Running Head: Workplace Identity Shaping Workplace Identity through Coveys 7 Habits: Investigating the Effective Characteristics of Enterprise

Discourse Enterprise discourse(du Gay, 1996) exerts a powerful influence on shaping the identities of organization members. This case study analyzes the implementation and negotiation micropractices of a specific program of enterprise discourse, Stephen R.

Coveys The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (1989). Through the lens of discursively influenced identity, we focus on the intersection of discourse and organizational practice to explore what characteristics of the enterprise discourse make it so effective at shaping the identities of organization members. This paper offers important insights for three reasons. First, we study The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (7 Habits). Since its publication the 7 Habits by management guru Stephen R. Covey has sold more than 12 million copies in 38 countries and spent more than 250 weeks on the New York Times best-seller list (Time 25, 1996). Covey, according to Time one of the 25 most influential people in the US (Time 25, 1996), lectures to more than 750,000 people each year (Strauss, 1998). More than 17.5 million people use Franklin Covey planners and other personal effectiveness products. Despite this success, Coveys ideas have received little critical attention from scholars of organization (see Jackson, 1999 for an important exception). Second, through our analysis of the 7 Habits we focus on a specific program of enterprise in a specific organizational context (e.g., Cohen & Musson, 2000; du Gay, 1996) in contrast to those analyses that tend to examine the broad discourse of enterprise at a macro-level (e.g., du Gay, Salaman, & Rees, 1996). This allows us to attend to the potentially controlling characteristics of the discourse as it intersects with practice rather

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than exploring these in the abstract. Third, examining the nexus of organization members, The 7 Habits program, and the organization context allows us to attend to the arbitrary nature of placing boundaries around an organization when trying to understand the shaping of workplace identities. We illuminate key characteristics of the discourse of enterprise for identity shaping and organizational control by examining micropractices at SkyWatch, a hightech, defense-oriented government facility in the western United States. SkyWatch members, in response to Congressional budget cuts, reorganized themselves into a more competitive, market-oriented organization. During this period of change, facility leaders turned to Coveys 7 Habits as a way of teaching trust and character to the members of the SkyWatch workforce. This case thus provides an excellent opportunity to assess the implementation of a specific program of the enterprise discourse and to see what makes this particular discourse successful at shaping organizational identities. Specifically, our findings indicate that Coveys change program shows the simultaneously general and specific nature of value-based identity discourses, blurs the boundaries between the internal and external organization, functions in multiple contexts, and takes on the character of a mandate. The paper proceeds as follows. We begin by discussing the discourse of enterprise as a form of control in that it shapes the identities of organization members. We next turn to our own case study of one high-tech, defense-oriented organization that demonstrates the adoption, implementation and effects of Coveys 7Habits. We then describe four important characteristics of the enterprise discourse that emerge from the case. Finally, we discuss implications for the practice and theorizing of workplace identity.

Running Head: Workplace Identity Discourse, the Discourse of Enterprise and the Shaping of Identities Critical management scholarship suggests that enterprise culture plays a

significant role in shaping the workplace identities of managers and employees (Cohen & Musson, 2000; Delbridge, 1995; du Gay and Salaman, 1992; du Gay, et al, 1996). While some have questioned the hegemonic power of such discourses in particular contexts (Cohen & Musson, 2000; Ezzamel, Willmott & Worthington, 2001; McKinley & Taylor, 1996, 1998; Wendt, 1994), most scholars agree that these discourses influence identity formation in contemporary organizations. On the other hand, questions persist at the intersection of ideology and practice regarding why such discourses are effective and ineffective in shaping the identities of organization members. To show specifically how Coveys 7 Habits shaped the identities of SkyWatch members, we first elaborate on the role of discourse in shaping knowledge and identity, and on the influence of the discourse of enterprise specifically. The Role of Discourse Discourse plays a crucial role in our analysis since, as Foucault argues (1972), discourse produces objects and subjects. For example, Foucault (1979) demonstrates in his examination of the creation of prisons that the discourse of penology produces subjects different from those produced by a regime of sovereign power. Discourse possesses this productive quality because discourse refers to the use of language to produce knowledge as well as the transformation of knowledge into technologies and practices that influence thought and behavior (Foucault, 1972; du Gay, et al). We treat managerial ideas and theories as a discourse about humans and human activity, with managerial discourse at least partially centered around questions of how to use people

Running Head: Workplace Identity and other resources for particular outcomes, such as profit accumulation or workplace harmony.

