocessor uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM, and

other peripherals, on the other hand, Microcontroller uses an internal
controlling bus.

• Microprocessors are based on Von Neumann model Microcontrollers are

based on Harvard architecture

• The microprocessor is complicated and expensive, with a large number of

instructions to process but Microcontroller is inexpensive and
straightforward with fewer instructions to process.
Microcontrollers (Embedded Controllers)

• A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a

specific operation in an embedded system. A typical microcontroller includes
a processor, memory and input/output (I/O) peripherals on a single chip.

• Sometimes referred to as an embedded controller or microcontroller unit

(MCU), microcontrollers are found in vehicles, robots, office machines,
medical devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending machines and home
appliances, among other devices. They are essentially simple miniature
 personal computers (PCs) designed to control small features of a larger
component, without a complex front-end operating system (OS).

How do microcontrollers work?

• A microcontroller is embedded inside of a system to control a singular

function in a device. It does this by interpreting data it receives from its I/O
peripherals using its central processor. The temporary information that the
microcontroller receives is stored in its data memory, where the processor
accesses it and uses instructions stored in its program memory to decipher
and apply the incoming data. It then uses its I/O peripherals to communicate
and enact the appropriate action.

• Devices often utilize multiple microcontrollers that work together within the
device to handle their respective tasks.

• For example, a car might have many microcontrollers that control various
individual systems within, such as the anti-lock braking system, traction
control, fuel injection or suspension control. All the microcontrollers
communicate with each other to inform the correct actions. Some might
communicate with a more complex central computer within the car, and
others might only communicate with other microcontrollers. They send and
receive data using their I/O peripherals and process that data to perform
their designated tasks.
Elements of a microcontroller:
The core elements of a microcontroller are:
 • The processor (CPU) -- A processor can be thought of as the brain of the
device. It processes and responds to various instructions that direct the
microcontroller's function. This involves performing basic arithmetic, logic
and I/O operations. It also performs data transfer operations, which
communicate commands to other components in the larger embedded
system.

Memory -- A microcontroller's memory is used to store the data that the

processor receives and uses to respond to instructions that it's been
programmed to carry out. A microcontroller has two main memory types:

• Program memory, which stores long-term information about the instructions

that the CPU carries out. Program memory is non-volatile memory, meaning
it holds information over time without needing a power source.

• Data memory, which is required for temporary data storage while the
instructions are being executed. Data memory is volatile, meaning the data it
holds is temporary and is only maintained if the device is connected to a
power source.
I/O peripherals -- The input and output devices are the interface for the processor
to the outside world. The input ports receive information and send it to the
processor in the form of binary data. The processor receives that data and sends
the necessary instructions to output devices that execute tasks external to the
microcontroller.
There are many supporting components that can be classified as peripherals.

• Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) -- An ADC is a circuit that converts analog

signals to digital signals. It allows the processor at the center of the
microcontroller to interface with external analog devices, such as sensors.

• Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) -- A DAC performs the inverse function of

an ADC and allows the processor at the center of the microcontroller to
communicate its outgoing signals to external analog components.

• System bus -- The system bus is the connective wire that links all
components of the microcontroller together.

• Serial port -- The serial port is one example of an I/O port that allows the
microcontroller to connect to external components. It has a similar function
to a USB or a parallel port but differs in the way it exchanges bits.
 Microcontroller features:

• A microcontroller's processor will vary by application. Options range from

the simple 4-bit, 8-bit or 16-bit processors to more complex 32-bit or 64-bit
processors.

• Microcontrollers can use volatile memory types such as random access

memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory types -- this includes flash
memory, erasable programmable readonly memory (EPROM) and electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM).

• Generally, microcontrollers are designed to be readily usable without

additional computing components because they are designed with sufficient
onboard memory as well as offering pins for general I/O operations, so they
can directly interface with sensors and other components.

• Microcontroller architecture can be based on the Harvard architecture or

von Neumann architecture, both offering different methods of exchanging
data between the processor and memory. With a Harvard architecture, the
data bus and instruction are separate, allowing for simultaneous transfers.
With a Von Neumann architecture, one bus is used for both data and
instructions.

• Most of the microcontrollers are based on RISC architecture.

• MCUs feature input and output pins to implement peripheral functions. Such
functions include analog-to-digital converters, liquid crystal display (LCD)
,Sensors gathering data.

