SETS A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple circuits.

Graphs Combinatorics and Probabilities

An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique
Domination law A ∪ U = U, A ∩ ∅ = ∅ Walk: sequence of vertices and edges that can be repeated n ⋅ m ways to perform independent tasks
simple path between any two of its vertices.
Contrapositive law A ⇒ B = B′ ⇒ A′ A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated
Trail: walk in which all edges are distinct n + m if one task replaces the other
Length: number of vertices Principle of inclusion-exclusion:
as the root and every edge is directed away from the root.
Implication conversion law: A ⇒ B = A′ ∪ B Path: walk in which all vertices and edges are distinct | A ∪ B | = | A | + | B | − | A ∩ B | - if we have two
A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal vertex has
Inclusion-exclusion principle: no more than m children. The tree is called a full m-ary tree if Cycle: path in which the rst and last vertices are the same ways to perform that task that are not disjoint.
|A ∪ B | = |A| + |B | − |A ∩ B | every internal vertex has exactly m children. An m-ary tree with Euler circuit: circuit that contains every edge exactly once Circle permutation:(n − 1)!
m = 2 is called a binary tree. Euler path: path that contains every edge exactly once Pigeonhole principle: if k is a positive integer and k +
Symmetric di erence: A ⊕ B = (A ∪ B ) − (A ∩ B ) A tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges. Hamiltonian circuit: circuit that contains every vertex exactly 1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is
Powerset formula | P (A) | = 2|A| A full m-ary tree with i internal vertices contains n = mi + 1 once at least one box containing two or more of the objects.
vertices. Hamiltonian path: path that contains every vertex exactly N
ℕ set of natural numbers {1,2,3,4,5…} A full m-ary tree with: once ⌈ ⌉ - minimum number of people needed to
- n vertices has i = (n − 1)/m internal vertices and l = [(m − 1)n + t
ℤ set of integers {… − 3, − 2, − 1,0,1,2,3…} Simple graph: no loops, no multiple edges guarantee that at least t people have the same birthday
1]/m leaves, Complete graph: every pair of distinct vertices is joined by where N = 366
ℝ set of real numbers - i internal vertices has n = mi + 1 vertices and l = (m − 1)i + 1 an edge Permutation = ordered. Combination = unordered.
{… − 3.5, − 2.5, − 1.5, − 0.5,0.5,1.5,…} leaves, Regular graph: every vertex has the same degree Permutations with repetitions n r
- l leaves has n = (ml − 1)/(m − 1) vertices and i = (l − 1)/(m − 1) Isomorphic: two graphs are isomorphic if there is a one-to- n!
De Morgan's laws internal ver- tices. Permutations
one correspondence between their vertices such that two
(A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′| | | (A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′| | | A − B = A ∩ B′ h vertices are adjacent in one graph if and only if their
(n − r )!
There are at most m leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.
corresponding vertices are adjacent in the other graph
(n + r − 1)!
Commutative law A ∪ B = B ∪ A|||A ∩ B = B ∩ A A sorting algorithm based on binary comparisons requires at Combinations with repetitions
r !(n − 1)!
r - size
least ⌈log n!⌉ comparisons. Bipartite graph: vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets
Associative law such that no two vertices in the same set are adjacent of the combination
The average number of comparisons used by a sorting
A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∪ B ) ∪ C | | | A ∩ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∩ B ) ∩ C Number of vertices in a tree with n edges n + 1 n!
algorithm to sort n elements based on binary comparisons is (n Combinations
Distributive law log n). r !(n − r )!
Relations
A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B ) ∩ (A ∪ C ) | | | A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ C )
Re exive: aRa for all a ∈ A
Idempotent law A ∪ A = A|||A ∩ A = A Boolean algebra Symmetric: aRb implies bRa for all a, b ∈ A
Domination law A ∪ U = U |||A ∩ ∅ = ∅ identity x ⋅ 1 = x and x + 0 = x Transitive: aRb and bRc implies aRc for all a, b, c ∈ A Binomial expression consists of two terms: a + b or a - b
n
∑ (k)
Domination x + 1 = 1 and x ⋅ 0 = 0 n (n−k) k
Absorption lawA ∪ (A ∩ B ) = A | | | A ∩ (A ∪ B ) = A Asymmetric: aRb implies ∼ bRa for all a, b ∈ A Binomial theorem (x + y) n = x y
complements x ⋅ x̄ = 0 and x + x̄ = 1 Connected: aRb or bRa for all a, b ∈ A
Complement law A ∪ A′ = U k=0

