Mechanics is a science concerned with the motion of bodies under the

action of forces, including the special case in which a body remains at

rest. Of first concern in the problem of motion are the forces that bodies
exert on one another. Given the forces, one can seek the manner in which
bodies move under the action of forces; this is the subject matter of
mechanics proper.The practical application of mechanics to the design,
construction, or operation of machines or tools.

DIVISIONS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Mechanics may be divided into the following two main groups:

1. Statics and 2. Dynamics.

1. STATICS- It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with

the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies at rest.
2. DYNAMICS- It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with
the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies in motion.
The subject of Dynamics may be further sub-divided into the
following two branches: a.Kinetics and b.Kinematics
a) KINETICS- It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with the
bodies in motion due to the application of forces
b) KINEMATICS- It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with the
bodies in motion, without any reference to the forces which are
responsible for the motion.
3. Other divisions of Mechanics:
a) Hydromechanics is the study which deals with the conditions of
fluid under which it can remain at rest or in motion.
Hydromechanics can be divided into hydrostatics and
hydrodynamics.
b) Hydrostatics is the study of fluid at rest.
c) Hydrodynamics is the study of fluid in motion.

 SOME BASIC TERMS USED IN MECHANICS

The followings are the basic terms which are used in mechanics:

a) Space-Any geometric region in which the study of a body has been

done is called space.
b) Displacement-It is defined as the distance moved by a
body/particle in the specified direction.
c) Velocity-The rate of change of displacement with respect to time
is defined as velocity.
d) Acceleration-It is the rate of change of velocity with respect to
time.
e) Momentum-The product of mass and velocity is called momentum.
Thus
Momentum = Mass × Velocity
f) Particle-It can be defined as an object which has only mass and
no size. Such a body cannot exist theoretically.
When we deal with the problems involving distances considerably larger
compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as particle

 LAWS OF MECHANICS
The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
a) Newton’s first law
b) Newton’s second law
c) Newton’s third law
d) Newton’s law of gravitation
e) Law of transmissibility of forces
 f) Parallelogram law of forces
o Newton’s first law: It states that everybody continues in its
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled by an external agency acting on it.
o Newton’s second law: It states that the rate of change of
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed
force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting
on it.
According to this law,

Force = rate of change of momentum. But momentum = mass × velocity

As mass do not change,

Force = mass × rate of change of velocity

i.e., Force = mass × acceleration

F = m × a

o Newton’s third law: It states that for every action there is an

equal and opposite reaction.

VECTOR: Physical Quantity

Vector in physics, is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It

is typically represented by an arrow whose direction is the same as that of
the quantity and whose length is proportional to the quantity’s magnitude.
Although a vector has magnitude and direction, it does not have position.
That is, as long as its length is not changed, a vector is not altered if it
is displaced parallel to itself.

In contrast to vectors, ordinary quantities that have a magnitude but not a

direction are called scalars. For example, displacement, velocity,
and acceleration are vector quantities, while speed (the magnitude of
velocity), time, and mass are scalars.

 How a Vector Is Represented

When a vector is drawn, it is represented by an arrow whose length
represents the vector's magnitude and whose arrowhead points in the
direction of the vector as shown in the figure below.
If the vector represents a quantity in one dimension--x-direction (left and
right) or y-direction (up and down)--then a vector will be written as a
number with a plus (+) or minus (-) sign in front of it. The plus refers to
pointing right or up, and the minus refers to pointing left or down. In two
dimensions (x and y), a vector will be represented with a number for
magnitude and an angle for direction.
 Characteristics of Vectors
o The characteristics of vectors are as followed –
o They possess both magnitudes as well as direction.
o They do not obey the ordinary laws of Algebra.
o These change if either the magnitude or direction change or
both change.

 Vector addition

o Parallel vectors behave like numbers on a number line.

 Add the magnitudes of vectors in the same direction.
 Subtract the magnitudes of vectors in opposite directions.
Example: Observe the following summations of two force vectors:

o Perpendicular vectors behave like points on a coordinate plane.