• Common MCUs include the Intel MCS-51, often referred to as an 8051

microcontroller, which was first developed in 1985; the AVR microcontroller
developed by Atmel in 1996; the programmable interface controller (PIC)
from Microchip Technology; and various licensed Advanced RISC Machines
(ARM) microcontrollers.

• Applications: Microcontrollers are used in multiple industries and

applications, including in the home and enterprise, building automation,
manufacturing, robotics, automotive, lighting, smart energy, industrial
automation, communications and internet of things (IoT) deployments
 UNIT-2
Classification of Robots

• Robots can be classified based on the application or by their locomotion /

kinematics.

• Classifying Robots by their Application: Based on this classification, there are

two broad ways of categorizing robots.
1)Industrial Robots
2)Service Robots

• Industrial Robots: These were one of the first robots to be used

commercially. In a factory assembly line, these are usually in the form of
articulated arms specifically developed for such applications as welding,
material handling, painting and others.

• They can be further subdivided as:

1)Manufacturing Robots
2)Logistics Robots

• Manufacturing robots are designed to move materials, as well as perform a

variety of programmed tasks in manufacturing and production settings. They
are often used to perform duties that are dangerous or unsuitable for human
workers.

• Logistics robots are mobile automated guided vehicles primarily used in

warehouses and storage facilities to transport goods.

• Service robots: The International Organization for Standardization defines a

service robot as ‘a robot that performs useful tasks for humans.’ They can be
further subdivided as: 1. Medical robots

2. Home robots

3. Defence robots

4. Entertainment robots

5. Agricultural robots
 6. Educational robots

• Medical robots are professional service robots that are used in and out of
hospital settings to improve the level of patient care. These robots reduce
the workload of the medical staff, which allows them to spend more time
caring directly for patients. Mobile medical robots are used for the delivery
of medication and other sensitive materials in a hospital. Home robots
automate tasks like cleaning and disinfecting.
• The primary purpose of Education robots is to make kids aware of their
potential, utility, and help kids build their own robots using readymade kits.
Educational robots are used extensively in schools, both in classrooms and in
extracurricular activities.

• One of the most important uses of robots in defence is to ensure the safety
of soldiers and civilians. For example, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are
used to carry out dangerous tasks or activities in hazardous environments,
drones are used for surveillance, and so on.

• Agricultural robots sense weather pattern and can adjust the watering of
crop as needed, can be used for sowing, de-weeding, and harvesting crops.
Classifying Robots by their Kinematics or Locomotion: Robots can also be
classified according to how they move – or not move.

• Cartesian Robots: these are perhaps the most common types of robots.
They have three axes which are linear i.e, they can only move in straight lines
rather than rotating and are mounted at right angles to each other. Because
of their rigid structure, this type of robots usually can offer good levels of
precision and repeatability. Cartesian robots are mostly used in the industrial
and the manufacturing sector for pick and place type of operations.

• Cylindrical robots: The body of this type of robot is such that the robotic
arm can move up and down along a vertical member. The arm can rotate
about that vertical axis and the arm can also extend or contract. This
construction makes the manipulator able to work in a cylindrical space. They
are used for assembly operations, spot welding and for die casting machines.
These cannot reach the objects lying on the floor. Eg: Versatran 600
Spherical coordinate Robots(Polar coordinate Robots): This type of robot works in
a spherical system. It can move in a bi-angular and single linear direction. SCARA
Robots: SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Arm for Robotic Assembly. This
type of robot has one linear and two rotary movements. Can be used to pick up
objects lying on the floor. They are used for assembly purposes all over the world
Eg: Unimate 2000B