Managerial discourse, then, includes knowledge, in part, about the employee as well as practices related to how an employee should act. This knowledge may be used to lay out preferred modes of conduct for employees, managers, and other subjects of organization. Thus, the employee of managerial knowledge is more than conjured image. The employee subject becomes material reality through the application of management knowledge in specific settings. Though the ideal employee as imagined by management knowledge may never be realized, some negotiated, concrete, and local version of that imagined ideal will come to exist. This localized employee is born out of interaction with managerial texts, training courses, and co-workers. Thus, to understand better the effects of an event such as enterprise discourse, we must attend to the micropractices through which the discourse is operationalized. Within the broad discourse of management, we examine the discourse of enterprise. The Discourse of Enterprise: Taking a Closer Look at Coveys the 7 Habits Since the 1980s the discourse of enterprise has become a dominant discourse in western organizations (Cohen & Musson, 2000). The discourse of enterprise refers to a broad range of subtly similar corporate change programs such as the excellence movement (Peters & Waterman, 1982) or business process reengineering (Hammer & Champy, 1993), and in lean manufacturing systems like total quality management (TQM) or just-in-time manufacturing (JIT). The essence of such programs is the (allegedly) radical redefinition of the organization along lines of flattened hierarchies, devolved central authority, increased structural and processual flexibility to respond to changing

Running Head: Workplace Identity conditions of competition, and close relations to the customer to meet quickly her/his demands. These transformations of the organization explicitly seek to transform employees

and managers, as well. Du Gay (1996) argues that enterprise discourse is concerned with changing peoples values, norms, and attitudes so that they make the right and necessary contribution to the success of the organization for which they work (pp. 5758). These contributions include the enterprising qualitiessuch as self-reliance, personal responsibility, boldness and a willingness to take risks in the pursuit of goals [that] are regarded as human virtues and promoted as such (p. 56). The enterprising subject embodies continual self-improvement and monitoring with respect to acting creatively, responsibly, and in a manner that responds to customer demands (du Gay, 1996). One particular discourse of enterprise that, surprisingly given it popularity, has received very little attention from critical scholars is Coveys The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Much of the interest in Covey has been driven by businesses organizations that see the values espoused by Covey as consistent with good business. While other discourses of enterprise, such as TQM, have received considerable attention, Coveys 7 Habits remains largely unexplored as a shaper of identities and, subsequently, as a mechanism of control. Several reasons are likely for this neglect. First, as Covey himself articulates the 7 Habits as focused on the individual rather than the organization, scholars may overlook Covey as a significant voice of the discourse of enterprise. Even though Covey is chiefly used in business contexts and his ideas clearly have important benefits for organizations, the 7 Habits are often portrayed as self-help

Running Head: Workplace Identity rather than business system like TQM or JIT. Second, most specific authors have been neglected in favor of macro-level analyses (May & Zorn, 2001). To some extent, the works have been too popular to warrant attention. As the book title suggests, the highly effective person performs seven habits: Habit 1Be Proactive; Habit 2Begin with the End in Mind; Habit 3Put First Things First; Habit 4Think Win-Win; Habit 5Seek First to Understand Then To Be Understood; Habit 6Synergize; and Habit 7Sharpen the Saw (Covey, 1989). According to Covey the first three habits represent the Private Victory, and

claim to move a person along a Maturity Continuum from a state of dependence to a state of independence. Habits 4-6 represent a Public Victory, and move the individual from independence to interdependence. Habit 7, finally, has both private and public dimensions and focuses on personal renewal. Each habit leads to the next, building along the way. Covey offers these habits in the service of his books subtitle, Restoring the Character Ethic. During the 20th century, he claims, the popular success literature provided people with the techniques and strategies to be successful. This focus on technique, he argues, represents a shift from the success literature of the 18th and 19th centuries which taught people that success stemmed from a moral character.