 Use Pythagorean Theorem to determine magnitude.
 Use the tangent function to determine direction.

The Pythagorean Theorem is a mathematical equation that relates the

length of the sides of a right triangle to the length of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle.
 To see how the method works, consider the following problem:

Example Problem: Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km,
north and then hikes 11 km east. Determine Eric's resulting
displacement.

Solution: This problem asks to determine the result of adding two

displacement vectors that are at right angles to each other. The
result (or resultant) of walking 11 km north and 11 km east is a
vector directed northeast as shown in the diagram to the right. Since
the northward displacement and the eastward displacement are at right
angles to each other, the Pythagorean Theorem can be used to determine
the resultant (i.e., the hypotenuse of the right triangle).

The result of adding 11 km, north plus 11 km, east is a vector with a
magnitude of 15.6 km.

o Vectors in standard position have a common origin and are used in

the parallelogram rule of vector addition
 Construct a parallelogram using two vectors in standard position.
 The resultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram coming out of
the common vertex.
 Your diagram should look like a parallelogram made of vectors.
(Note: When the two original vectors are perpendicular, the
parallelogram will be a rectangle.)

The so-called parallelogram law gives the rule for vector addition
of two or more vectors. For two vectors and , the vector
sum is obtained by placing them head to tail and drawing the
vector from the free tail to the free head. In Cartesian
coordinates, vector addition can be performed simply by adding the
corresponding components of the vectors, so if and
.
 Vectors arranged head to tail (with the tail of the second vector
placed on the head of the first) are used in the triangle rule of
vector addition.
Given two vectors arranged head to tail.
 The resultant is the vector drawn from the tail of the first
to the head of the second.
 Your diagram should look like a triangle made of arrows.
(Note: When the two original vectors are perpendicular, the
triangle drawn will be a right triangle and the resultant
will be a hypotenuse.)
 Vector addition is similar to arithmetic addition.
 Vector addition is a binary operation. (Only two vectors can
be added at a time.)
 Vector addition is commutative. (The order of addition is
unimportant.)

 Adding Vectors, Rules final!

When adding vectors, all of the vectors must have the same units. All of the
vectors must be of the same type of quantity. For example, you cannot add a
displacement to a velocity

 RESULTANT

The resultant is the vector sum of two or more vectors. It is the result of
adding two or more vectors together. If displacement vectors A, B, and C are
added together, the result will be vector R. As shown in the diagram, vector
R can be determined by the use of an accurately drawn, scaled, vector
addition diagram.

 Methods used in Finding The Resultant of a Vector:

A. GRAPHICAL METHOD- The graphical method of adding vectors A and B

involves drawing vectors on a graph and adding them using the head-to-
tail method. The resultant vector R is defined such that A + B = R.
The magnitude and direction of R are then determined with a ruler and
protractor, respectively.

Illustration:

In this illustration, we will represent a vector with a boldface

variable. For example, we will represent the quantity force with the
vector which has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of the
vector will be represented by a variable in italics, such as and the
direction of the variable will be given by an angle
Figure 2. A person walks 9 blocks east and 5 blocks north. The displacement
is 10.3 blocks at an angle 29.1o north of east.

Figure 3. To describe the resultant vector for the person walking in a city
considered in Figure 2 graphically, draw an arrow to represent the total
displacement vector D. Using a protractor, draw a line at an
angle θ relative to the east-west axis. The length D of the arrow is
proportional to the vector’s magnitude and is measured along the line with a
ruler. In this example, the magnitude D of the vector is 10.3 units, and the
direction θ is 29.1o north of east.

o Vector Addition: Head-to-Tail Method

The head-to-tail method is a graphical way to add vectors, described
in Figure 4 below and in the steps following. The tail of the vector is the
starting point of the vector, and the head (or tip) of a vector is the
final, pointed end of the arrow.

