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CHAPTER 3 Architectures of public and private networks

Understanding the Basics of Modern Networks

In an era of increasing network complexity, understanding the ins and outs of network
architecture is more crucial than ever. This article provides a comprehensive introduction to
network architecture and its various components, bridging the gap between NetOps professionals
and the general audience interested in the subject.

What is Network Architecture?

Network architecture defines the structured interaction between network services, devices, and
clients to meet their connectivity requirements. It forms a blueprint dictating the layout,
communication protocols, and connectivity patterns of network systems, functioning as a critical
foundation for any digital environment.

Network architecture encompasses services like DHCP and DNS to cater to specific client
needs. It includes diverse types such as access networks, facilitating intra-office connectivity;
data center networks that provide data access and host applications; and Wide-Area Networks
(WANs), enabling users to connect to resources over expansive distances.

Each architecture type is unique, with particular network security considerations, connectivity
requirements, and service provisions. The significance of network architecture is twofold -
ensuring efficient intra-network communication and fortifying against security threats. As a
result, network architecture is a fundamental component in managing and designing any digital
ecosystem.

Network Architecture vs. Internet Architecture

Network architecture and internet architecture are two related but distinct concepts. They may
sound similar, but each has unique characteristics that set them apart.

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Network architecture refers to the specific design and framework of a particular network. This
includes how network devices and services are structured to cater to the connectivity
requirements of the network’s users. It lays out the network’s structure, from hardware
components like network routers and switches to protocols and services like DHCP and DNS.
It’s about network design and constructing the network itself, focusing on efficient
communication, secure data transfer, and performance optimization.

On the other hand, internet architecture describes the structure and protocols that make the global
internet function. It doesn’t concern itself with individual networks but looks at how all networks
interact to form the internet. Its focus is on the global system of interconnected computer
networks and the protocols they use to communicate, such as TCP/IP.

While network architecture provides a network’s physical and logical design, internet
architecture focuses on the global set of rules and standards that allow individual networks to
work together as a coherent system—the internet.

The two architectures interact and complement each other. Network architecture lays the
foundation for how devices and services interact within a particular network, while internet
architecture provides the rules and protocols that enable these individual networks to interact and
form the global internet.

To understand internet architecture better, let’s look at its layers: IP, TCP, and Application
Protocol.

 IP (Internet Protocol) Layer: The IP layer delivers packets from the source host to the
destination host based on the IP addresses. This layer ensures that data is sent and
received over the internet.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Layer: The TCP layer provides reliable,
ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of bytes between applications running on
hosts communicating over an IP network. It is responsible for ensuring that data packets
are transmitted without errors and in the correct order.
 Application Protocol Layer: The Application Protocol layer contains all the higher-
level protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol),

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 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and others. These protocols are used by internet
applications to send and receive data.

Each layer plays a crucial role in the functionality of the internet. The IP layer ensures the data
gets to the right place, the TCP layer ensures the data is correct and in order, and the Application
Protocol layer allows users to access and use the internet in a meaningful way.

Understanding network and internet architecture is critical for any professional involved in
planning, designing, or managing network systems. This knowledge ensures that individual
networks are designed and maintained effectively and that they can interact seamlessly with the
larger internet system.

Understanding the Layers of Network and Internet Architecture: The OSI

Model

In network architecture, networks are often considered to be composed of different layers, as

described by the OSI model. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a widely
accepted framework that describes how different network protocols interact to provide network
services.

While the OSI model consists of seven layers, for the sake of understanding network and internet
architecture, we will focus on five essential layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer, and physical layer. Each layer performs a specific function and interacts
with the layers above and below it.

Application Layer

At the top of the stack in the OSI model, the application layer (layer 7) provides an interface for
users to interact with network services. This layer hosts various application-specific protocols
like HTTP for web browsing, SMTP for email, FTP for file transfers, and DNS for domain name
resolution.

Transport Layer

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The OSI model’s transport layer, layer 4, ensures reliable data transfer. This layer utilizes two
key protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), which offers reliable data transmission, and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which provides faster but less reliable transmission.