Running Head: Workplace Identity Much of the popularity of the text may stem from the familiar and reassuring content of the message. The 7 Habits builds upon deeply held American cultural beliefs in the individual, work, and family, for instance. In his study of the 7 Habits, Jackson

(1999) found that the text centered around three powerful themes. First, the book evokes nostalgia for farming life, helping people identify with the principles of the habits. Second, the book offers a method for attaining self-improvement. Third, the book provides us with a role model whom we should emulate and become. By tapping into deep-seated desires and models, the 7 Habits resonates with us, gathering rhetorical force. We build upon Jacksons study though a focus on the micropractices of themes such as these. So we turn to study Coveys 7 Habits as a particular type of discourse of enterprise that promises to further inform our theorizing about the shaping of the entrepreneurial self. The following research questions guide our analysis: 1) How does Coveys 7 Habits move from a broad movement to micropractices of identity construction in a particular context? 2) What characteristics of the discourse make it effective at shaping the identities of organization members? Below, we briefly introduce the organization studied for the case and describe our data collection and analysis methods. Method The SkyWatch setting at a glance SkyWatch (pseudonym) is a US federal, defense-oriented high-technology organization in the Western US. SkyWatch provides telecommunications and intelligence systems and support for the military. Commanded by a military officer, federal civilian

Running Head: Workplace Identity employees, employees of private weapons contractors, and military personnel comprise SkyWatch.

During the period of this study the members of SkyWatch were immersed in a reorganization necessitated by a deep Congressional budget cut. One component of this reorganization required all members of SkyWatch to attend the 7 Habits training. The SkyWatch facility commander mandated and endorsed this training and provided the resources necessary to fulfill the initiative. The training costs include $90 per attendee for materials, three days of training time, and the salaries and re-certification courses for four trainers, making the commanders commitment to the training to be not inconsequential. Data Collection and Analysis Consistent with case study research (Yin, 1994) participant observation and interviews were used to gather data for this analysis. These methods are particularly useful for exploring questions that focus on an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon. In this case, participant observation provided direct insight into the interactions of organization members as they were introduced to Coveys ideas in the context of a training seminar. Participant observation was especially useful here as it gave us insight into interpersonal behavior and motives (Yin, 1994, p. 80). Interviews, in the form of accounts, provided insight into the sensemaking of individuals as they communicated their verbal understanding of the 7 Habits and its influence on their daily lives. Interview accounts have proven effective in past research at uncovering the principal values and premises that shape identities in organizational contexts (Tompkins & Cheney, 1983). Similarly, Lindlof and Grodin (1990) argue that the use of some media, such as self-help books, tends to be a solitary act leading to internal changes. Still, through accounts

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provided by interview participants, the researcher can witness the purposeful embedding of media experience in the construction of self (p. 21). We have drawn data for this case study from a project by the first author. In October 1999 He participated in the 3-day 7 Habits training workshop. He engaged in group discussions, completed the individual activity workshops, and observed and spoke with other seminar participants. Approximately 30 people attended this seminar. He subsequently conducted 12respondent interviews (Lindlof, 1995, p. 171) with SkyWatch members who had attended the training during the previous two years. The interviews elicited information about a persons use of and relationship to the 7 Habits. Using Spradleys (1980) taxonomy of categories of meaning He coded the fieldnotes and interview transcripts. Using QSR NUDIST, a qualitative data management software program, he compared and contrasted the interview excerpts within and across codes. He then identified patterns within a category and combined categories or codes when appropriate. For example, under the category, X is a result of using the 7 Habits, he could print a report that listed all interview excerpts under that title. Some categories produced reports of only a page, while others produced reports of 15 pages. This iterative process of data analysis allows us to ground our claims in this paper in the observation and interview data. The Discursive Production of Identity at SkyWatch We have arranged our analysis of the case chronologically. We begin with a discussion of how the 7 Habits program came to be part of the SkyWatch reorganization. Here we highlight the collusion required between internal and external forces that brought Covey to SkyWatch. We then analyze elements of the training seminar,

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highlighting how the value-content gains credibility by being simultaneously general and specific. Finally, we discuss some of the effects of the training, demonstrating how the discourse of the 7 Habits shape the identities of SkyWatch members. Justifying the 7 Habits: Transforming SkyWatch by Transforming its Members The implementation of the 7 Habits training program occurred only after a fair amount of lobbying of the facility commander by the lead HR professionals. A close look at this lobbying illustrates how the implementation of this training program required a kind of collusion among a variety of actors. SkyWatch has a small, core group of human resource specialists who provide training and development classes to organization members. These classes tend to focus on topics such as time management and TQM. A private defense contractor employs the lead trainers at SkyWatch, who are then deployed to SkyWatch to provide training expertise. According to Charles and Debra, the lead trainers at SkyWatch, organizationsanctioned use of Covey materials developed after the US Congress ordered a restructuring of SkyWatch by cutting the facility budget in 1997. The budget cut, in the tens of millions of dollars, forced SkyWatch to embark on a budget review, a restructuring, a re-engineering, and a downsizing. The transformation process began in late 1998 and neared its conclusion at the time of this study, in winter 2001. At the time of the re-structuring announcement Debra and Charles had been conducting TQM training seminars with SkyWatch employees. According to Debra and Charles this initiative had not gone well. Many training participants saw the quality initiative as unachievable, as not linked to specific SkyWatch goals, and as neither

