Acn Old
Acn Old
1. Describe the structure and components of an HTTP request and response message.
2. Explain how web caching improves web performance and describe the concept of the Conditional GET.
Web caching is a mechanism used to store copies of web resources (e.g., HTML pages, images, JavaScript,
CSS) temporarily, enabling faster retrieval on subsequent requests.
How Web Caching Improves Performance:
1. Reduced Latency: Cached resources load faster, improving page speed.
2. Lower Bandwidth Usage: Fewer requests are sent to the origin server, saving network resources.
3. Decreased Server Load: Reduces the number of requests a web server needs to handle.
4. Improved User Experience: Faster page loads result in a better browsing experience.
A Conditional GET ensures the server sends a resource only if it has changed since the last request This
avoids unnecessary data transfer.
Mechanism of Conditional GET:
• Last-Modified Header: The server sends the resource with a timestamp (Last-Modified: Wed, 12
Feb 2025 10:00:00 GMT).
• If-Modified-Since Header: The client sends a request with If-Modified-Since: Wed, 12 Feb 2025
10:00:00 GMT.
• If the resource has not changed, the server responds with 304 Not Modified, reducing bandwidth
usage.
• If the resource has changed, the server sends a fresh copy with a 200 OK response.
3. Compare SMTP and HTTP, highlighting their similarities and differences in communication protocols.
Similarities:
1. Both are application-layer protocols used for communication over the internet.
2. Both follow a client-server model for exchanging data.
3. Both use TCP for reliable data transmission.
Differences:
Feature SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
Purpose Sends emails between servers and clients. Transfers web pages and data.
Model Push-based (emails are pushed to servers). Pull-based (clients request resources).
Port Uses 25, 465, 587. Uses 80, 443.
State Stateful (maintains session info). Stateless (each request is independent).
Conclusion:
SMTP is used for email transfer, while HTTP is for web browsing. Both use TCP but differ in data exchange
models and purpose.
4. Explain the process of DNS resolution and the importance of DNS records in this process.
How DNS Works
DNS (Domain Name System) operates in a hierarchical, distributed manner to resolve domain names into
IP addresses. The process includes:
1. User Request – The browser first checks its local cache when a user enters a URL (e.g.,
www.example.com).
2. Query to DNS Resolver – If not found, the request is sent to the local DNS resolver (usually
provided by an ISP).
3. Recursive Query – If still unresolved, the resolver queries root DNS servers.
4. Root DNS Servers – These direct the query to the TLD (Top-Level Domain) servers (e.g., .com).
5. TLD Servers – These refer the resolver to the Authoritative DNS Server for the domain.
6. Authoritative DNS Server – This responds with the IP address of the requested domain (e.g.,
93.184.216.34).
7. Website Access – The browser uses the IP to connect to the web server, loading the website.
5. Discuss the working and advantages of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) file distribution, including the role of
Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs).
P2P file sharing allows users to exchange files directly without a central server. Each peer acts as both a
downloader and an uploader, improving efficiency and scalability.
• File Splitting & Parallel Downloads – Large files are divided into chunks, enabling simultaneous
downloads from multiple peers, speeding up distribution.
• Swarming – Peers exchange file chunks, ensuring fast availability and reducing reliance on a single
source.
• Decentralization – No central server; files are shared across multiple peers, improving fault tolerance
and availability.
• Tracker or DHT Support – Some systems use trackers for peer discovery, while others use Distributed
Hash Tables (DHTs) for decentralized lookup.
• Reciprocal Sharing – Users upload while downloading, keeping the network efficient and balanced.
Role of Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs)
DHTs replace traditional trackers by distributing peer information across the network. Each peer stores
part of a lookup table, allowing decentralized and efficient peer discovery, improving scalability and fault
tolerance.
UNIT – 2
Multiplexing combines multiple application data streams into a single stream for transmission, assigning
unique port numbers to distinguish them.
Demultiplexing separates the received data and delivers it to the correct application using port numbers.
• A socket is an endpoint for communication in the transport layer, enabling data exchange between
applications over a network.
• It consists of an IP address and port number, allowing processes to send and receive data reliably
(TCP) or quickly (UDP).
• Sockets help identify applications and manage multiple network connections on a device.
The TCP three-way handshake establishes a reliable connection between a client and a server before data
transmission. It consists of three steps:
1. SYN – The client sends a synchronization (SYN) request to the server to initiate a connection.
2. SYN-ACK – The server responds with a synchronization acknowledgment (SYN-ACK) to confirm the
request.
3. ACK – The client sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back, completing the connection setup.
1. Server Side:
• The server creates a socket, binds it to a specific IP address and port, and listens for incoming
client connections.