Network Layer

Layer 3 in the OSI model, the network layer is responsible for routing data packets, i.e., deciding
the most efficient path for data transfer from the source to the destination.

Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model, the data link layer, is responsible for the reliable transmission of data
frames between nodes on the same network layer. This layer establishes and terminates network
connections, corrects errors that might occur at the physical layer, and decides how devices on
the network share resources.

Physical Layer

The foundation of the OSI model, the physical layer (layer 1), is in charge of transmitting raw
bitstreams over the physical medium. This includes the processes that physically transmit data
and control the network interfaces on which data is transmitted. It deals with the mechanical,
electrical, functional, and procedural characteristics of the physical connections between devices.

Key Components of Network Architecture Design

Network architecture design involves an intricate blend of components that must work
harmoniously to deliver a reliable and efficient network. This involves hardware and software
elements, which create a network capable of supporting an organization’s operations. To
understand how these elements come together, let’s explore some of the key components in more
detail:

Hardware

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The hardware elements of network architecture design refer to the physical devices that facilitate
communication within a network. These include:

 Routers: Routers act as the postmasters of the network, directing data traffic. They
connect networks and shuttle data packets between them based on the data’s destination
IP address.
 Switches: Switches are network traffic controllers that channel data to the correct device
within a network. Unlike routers, switches operate within a single network.
 Servers: Servers are high-powered computers that host data and applications that devices
within the network can access. They can serve many roles, including file storage, hosting
websites, or running applications.
 Firewalls: Firewalls are the security guards of the network, protecting the network from
unauthorized access and malicious attacks.

Network Protocols

Network protocols are sets of rules that govern how devices on a network communicate. They
define how data is formatted, addressed, transmitted, and received. Some key network protocols
include:

 Internet Protocol (IP): IP is responsible for addressing and routing data packets so they
can travel across networks and reach the right destination.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP ensures data is reliably delivered across a
network. It breaks data into packets, transmits them, and reassembles them at their
destination.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Unlike TCP, UDP does not guarantee the delivery of
packets, making it faster but less reliable. It’s often used for live streaming and gaming,
where speed is more important than perfect accuracy.

Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical or virtual paths by which data travels from one point to
another in a network. There are two primary types of transmission media:

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  Wired: Wired networks use cables, most commonly Ethernet cables, to connect devices.
These networks tend to offer faster data transfer rates and more security as they are less
susceptible to interference and unauthorized access. However, they are less flexible due
to the physical constraints of the cables, and their installation can require significant
effort and resources, especially in large or complex environments.
 Wireless: Wireless networks transmit data using radio waves (or, less commonly, infrared
signals). The most prevalent forms of wireless networking are Wi-Fi and cellular data
transmission protocols like 4G and 5G. These networks are highly flexible, allowing
devices to connect from virtually anywhere within signal range, and are relatively easy to
set up, as they require no physical cabling between devices. However, wireless
connections generally offer slower data transfer rates than wired networks and may be
more vulnerable to interference and security breaches. Implementing robust network
security measures, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA3), is crucial when deploying a
wireless network.

These transmission media serve as communication paths that link the nodes within a network.
The choice between wired and wireless connections can significantly impact a network’s speed,
reliability, security, and cost.

Network Topologies

The topology of a network refers to the physical or logical layout of the devices on the network.
Modern networks have evolved significantly from traditional topologies, embracing more
complex and efficient designs. Here are some of the modern network topologies:

 Mesh Network Topology: Each device (node) is connected to every other network node,
providing multiple paths for data to travel. Mesh networks offer robustness and
redundancy, reducing the chances of network failure.
 Hybrid Network Topology: This topology combines two or more different topologies to
create a more complex and efficient network. It offers the benefits of each topology type
it incorporates, enhancing reliability and ease of management.