Running Head: Workplace Identity possible nor desirable in their specific units within SkyWatch. One departmental leader went so far as to tell Debra that he would never implement the quality program. Debra and Charles explained that SkyWatch members wanted little to do with the quality stuff because they lacked trust. Charles and Debra pitched The 7 Habits

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class to the facility commander as part of the remedy for the general problems facing the organization, and the specific problem of the failed TQM initiative. They argued that while TQM addressed some structural issues, it did not address the internal and external needs and issues of the individual. Reflecting Coveys language, Debra and Charles argued that changing SkyWatch first required changing the people within SkyWatch. For them the 7 Habits training addressed one of the crucial flaws with the TQM effort. The initiative had failed, they argued, because SkyWatch members did not trust one another enough to engage and implement fully the necessary changes. Debra and Charles argued that for the reorganization to be successful, trust had to be a vital component in the transformation efforts. The commander agreed and made The 7 Habits training mandatory for all members of SkyWatch. This beginning of the 7 Habits at SkyWatch illustrates, first, how the trainers themselves are shaped by and, subsequently, shape others through the discourse of the 7 Habits. Debra and Charles were both Covey certified trainers who had gone through extensive training and regularly taught others about Coveys ideas. As such, Coveys discourse shaped the way they interpreted the world. For instance, the trainers framed the problems of SkyWatch within the discursive formation of the 7 Habits. Debra and Charles used Coveys emphasis on trust to define the failure of the TQM program to the commander. Although many other plausible explanations for this failure existed, the

Running Head: Workplace Identity trainers drew upon a discourse that they themselves identified strongly with. As they

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worked with the commander and ultimately convinced him to define the problem within the context of Covey, they (re)produced the discourse of effectiveness as characterized by Covey. The history of the 7 Habits at SkyWatch also illustrates how this enterprise program required a high degree of collusion among agents internal and external to SkyWatch. In some ways it seems that the 7 Habits is a solution in search of a problem. Finding the requisite problems to be solved requires connecting the general 7 Habits discourse and trainers (the remedy) to specific sites and their problems. Debra and Charles performed this articulation when they drew upon their Franklin Covey-certified 7 Habits expertise to persuade the SkyWatch commander. As this military site succumbed to market pressures to justify itself the work of a guru like Stephen R. Covey became more attractive, particularly after a key outcome of the reorganization was framed in terms of aiding trust and responsibility. In that gurus develop solutions detached from specific problems in specific organizations, they require some degree of collusion with internal agents to implement their ideas. In many ways gurus always remain apart from their clients and thus must rely on others to sell their ideas. The 7 Habits training seminar: Shaping identities A discourse such as the 7 Habits frequently applies to a wide number and variety of organizations. Thus, the values embedded in the program are simultaneously general, in that they are widely applicable and widely accepted, and specific, in that they advocate a specific course of action. The simultaneous general and specific quality of the 7 Habits makes it appealing and difficult to resist during the Covey training seminars.

Running Head: Workplace Identity Jackson (1999) and Clark and Salaman (1998) argue that understanding the