• When a client requests a connection, the server accepts it and establishes a dedicated socket for
communication.
2. Client Side:
• The client creates a socket and connects to the server using its IP address and port.
• Once connected, the client and server exchange data reliably.
2. Compare TCP and UDP based on reliability, connection orientation, and use cases.
Use Cases Used for applications requiring reliable Used for applications needing fast, low-
data transfer, such as web browsing latency communication, such as video
(HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP), and file streaming, VoIP, and online gaming.
transfer (FTP).
Conclusion
TCP is suitable for scenarios where accuracy matters, while UDP is ideal for real-time applications where
speed is more important than reliability.
o TCP breaks data into smaller segments and assigns sequence numbers, ensuring the
receiver can reassemble them in the correct order.
TCP congestion control prevents network overload by adjusting the data transmission rate based on
network conditions. It ensures efficient use of bandwidth while avoiding packet loss due to congestion.
Example:
Imagine you are transferring a large file over TCP:
1. Slow Start Phase – The sender starts by sending a small number of packets (1 MSS). For every
acknowledgment (ACK) received, it doubles the packet count (1 MSS → 2 MSS → 4 MSS, etc.).
2. Congestion Avoidance Phase – Once the congestion window reaches a threshold, TCP increases
the window size linearly instead of exponentially to prevent congestion.
3. Packet Loss & Recovery – If packet loss occurs (e.g., three duplicate ACKs are received), TCP:
• The Internet Protocol (IP) operates at the network layer of the TCP/IP model and is responsible for
addressing, routing, and delivering data packets across networks.
• It enables devices to communicate globally by ensuring data reaches the correct destination using
unique IP addresses.
3. What is the role of ICMP in the Internet Protocol suite?
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) plays a crucial role in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite by
handling error reporting and network diagnostics.
• Error Reporting – ICMP sends messages (e.g., "Destination Unreachable") to notify the sender
about network issues.
• Network Diagnostics – It is used in tools like ping and traceroute to check connectivity and
network performance.
• A routing algorithm determines the best path for data transmission between devices in a network,
ensuring efficient communication.
• It helps routers decide how to forward packets based on network conditions.
1. Explain the format of an IP datagram, highlighting its key fields and their functions.
An IP datagram is a structured packet used for transmitting data over a network. It consists of a header
and a payload (data). The header contains essential information for routing, addressing, and ensuring
proper delivery.
2. Compare the Link-State (LS) and Distance-Vector (DV) routing algorithms in terms of their working
principles and use cases.
Working Principles
• Link-State (LS) Routing:
o Each router maintains a complete map of the network topology.
o It exchanges Link-State Advertisements (LSAs) with all routers, updating topology changes
dynamically.
o Uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the shortest path.
• Distance-Vector (DV) Routing:
o Each router only knows about its directly connected neighbours.
o It shares entire routing tables periodically with neighbours.
o Uses Bellman-Ford algorithm to compute the best path.
Use Cases
• LS Routing (OSPF, IS-IS):
o Used in large, scalable networks like ISPs, enterprises, and cloud data centers.
o Preferred for networks requiring fast convergence and low latency.
• DV Routing (RIP, IGRP):
o Suitable for small to medium-sized networks where ease of configuration is a priority.
o Works well in low-bandwidth environments but struggles with large-scale networks
3. Describe the process of hierarchical routing and its advantages in large networks.
Hierarchical Routing is a method of dividing large networks into smaller, more manageable sub-networks
or regions. It is commonly used to reduce the complexity of routing in large-scale networks like the
internet.
4. Explain the functioning of the OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol in intra-AS routing.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link-state routing protocol used within an Autonomous System (AS)
for efficient and scalable routing
Working of OSPF
1. LSA Exchange – Each router shares link-state advertisements (LSAs) with all other routers in the
AS.
2. Shortest Path Calculation – Routers use Dijkstra’s Algorithm (Shortest Path First) to determine the
best routes.
3. Routing Table Update – The best paths are stored in the routing table, and updates occur only
when topology changes.
Key Features
• Uses cost (based on bandwidth) as the routing metric.
• Supports hierarchical routing with areas for scalability.
• Converges faster than RIP, ensuring efficient network updates.
5. Discuss the role and working of BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) in inter-AS routing.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the primary inter-domain routing protocol used to exchange routing
information between different Autonomous Systems (ASes) on the internet. It is a Path-Vector Protocol
designed for scalability and policy-based routing.