• Revolute coordinate or Articulated Robots: These are robots with a wide

range of movements that include forward, backward, upward and downward
motion. Because of their large work envelope, articulated robots can be used
for several different applications like assembly, arc welding, material
handling, machine tending, and packaging.
Note: PUMA stands for Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly
Other types:
Airborne Robots: these robots can fly through the air. Drones are an extremely popular
example of flying robots.
Aquatic Robots: These robots can work on or under water. They are mostly used for
underwater exploration of oil, gas or minerals.
Joints and links
Two basic types types of joints are used in industrial robots
1)Revolute
2)Prismatic
Degree of freedom
 Fig 1.9: Representation of six degrees of freedom
DOF of a system : Defined as the minimum number of independent
parameters/variables/coordinates needed to describe the system completely.
Motors:
• DC Motor: A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated using
direct current or DC is called a DC motor.
Parts of a DC Motor
Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are
insulated from one another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder. The armature is a rotating part that rotates on its axis and is separated
from the field coil by an air gap.
Field Coil or Stator
A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a
magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.
Commutator and Brushes
Commutator
The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper
segments stacked together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary
function of a commutator is to supply electrical current to the armature winding.
Brushes
The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These
brushes conduct electric current from the external circuit to the rotating
commutator. Hence, we come to understand that the commutator and the brush
unit are concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to
the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.
DC Motor Working:
A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is
energised. The created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the
armature. The magnetic field enters the armature from the North pole side of the
field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole side.
 Shunt wound
The conductors DC on
located motor:In a shunt
the other polewound motor, to
are subjected thea field
forcewinding is connected
of the same intensity but in
the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor
armature to rotate.
Working principle of DC motor
When kept in a magnetic field, a current -carrying conductor gains torque and develops a
tendency to move. In short, when electric fields and magnetic fields interact, a mechanical force
arises. This is the principle on which the DC motors work .
Types of DC motor
• Self Excited DC Motor
• Separately Excited DC Motor
Compound wound DC motor:DC motors having both shunt and series field winding is known as
Self Excited DC Motor
Compound DC motor, The compound motor is further divided into:
• In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to the
Cumulative Compound Motor
armature winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC motor can further be classified as:
Differential Compo und Motor
1. Shunt wound DC motor
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the windings is in the
2. Series wound DC motor
same direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings
is3.opposite
Compound wound
to the DC motorby the shunt field winding.
flux produced

armature
from an external source of DC supply

Series wound DC motor: In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is connected in series with
the armature winding

Stepper Motor:
parallel to the 2) Separately Excited DC Motor: In a separately excited DC motor,
the field coils are energised

• A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power

into mechanical power. Also, it is a brushless, synchronous electric motor
that can divide a full rotation into an expansive number of steps. The motor’s
position can be controlled accurately without any feedback mechanism, as
long as the motor is carefully sized to the application.Construction &
Working Principle:

• The construction of a stepper motor is fairly related to a DC motor. It

includes a permanent magnet like Rotor which is in the middle & it will turn
once force acts on it. This rotor is enclosed through a no. of the stator which
is wound through a magnetic coil all over it. The stator is arranged near to
rotor so that magnetic fields within the stators can control the movement of
the rotor.

• The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by one.
So the stator will magnetize & works like an electromagnetic pole which uses
repulsive energy on the rotor to move forward. The stator’s alternative
magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will shift the rotor gradually &allows it
to turn through great control.

• The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a

rotor which is made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with
electromagnets. Once the supply is provided to the winding of the stator
 then the magnetic field will be developed within the stator. Now rotor in the
motor will start to move with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. So this
is the fundamental working principle of this motor.

• In this motor, there is a soft iron that is enclosed through the

electromagnetic stators. The poles of the stator as well as the rotor don’t
depend on the kind of stepper. Once the stators of this motor are energized
then the rotor will rotate to line up itself with the stator otherwise turns to
have the least gap through the stator. In this way, the stators are activated in
a series to revolve the stepper motor.
Driving Techniques
Single Excitation Mode
The basic method of driving a stepper motor is a single excitation mode. It is an old
method and not used much at present but one has to know about this technique.
In this technique every phase otherwise stator next to each other will be triggered
one by one alternatively with a special circuit. This will magnetize & demagnetize
the stator to move the rotor forward.
Full Step Drive
In this technique, two stators are activated at a time instead of one in a very less
time period. This technique results in high torque & allows the motor to drive the
high load.
Half Step Drive
This technique is fairly related to the Full step drive because the two stators will be
arranged next to each other so that it will be activated first whereas the third one
will be activated after that. This kind of cycle for switching two stators first &after
that third stator will drive the motor. This technique will result in improved
resolution of the stepper motor while decreasing the torque.
Micro Stepping

• This technique is most frequently used due to its accuracy. The variable step
current will supply by the stepper motor driver circuit toward stator coils
within the form of a sinusoidal waveform. The accuracy of every step can be
enhanced by this small step current. This technique is extensively used
because it provides high accuracy as well as decreases operating noise to a
large extent.
Servo Motors