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appeal and effects of management gurus and their works requires scholars to attend to the symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic dimensions of these works. This advice proves useful in analyzing the 7 Habits in relation to identity and power. Covey frequently argues that what he preaches in the 7Habits is simply common sense, not common practice. To some extent, Covey is correct; his ideas do seem common. As common sense, they resonate at a general level with deeply held American cultural values (Jackson, 1999). In the training class such articulation between the 7 Habits and American common sense positioned the content of the course as consistent with widely held values. This fieldnote excerpt illustrates the point. Charles, our trainer, related the purpose of the habits: To lead our lives in a truly effective way. Charles emphasized that the development of effective habits requires a personal journey, for We first make our habits, then our habits make us. We must develop habits that allow us to develop good character. Living by inner principles defines good character. According to Covey, Charles said, people today focus on personality manipulation, on how to appear to be, not on actually how to be. For Covey, we must live according to principles. Living according to principles requires and results in people developing trustworthiness. Trustworthiness leads to trust among people. As Charles introduced the premise of the 7 Habits training he subtly laid out an agenda with which few people might effectively argue. For many in the US, a desire to develop good habits is not unusual, particularly when good habits help define and improve ones work (Weber, 1958). Thus, when Charles suggested that we must seek those habits that lead to a principled life, he found no objections. Even in the most successful organizations, let alone one undergoing the transformations experienced SkyWatch, members are likely to welcome a course that teaches people to develop good habits to lead principled lives. Charles ability to frame the training symbolically and

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emotionally in terms of American common sense helped smooth the movement of this discourse into SkyWatch by mitigating any objections we might have had toward the training. As the class progressed the principles advocated did become more concrete. In short, the prescribed habits and their often-implicit values required large amounts of work on ones self. In this way the content of the training subtly shifted from a general articulation of common values to a mandate to SkyWatch employees to change. One such shift came during the Mission Statement workshop in which the trainers helped align the personal mission statements of training attendees with the SkyWatch mission. As Debra explained, I create an umbrella that says, How do you fit in here? And if you don't, you are going to have to ask yourself some hard questions, then. With SkyWatch in the privileged position, the mission statement workshop helps sort out the overlaps, gaps, and incongruities between personal and organizational values, at times leading to some people leaving SkyWatch. We can see quite clearly that as the 7 Habits functions internally, key organization figures attempt to direct members to SkyWatch-sanctioned values, thus exercising control. Throughout the seminar, the trainers coach the employees to reshape their identities in line with Coveys discourse. During his interview Doug, another Franklin Covey certified trainer, spoke of the purpose of the training. We want to culturally change things and we want to get to that fire within each employee so they're excited to come into work, not plodding through life I mean, that's what we're doing with this whole cultural thing, you know. What's our end in mind, you know? To make work a more inspiring and motivating place. Period. We tend to focus on processes and systems and structure and we don't focus so much on Mission, Vision, and Values.

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While Doug remained silent on how specifically to achieve these goals, his comments do reveal that though Covey might frame the 7 Habits as universal and applicable to any organization, this obscures a content that is hardly neutral. The motivations of the trainers and the premise of the 7 Habits point to a set of values that require SkyWatch members to modify who they are and what they do. In fact, the added dimension of the 7 Habits that requires self-work may make this enterprise program somewhat unique when compared to TQM or ISO initiatives. The self-work embedded in the 7 Habits may heighten the mechanism of discipline by inculcating the guiding values not only for decision making, but also within his/her fundamental consideration of him/her as a self. The Practice of Covey at SkyWatch Though the effects of the discourse of enterprise on organization members may be uneven, perhaps even contradictory (Ezzamel, Willmott, & Worthington, 2001), it is likely that they influence the daily, often mundane, practices of organization members. For many SkyWatch members who had completed the training, the 7 Habits came to serve as a resource for navigating the daily affairs of work at SkyWatch, and for handling the activities of ones life away from work. Janet, an HR professional, shared how the 7 Habits helped her address a work problem. In this instance, taken from fieldnotes, she concealed her use of the program from her colleagues, even as she embodied the ideals. Janet frequently handles personnel issues. On one occasion she worked with someone in Personnel and another SkyWatch employee. The employee was to travel to Maryland for a three-week training course. His daughter would have a birthday during this time; he did not want to miss this. Also, federal government regulations stated that his per diem would be lower than normal due to his extended trip. In short, this employee did not want to go to Maryland, placing him in conflict with the personnel officer.