Role of BGP
1. Inter-AS Routing – Connects ISPs and organizations, enabling global internet routing.
2. Policy-Based Routing – Allows route selection based on policies, not just shortest paths.
3. Scalability – Manages large-scale networks by optimizing route advertisements.
Working of BGP
1. BGP Peering – BGP routers establish sessions and exchange routing updates.
2. Route Advertisement – Each router shares available routes with AS path details.
3. Path Selection – Routes are chosen based on AS path, next-hop, local preference, and policies.
UNIT – 4
1. MAC Addressing – Contains source and destination MAC addresses for identifying devices in a
network.
2. Error Detection – Includes a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
field to detect transmission errors.
A VLAN is a logical network within a physical LAN that groups devices into separate broadcast domains. It
improves network segmentation, security, and efficiency by allowing devices to communicate as if they
were on the same network, even if they are physically apart.
Link-layer switches operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and use MAC addresses to
forward frames efficiently within a LAN.
Self-Learning Process:
1. Learning: When a frame arrives at a switch port, the switch reads the source MAC address.
2. Table Update: The switch updates its MAC address table (CAM) by associating the source MAC
address with the incoming port.
3. Forwarding:
o If the destination MAC address is found in the table, the frame is sent to the correct port.
o If not, the switch floods the frame to all ports except the incoming one.
Example:
If a device with MAC address 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E sends data, the switch learns its MAC address and port.
Future frames to this address will be directly forwarded instead of being flooded.
4. Explain the Ethernet frame structure and its key components.
An Ethernet frame is a structured data packet used for communication over an Ethernet network.
5. What is Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), and how does it enhance network efficiency?
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a high-performance routing technique used in modern networks
to speed up and manage traffic flow.
1. Explain the key components of the 802.11 architecture and their roles in wireless networks.
The 802.11 architecture enables wireless communication within a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).
It consists of several key components that work together to provide seamless connectivity.
1. Station (STA):
o Any device with a wireless network interface, such as laptops, smartphones, and IoT
devices.
o Communicates using the 802.11 protocol and connects to an access point (AP) or another
station in an ad-hoc network.
2. Access Point (AP):
o Acts as a bridge between wireless stations and a wired network.
o Provides connectivity, authentication, and data forwarding in infrastructure mode.
3. Basic Service Set (BSS):
o A group of stations communicating with each other under a single AP.
o Forms the fundamental building block of 802.11 networks.
4. Extended Service Set (ESS):
o A collection of multiple BSSs interconnected through a wired network.
o Provides seamless roaming for users across multiple APs within the same network.
5. Distribution System (DS):
o Connects multiple access points to allow communication between different BSSs.
o Typically implemented using Ethernet or other wired backbone networks.
2. Describe how mobility management works in cellular networks.
Mobility management ensures seamless communication as users move between network areas. It
involves location management, handoff management, roaming management, QoS assurance, and
security measures.
1. Location Management
o Tracks a mobile device’s location for efficient call and data delivery.
o Includes registration (location updates) and paging (finding the device when needed).
2. Handoff (Handover) Management
o Ensures uninterrupted service when a user moves between cells.
o Hard handoff (GSM): Old connection is dropped before a new one is established.
o Soft handoff (CDMA): New connection is formed before the old one is released.
3. Roaming Management
o Allows users to stay connected when moving across different service providers or
geographic areas.
o Involves agreements between operators for inter-network communication.
4. Quality of Service (QoS) Assurance
o Ensures minimal delays, high-speed connectivity, and priority handling for critical
applications like voice and video calls.
5. Security and Privacy
o Protects user data and prevents unauthorized access through authentication, encryption,
and secure handoff mechanisms.
Handoff (handover) in GSM refers to the process of transferring an active call or data session from one cell
(Base Transceiver Station - BTS) to another without interruption. It ensures seamless communication
when a mobile user moves across coverage areas.
Types of Handoff in GSM
1. Intra-Cell Handoff – Within the same BTS, switching to a different frequency.
2. Inter-Cell Handoff – Between two BTSs under the same BSC.
3. Inter-BSC Handoff – Between two BSCs under the same MSC.
4. Inter-MSC Handoff – Between two MSCs, typically when moving between regions.
Steps Involved in Handoff
1. Signal Monitoring
o The mobile device and network continuously measure signal strength and quality of
nearby cells.
2. Handoff Decision
o If the current BTS signal weakens, the Base Station Controller (BSC) or Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) decides to switch to a stronger BTS.
3. Allocation of Resources
o The target BTS allocates a frequency channel for the incoming call before the switch
occurs.
4. Switching the Connection
o The call is transferred to the new BTS, and the mobile device tunes to the new frequency.
5. Release of Old Channel
o The connection with the previous BTS is terminated, and resources are freed for other
users.
5. What are the advanced features of 802.11, and how do they improve wireless communication?