Figure 4. Head-to-Tail Method: The head-to-tail method of graphically adding

vectors is illustrated for the two displacements of the person walking in a
city considered in Figure 2. (a) Draw a vector representing the displacement
to the east. (b) Draw a vector representing the displacement to the north.
The tail of this vector should originate from the head of the first, east-
pointing vector. (c) Draw a line from the tail of the east-pointing vector
to the head of the north-pointing vector to form the sum or resultant vector
D. The length of the arrow D is proportional to the vector’s magnitude and
is measured to be 10.3 units. Its direction, described as the angle with
respect to the east (or horizontal axis) θ is measured with a protractor to
be 29.10.

Step 1. Draw an arrow to represent the first vector (9 blocks to the east)
using a ruler and protractor.

Figure 5.

Step 2. Now draw an arrow to represent the second vector (5 blocks to the
north). Place the tail of the second vector at the head of the first vector.

Figure 6.

Step 3. If there are more than two vectors, continue this process for each
vector to be added. Note that in our example, we have only two vectors, so
we have finished placing arrows tip to tail.

Step 4. Draw an arrow from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector. This is the resultant, or the sum, of the other vectors.

Figure 7.

Step 5. To get the magnitude of the resultant, measure its length with a
ruler. (Note that in most calculations, we will use the Pythagorean Theorem
to determine this length.)

Step 6. To get the direction of the resultant, measure the angle it makes
with the reference frame using a protractor. (Note that in most
calculations, we will use trigonometric relationships to determine this
angle.)

The graphical addition of vectors is limited in accuracy only by the

precision with which the drawings can be made and the precision of the
measuring tools. It is valid for any number of vectors.
B. ANALYTICAL METHODS -of vector addition and subtraction employ geometry
and simple trigonometry rather than the ruler and protractor of
graphical methods. Part of the graphical technique is retained,
because vectors are still represented by arrows for easy
visualization. However, analytical methods are more concise, accurate,
and precise than graphical methods, which are limited by the accuracy
with which a drawing can be made.

o Resolving a Vector into Perpendicular Components

For example, given a vector like A in Figure 1, we may wish to find

which two perpendicular vectors, Ax and Ay, add to produce it.

Figure 1. The vector A, with its tail at the origin of an x, y-

coordinate system, is shown together with its x- and y-components,
Ax and Ay. These vectors form a right triangle. The analytical
relationships among these vectors are summarized below.
Ax and Ay are defined to be the components of A along the x– and y-
axes. The three vectors A, Ax, and Ay form a right triangle:
Ax + Ay = A
Note that this relationship between vector components and the
resultant vector holds only for vector quantities (which include both
magnitude and direction). The relationship does not apply for the
magnitudes alone. For example, if Ax = 3 m east, Ay = 4 m north, and A
= 5 m north-east, then it is true that the vectors Ax + Ay =
A. However, it is not true that the sum of the magnitudes of the
vectors is also equal. That is,
3 m+4 m≠5 m3 m+4 m≠5 m
Thus, Ax + Ay ≠ A If the vector A is known, then its magnitude A (its
length) and its angle θ (its direction) are known. To find Ax and Ay,
its x– and y-components, we use the following relationships for a
right triangle.

Ax=Acosθ
and
Ay=Asinθ
Figure 2. The magnitudes of the vector components Ax and Ay can be
related to the resultant vector A and the angle θ with trigonometric
identities.

Here we see that Ax=Acosθ and Ay=Asinθ.

Suppose, for example, that A is the vector representing the total

displacement of the person walking in a city.

Figure 3. We can use the relationships Ax= Acosθ and Ay= Asinθ to
determine the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical component
vectors in this example.
Then A = 10.3 blocks and θ = 29.1º , so that
Ax=Acosθ=(10.3 blocks)(cos29.1∘)=9.0 blocks
Ay=Asinθ=(10.3 blocks)(sin29.1∘)=5.0 blocks

o Calculating a Resultant Vector

If the perpendicular components Ax and Ay of a vector A are known,
then A can also be found analytically. To find the magnitude A and
direction θ of a vector from its perpendicular
components Ax and Ay, we use the following
relationships:

A=√𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2

Ɵ = tan − 1 (Ay /Ax)

 Figure 4. The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector can
be determined once the horizontal and vertical
components Ax and Ay have been determined.