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Janet told me that she used The 7 Habits to mediate, though she did not tell the other participants. She asked each person several questions to understand better his/her position. For example, she asked the employee if he could do the training in less time. He replied that he could. She continued like this to understand and engage both parties in the solution. The result was that the employee traveled to Maryland, completed the training in reduced time, and received his full per diem. From Janets perspective, the win-win approach of The 7 Habits paid dividends. With resolution achieved Janet told them that she had used The 7 Habits to solve their problem. They were quite impressed with her and the 7 Habits. Janet expressed great pride and satisfaction as she shared this story; she had used the Public Victory habits (Habit 4Think Win-Win, Habit 5Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood, and Habit 6Synergize) to settle a potentially negative situation. In her role as a potential mediator she drew upon her knowledge of the 7 Habits to intervene in this dispute in an appropriate way. Janets actions here demonstrate that at least some SkyWatch members use the values and behaviors embedded in the 7 Habits as guides for their workplace decisions. As well, Janets story suggests that the 7 Habits is more than a private individual self-improvement program. It is a highly interactive endeavor in which performance is crucial for implementing and reinforcing the 7 Habits program. The performance of effectiveness told by Janet, did not require informed consent from all actors; only Janet knew of her use of the 7 Habits. Thus, the 7 Habits is a technology that does not require agreement from all potentially affected to be implemented. A discourse such as the 7 Habits may make people up (du Gay, 1996) even when they choose not to use the program (Cohen & Musson, 2000). Like Janet, other SkyWatch members also used the 7 Habits to address workplace conflicts or differences. For instance, Henry, a computer software engineer, used the 7 Habits to manage his engineering team.

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DAVID: In those situations where you might push team members to modify their software, do you draw on the 7 Habits? HENRY: Uhmmm. I think the answer would be yes. But its subtle in that the 7 Habits in some ways are kind of a philosophy, like I said, where, you know, you want to get a win-win situation. You want people to work things out and you are kind of a facilitator sometimes in the interaction. Even if its a one-on-one kind of thing, you have to facilitate between yourself and that person by using the 7 Habits philosophies. Henrys characterization of the 7 Habits as a philosophy, as a subtle mechanism of facilitation again indicates that the 7 Habits may work in the background as people interact. As a philosophy it provides core values or basic assumptions concerning how to approach and work with others. In addition to serving as decision premises in times of conflict, the 7 Habits helped people in other ways. For example, Luke, an engineer, described how he used the Emotional Bank Account (Covey, 1989) to foster and maintain authentic relationships. Luke maintains a list of family members and friends whom he periodically contacts. He records when he last spoke to the person and then telephones that person every few days or weeks, depending on who it is. While he does this for the sake of family, friends, and business he sees this as different from a salesman who might call people only to make a sale. Luke maintains genuine and frequent contact with these people out of sincerity. I am building my own village in the 20th Century, he said. The 7 Habits helps Erika, a systems analyst, address instances of misunderstanding. Even if I despise the person and I know theyre wrong, I just really try to give them a chance to speak, and let them say what they want to say. And its challenging with some of the people I work with. But just making a conscious effort because I realize that when I dont and when Im just attacking them you dont get anything accomplished. Sometimes Ill paraphrase so they know

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that Im hearing them correctly, because often times what I hear and what theyre meaning to say arent the same things. Here, using the 7 Habits clearly requires effort. Again, we see that The 7 Habits program helps direct the mundane elements of work at SkyWatch. We also see that it helps people in what we might call trying circumstances, those instances when conflicts must be managed, problems addressed, and challenging people engaged productively. Some SkyWatch members used the 7 Habits not only at work but also in their private lives with family and friends. Janet shared this story, taken from fieldnotes. During the last couple of years her son, now 10, has had problems being proactive and beginning with the end in mind. About a year ago her son had to demonstrate his Cub Scout knowledge to graduate from the Scouts. Believing that the project would be easily completed, he became upset when he learned that he would have to do a great deal of work on his own. Janet sat down with her son and explained to him that the project could be done well if he had a vision and plan. She asked him what he wanted his display to look like, what he wanted to include, and what he would need to do the display. This helped him plan his work. In the end, he produced a great display, she said. He just needed to learn how to be proactive. I know this sounds odd, but it is true, she said. Janets story, first, involves her young son, a member of a population we might normally consider to be beyond the scope of the 7 Habits, particularly when we conceive of such a change program as a work program. Second, as she helped her son construct the display, or, really, his vision for the display, Janet framed the situation and the possible outcomes. Through this framing she helped craft her son as a 7 Habits subject and demonstrated the applicability of the program to his and her personal lives. In these various examples, the 7 Habits serves as a resource for doing effectiveness with others. Quite often, performing effectiveness makes up not only the

Running Head: Workplace Identity individual striving for the quality but their interactional partners, as well. As performances of specific values, these interactions help disseminate the 7 Habits program. The 7 Habits affects subjects internal states, their being, and affects their