(k)
commutativity x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x and x + y = y + x Equivalence: re exive, symmetric, and transitive n
Contrapositive law A ⇒ B = B′ ⇒ A′ distributivity: x ⋅ ( y + z ) = x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z and Partial order: re exive, antisymmetric, and transitive Coe cient of x k in the expansion of (x + y) n is
x + ( y ⋅ z ) = (x + y) ⋅ (x + z )
( k ) (k − 1) ( k )
Total order: partial order and connected
Propositions n n n +1
Basic Theorems Equivalence class: [a] = {x ∈ A|xRa} Pascal's identity + = ;
De Morgan's law ¬[( ∃ x)P (x)] ≡ ( ∀x)[ ¬P (x)] && idempotent laws x ⋅ x = x and x + x = x

( k ) k !(n − k )!
n n!
¬[( ∀x)P (x)] ≡ ( ∃ x)[ ¬P (x) tautology and contradiction x + 1 = 1 and x ⋅ 0 = 0 =
associative laws x ⋅ ( y ⋅ z ) = (x ⋅ y) ⋅ z and x + ( y + z ) = (x + y) + z
conjunction p ∧ q → ( p ∧ q)
absorption laws x ⋅ (x + y) = x and x + (x ⋅ y) = x
simpli cation p ∧ q → p uniqueness of complement: if x ⋅ y = 0 and x + y = 1 then y = x̄
addition p → p ∨ q De Morgan's theorems x ⋅ y = x̄ + ȳ and x + y = x̄ ⋅ ȳ
Duality principle every theorem remains true if we replace ⋅ with + and 0 with 1
law of detachment [ p ∧ ( p → q)] → q Contradiction: by assuming that the statement is false and then showing that this assumption leads to a
law of the contrapositive [( p → q) ∧ ( ¬q)] → ¬p contradiction with a known fact.
Boolean functions
modus tollens [( ¬q) ∧ ( p → q)] → ¬p Exclusive or x ⊕ y = x ⋅ ȳ + x̄ ⋅ y Exponential and Logarithmic
modus ponens [( p → q) ∧ p] → q Implies x → y = x̄ + y functions
power rule l o ga x n = n l o ga x
If the horizontal line intersects the graph of a function in all places at exactly one point, then the given
disjunctive syllogism [( p ∨ q) ∧ ( ¬p)] → q function has an inverse that is also a function.
product rule
log(a b) = log a + log b
hypothetical syllogism [( p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → ( p → r) quotient rule
a
resolution [( p ∨ q) ∧ ( ¬p ∨ r)] → (q ∨ r) log = log a + log b
b
b 1
universal instantiation [( ∀x)P (x)] → P (c) reciprocal rule log =
a ab
universal generalization P (c) → ( ∀x)P (x)
universal modus ponens [( ∀x)(P (x) → Q (x)) ∧ P (c)] → Q (c)
universal modus tollen
Structure of induction
[( ∀x)(P (x) → Q (x)) ∧ ( ¬Q (c))] → ( ¬P (c)) 1. Basis step: show that the statement is true for n = 1.
converse error [( ∀x)(P (x) → Q (x))] → ( ∃ x)(Q (x) → P (x)) 2. Inductive step: show that if the statement is true for n = k,
then it is also true for n = k + 1.
existential fallacy 3. Conclusion: by the principle of mathematical induction, the
statement is true for all positive integers n.
[( ∃ x)(P (x) → Q (x))] → ( ∀x)(Q (x) → P (x))













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