Note that the equation A=√𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 is just the Pythagorean

Theorem relating the legs of a right triangle to the length of
the hypotenuse. For example, if Ax and Ay are 9 and 5 blocks,
respectively, then A=√92 + 52 =10.3 blocks, again consistent with
the example of the person walking in a city. Finally, the
direction is Ɵ = tan –1 (5/9) =29.1º, as before.

o Adding Vectors Using Analytical Methods (Component Method)

Component Method – is another way of adding vectors by
resolving the vectors into its x and y components.

To see how to add vectors using perpendicular components,

consider Figure 5, in which the vectors A and B are added to
produce the resultant R.

Figure 5. Vectors A and B are two legs of a walk, and R is the

resultant or total displacement. You can use analytical methods
to determine the magnitude and direction of R.

If A and B represent two legs of a walk (two displacements),

then R is the total displacement. The person taking the walk ends
up at the tip of R. There are many ways to arrive at the same
point. In particular, the person could have walked first in
the x-direction and then in the y-direction. Those paths are
the x– and y-components of the resultant, Rx and Ry. If we know
Rx and Ry, we can find R and θ using the
equations A=√𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 and θ =tan–1 (Ay /Ax).

Step 1. Identify the x- and y-axes that will be used in the

problem. Then, find the components of each vector to be added
along the chosen perpendicular axes. Use the
equations Ax = A cos θ and Ay = A sin θ to find the components. In
Figure 6, these components are Ax, Ay, Bx, and By. The angles
that vectors A and B make with the x-axis are θA and θB,
respectively.

Figure 6. To add vectors A and B, first determine the horizontal

and vertical components of each vector. These are the dotted
vectors Ax, Ay, Bx and By shown in the image.

Step 2. Find the components of the resultant along each axis by

adding the components of the individual vectors along that
axis. That is, as shown in Figure 7,

Rx = Ax + Bx

and

Ry = Ay + By .

Figure 7. The magnitude of the vectors Ax and Bx add to give the

magnitude Rx of the resultant vector in the horizontal direction.
Similarly, the magnitudes of the vectors Ax and By add to give
the magnitude Ry of the resultant vector in the vertical
direction.

Components along the same axis, say the x-axis, are vectors along
the same line and, thus, can be added to one another like
ordinary numbers. The same is true for components along the y-
 axis. (For example, a 9-block eastward walk could be taken in two
legs, the first 3 blocks east and the second 6 blocks east, for a
total of 9, because they are along the same direction.) So
resolving vectors into components along common axes makes it
easier to add them. Now that the components of R are known, its
magnitude and direction can be found.

Step 3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the

Pythagorean Theorem:

R=√𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2

Step 4. To get the direction of the resultant:

θ = tan−1 (Ry/Rx).

Example 1: Adding Vectors Using Analytical Methods (Component Method)

Add the vector to the vector shown in Figure 8, using perpendicular
components along the x– and y-axes. The x– and y-axes are along the
east–west and north–south directions, respectively.

Vector represents the first leg of a walk in which a person walks

in a direction north of east.

Vector represents the second leg, a displacement of a direction

north of east.

Figure 8. Vector A has magnitude 53.0 m and direction 20.00 north of

the x-axis. Vector B has magnitude 34.0 m and direction 63.00 north of
the x-axis. You can use analytical methods to determine the magnitude
and direction of R.
Strategy:
The components of and along the x– and y-axes represent walking due
east and due north to get to the same ending point. Once found, they
are combined to produce the resultant.
Solution:
Following the method outlined above, we first find the components of
and along the x– and y-axes. Note that

and We find the x-

components by using which gives

and

Similarly, the y-components are found using

and

The x– and y-components of the resultant are thus

and

Now we can find the magnitude of the resultant by using the

Pythagorean Theorem:

Finally, we find the direction of the resultant:

Thus,
Figure 9. Using analytical methods, we see that the magnitude
of R is 81.2 m and its direction is 36.60 north of east