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outward behaviors and interactions with other people. In this outward dimension, people do, or perform, actions that they understand to constitute effectiveness. Thus, the discourse, in terms of its values, subtly shapes members of SkyWatch. DISCUSSION This case study contributes to our understanding of the construction of identity through the discourse of enterprise by focusing on characteristics of the discourse that allow it to make up managers and employees (du Gay, 1996; du Gay, et al, 1996). By looking at Coveys 7 Habits, we were able to show how this discourse of effectiveness was selected, implemented in practice and, ultimately, shaped identities in particular ways. Grounded in our case study data, we find that the 7 Habits as a discourse of enterprise reveals: 1) the general/specific nature of value-based identity discourses 2) the blurring of internal and external discursive boundaries, 3) the multi-contextual nature of such discourses, and 4) the mandate character of such discourses. General/Specific Nature of Identity Discourses The simultaneously general and specific nature of the Coveys 7 Habits training discourse facilitates the shaping of organization member identities. The general nature of the discourse, as evidenced in Coveys appeal to American common sense, creates enough ambiguity so that the values do not readily conflict with other widely held values. In a sense, this strategic use of ambiguity allows for unified diversity (Eisenberg, 1984, p. 230) as organization members must negotiate acceptance of the Covey discourse in a

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way that does not conflict with ones hierarchy of identity framing discourses (Cohen & Musson, 2000). A large number of people can, thus, be shaped by Coveys values, but do so in relatively unique ways. On the other hand, the training at SkyWatch shows that these values are specific in that they demand changing ones self in exacting ways as defined by the organization. As SkyWatch members aligned their mission statements with the organization mission, individuals were forced to make specific decisions as to how, at least publicly, to discursively frame their own identities. As studies of accounts suggest, the act of writing and verbalizing your own mission, especially after listening to Coveys principles, serves to create and reinforce individual identities (Tompkins & Cheney, 1983). We put forward that this simultaneously general/specific character of Coveys 7 Habits, and discourses of enterprise more broadly, makes these discourses more readily palatable, difficult to resist and powerful at shaping identities in particular ways. Internal/External Discursive Boundaries As a second contribution, we suggest that the discourse of enterprise blurs the boundaries between internal and external discourses of control and, by doing so, critiques the container metaphor so often used to study organizational identity discourse (Cheney & Christensen, 2001). Todays employee faces a barrage of value inducements from corporate, social, educational and government institutions that are separate from the organization in which he/she works. In fact, many of the core values in U.S. businesses may currently be derived from extra-organizational sources rather than originating organically from the organization culture. In many cases, such as with customer service, core values are presented as universal axioms (Cheney, 1999) that are

Running Head: Workplace Identity reinforced through business school curricula, popular management literature (May & Zorn, 2001), and by leaders in almost every organization in which an employee might work in a career. As a result, studying such discourse requires abandoning traditional

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distinctions between internal and external, and instead focusing on how these discourses are adopted, adapted and resisted as they fluidly move between contexts. We specifically see a blurring of boundaries in the collusion of the commander, trainers and outside forces as they adopted and implemented the 7 Habits at SkyWatch. At SkyWatch, trainers worked in concert with the commander to bring The 7 Habits to the facility. This relationship is significant because although various societal leaders frame enterprise discourse as being imposed or as inevitable, these discourses are in reality invited into and encouraged in most organizations. In fact, the rise and success of corporate gurus like Covey has been shown to be a mutually negotiated and beneficial relationship between guru and CEO (Clark & Salaman, 1998). While our results show how Coveys discourse of effectiveness blurs internal and external boundaries, we believe it is significant that this discourse is often framed as external to the organization. For critical management studies, the important insight is that the seemingly external character of these discourses often masks the agency of internal managers in introducing and implementing these control systems. As these discourses are positioned and accepted as beyond the control of organization managers and owners, these figures are removed from the consequences of these discourses. The seeming external nature of these discourses creates a sense of detachment from any particular organization and increases their overall power. As employees accept the discourse of enterprise, internal events like laying off workers, are justified in the minds of even those

Running Head: Workplace Identity being laid off as uncontrollable consequences of larger forces which control their managers. As one high tech employee said of her managers after being laid off in the