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  Software-Defined Networking (SDN): SDN separates the control plane (making
decisions about how data packets are routed) from the data plane (forwarding data
packets based on these decisions). By managing the network centrally through software
and separating the physical and logical layout of the network, SDN offers greater
flexibility and easier management.
 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network Topology: In P2P networks, interconnected nodes share
resources without relying on a central server. This decentralized approach is common in
file-sharing and distributed computing systems.
 Tree (Hierarchical) Network Topology: This topology combines star and bus topologies,
with multiple levels of devices connected hierarchically. It’s commonly used in wide area
networks (WANs) and large-scale internetworks.
 Virtual Network (Overlay Network) Topology: Virtual networks are created on top of
existing physical networks and can have their own topology, independent of the
underlying infrastructure. They offer flexibility and are often used for virtual private
networks (VPNs) and software-defined wide-area networks (SD-WANs).
 Cloud (Multi-tenant) Topology: In cloud-based network topologies, multiple
organizations share the same network infrastructure provided by a cloud service provider.
This topology offers scalability, flexibility, and cost savings.
 Hybrid-Cloud Topology: This topology combines on-premises (private) and public cloud
services. It offers scalability and flexibility while maintaining control and security over
sensitive data and applications in the private cloud or on-prem infrastructure.
 Multicloud Topology: While not, strictly speaking, a “topology,” multicloud is a strategy
that integrates cloud services from multiple independent cloud providers, taking
advantage of the distinct services and efficiencies of each. For example, a network might
utilize AWS for machine learning, Google Cloud for analytics, and Azure for Microsoft
product integration. Unlike hybrid cloud setups, each cloud in multicloud operates
separately, focusing on maximizing the strengths of each provider.

Note that the traditional network topologies – bus, ring, and star – laid the foundation for these
modern network designs, but more efficient and flexible topologies have largely supplanted

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them. The selection of network topology will depend on the specific needs and constraints of the
network, such as cost, performance, security, and scalability requirements.

These are just a few components involved in network architecture design. A robust network
architecture must consider all these elements and more, including network security protocols,
network software, network services, and the network users’ needs. By understanding these
components, network architects can design networks that are resilient, efficient, and capable of
supporting the organization’s needs.

Public Networks vs. Private Networks: A Comparison

Public and private networks offer unique benefits and drawbacks based on their design and
purpose. Public networks, being accessible to any user, are generally less secure but provide
broad accessibility, which makes them suitable for information exchange on a large scale.
Conversely, private networks are highly restricted, typically offering enhanced security and
control over data. Organizations often prefer them to protect sensitive information and maintain
privacy.

Benefits and Challenges of Different Network Architectures

Different network architectures cater to various needs based on their scale and reach, and each
presents unique advantages and limitations. For example, Local Area Networks (LANs) provide
high-speed connectivity and efficient data transfer within limited geographical areas, like offices
or homes. Conversely, Wide Area Networks (WANs) offer broad coverage spanning cities or
countries but at the cost of slower data transfer rates due to the large distances involved.

Common Types of Network Architectures

Networks can be structured to manage and control the flow of data and communication in
various ways. The most common types (or styles) of network architecture include:

 Peer-to-Peer (P2P): In a peer-to-peer network, all devices, often called “peers,” have
equal capabilities and responsibilities. This architecture doesn’t require a central server,

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 and all devices communicate directly with each other. The distribution of resources in
P2P networks makes them potentially more resilient to failure than centralized
architectures, as the failure of one node doesn’t significantly impact the entire network.
 Client-Server: In a client-server architecture, some computers (servers) provide services,
and other computers (clients) use those services. The server has more processing power
and storage and performs most of the work. This centralization can make network
maintenance easier but also presents a single point of failure.
 Hybrid: Hybrid networks combine elements of the client-server and peer-to-peer
architectures. Some devices in the network act as clients and access services, while others
act as servers and provide services. Some devices fulfill both roles.
 Cloud-Based Architecture: Cloud-based networks offer services and storage over the
internet. Users don’t need to maintain their hardware and software; instead, they can
access applications and storage provided by cloud service providers. This flexibility
allows for easy scaling and global accessibility.
 Software-Defined Networking (SDN): In an SDN architecture, the network’s control
and forwarding functions are decoupled. This separation allows for centralized
management and control over the entire network, promoting flexibility and rapid
deployment of new services.