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recent economic downturn, "I felt horrible they had to do this" (Roth, 2002). Rather than recognizing her managers had decided to let her job go (rather than their own) she placed the blame squarely on the economy and the market. Multi-contextual Related to the above argument, Coveys discourse of effectiveness is multicontextual in that it cuts across organizational, political, social, familial, and personal boundaries and influences all forms of individual conduct (Burchell, 1993). The 7 Habits, for example, transcend organizational and personal boundaries when Janet drew upon it in her interaction with her son. The values espoused by Covey allegedly represent a type of universal ethical guide that is as relevant in ones business life as in ones personal life.1 Importantly, then, a discourse of enterprise such as the 7 Habits is not only about control at work, but also control at home and at play. This is important because as the boundaries of discipline diminish between home and work (Aryee, Fields, & Luk, 1999; Deetz, 1992) it complicates efforts at resistance. If a discourse of identity functions in multiple contexts, then resisting that discourse may require resistance in multiple contexts. The multi-contextual nature of this discourse also suggests that regardless of ones employer, Coveys program may be a prized commodity. In a changing, global economic world, multi-contextual values based on effectiveness that employees may carry from job to job offer considerable reward to the employee and the employer. The

Running Head: Workplace Identity employee with the universal skill set may more easily adapt him/herself to the needs of the employer. The employer hires a known commodity. Mandates

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As a final contribution, examination of the SkyWatch case shows how discourses of enterprise are often positioned as mandates that demand action. We have strategically chosen the term mandate to stress the seemingly required or unavoidable nature of most of these discourses of enterprise. We see this happening in three ways. First, the discourse itself reflects the urgent nature of adopting the prescribed reforms of the discourse. For example, Covey agues that habits are drawn from practices of effective people. The unstated alternative is that ineffective people do not follow such practices. Faced with such a choice, many people, managers especially, see Covey as necessary for business success. Second, as each new management fashion grows, the momentum of the movement itself often forces even skeptics to jump on the bandwagon less they be viewed as out-of touch with current trends, non-rational and, subsequently, risk losing stakeholder support (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; du Gay, 1996). Third, these movements build on each other to create a series of value premises, such as norms of rationality and progress (Abrahamson, 1996), that condition managers to look continually for the next great management trend. Combined, these arguments suggest that discourses of enterprise are more often seen as mandates that must be acted on rather than neutral management discourses. Although we acknowledge that managers do actively consider and resist such fashions or trends, we point out that it is increasingly difficult to do while maintaining the appearance of being at the forefront of management thought, practice and, especially, effectiveness.

Running Head: Workplace Identity Limitations/Conclusion One clear limitation of this research is that we focus on reasons as to why these

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discourses are effective and not also on ways that they are ineffective. Although it did not fit within the scope of this paper, we must emphasize that Coveys 7 Habits were not simply adopted by all members of the organization we studied and some individuals resisted this discourse of enterprise. Further work should attend to this observation, and attempt to determine why and how some people may resist discourses of enterprise and to what extent they are successful. In fact, our own research traces the introduction of Covey at SkyWatch to the resistance to a previous TQM effort. While we choose to focus on what enables discourses of enterprise to shape identities, a growing body of literature does examine resistance to control efforts in the context of enterprise culture (see Collinson, 1994; Ezzamel, Willmott & Worthington; 2001; Jermier, Knights and Nord, 1994; McKinley & Taylor, 1996, 1998). Such research may be key to informing our understanding of the conditions for acceptance and rejection of external mandates. Although we advocate examinations of specific instances of enterprise discourse, as we have done here, a second limitation of our study may be found in our generalizing from the specific 7 Habits program back to the broad enterprise discourse. Future analyses of programs of enterprise should build upon and revise the observations we make above. Finally, more extensive participant observation may be useful for further detailing the subtleties of identity formation. In this essay, we drew attention to a widespread trend in management practice that has significant implications for our understanding and theorizing of workplace identity. Specifically, we suggested four insights from a grounded case study of Coveys 7 Habits

Running Head: Workplace Identity that may inform our understanding as to what characteristics of the discourse of enterprise make them so effective in shaping identities in organizations. We hope that these insights from practice provide direction as scholars continue to revisit enduring questions of identity and control. We also hope that this research prompts others to examine specific programs of the discourse of enterprise as they are enacted to further inform our understanding of the shaping of organizational identities by the discourse of enterprise.

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Running Head: Workplace Identity References

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Since the publication of The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Covey has published The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Families. His son, Sean, has published The 7 Habits of

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Highly Effective Teens. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People has appeared on bestseller lists in Japan and South Korea, among other countries.