Types of Networks Based on Coverage Area

In addition to their architectural style, networks can also be classified based on their range or
coverage area, such as:

Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN connects devices within a limited area like a home or
office. It is efficient and offers high-speed connectivity.

Wide Area Network (WAN): WANs connect devices over larger geographical areas, such as
between cities or countries. They are often slower than LANs due to the vast distance data has to
travel.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MANs connect users within a city. They’re larger than
LANs but smaller than WANs.

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Personal Area Network (PAN): PANs connect devices within an individual’s workspace or
personal range.

The Internet (A Network of Networks): The internet is a global network of computer networks
connected via TCP/IP protocols.

How Kentik Helps Network Architects

Kentik offers a robust network observability platform packed with features to help network
architects design, manage, and optimize their network architecture:

 Kentik Map: This feature provides a visual representation of your network

infrastructure, both on-premises and cloud-based. It helps architects quickly understand
the interconnection of network components and their impact on traffic patterns, network
health, and application delivery. Whether you’re dealing with hybrid network
architectures or focusing on network health or traffic, Kentik Map gives you the clarity
you need.
 Network Capacity Planning: Kentik automates network capacity planning, offering
growth forecasts and projected run-out dates. This enables architects to decide when to
upgrade bandwidth or tweak network configurations for better optimization. From
monitoring network provider capacity to advising clients on network upgrades, Kentik
simplifies capacity management.
 Discover Peers: With Kentik, network architects can monitor utilization trends on
peering and transit interfaces, informing decisions about augmenting services or
establishing new ones. Whether it’s identifying cost optimization opportunities,
evaluating potential peering partners, or enforcing peering agreements, Kentik empowers
data-driven decision-making.
 Network Traffic Engineering: Kentik aids in BGP traffic engineering by identifying
groups of prefixes impacting congested interfaces. It automates data collection and
collation for traffic engineering tasks, precisely measures traffic impacts, and helps
architects avoid capacity crises with its proactive, intelligent analysis.

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Public vs. Private Networks: Key Differences and How They Fit Into 5G

Within the world of 5G, massive amounts of data need to be shared with private entities as well
as with the general population within a matter of seconds.

In this blog, you'll learn more about the differences between public and private networks, and
how they play a critical role in enhancing 5G technology.

What is a public network?

A public network is a type of wired or wireless network that anyone--i.e., the general public--has
access to, enabling connection to other networks and/or the Internet.

Public networks have few or no restrictions, increasing vulnerability to cyberattacks, so users

must be very careful when accessing it.

What is a private network?

A private network is any connection within a specified wired or wireless network wherein
restrictions are established to promote a secured environment.

Private networks only allow access to a select set of devices. This is dependent upon the settings
encoded in the network routers and access points.

How do public and private networks fit into 5G?

Public and private networks are an important part of 5G.

At a high level, both public and private networks are wireless networks that offer high
throughput and low latency while using the same underlying solutions, including hardware and
software, the same coding schemes, and the same spectrum.

Let's take a look at the role of each in a little more detail:

Public 5G network
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A public 5G network offers the same level of service and security to all who use it.

To use a public 5G network, you must be in an area with a 5G network, and you must have a
device that is capable of communicating with a 5G network.

Service and management of a public 5G network is usually handled by the mobile network
operator (MNO).

There are, however, some drawbacks to using public 5G networks.

As mentioned earlier, public access means higher security risks; in addition, performance can be
dramatically hampered if the network is busy, since many people are trying to use it at the same
time.

Private 5G network

A private 5G network is operated privately by a group, company, or government agency.

As 5G technology evolves, virtualization and interconnectivity of devices increases. As a result,

private 5G networks are becoming increasingly popular.

Since these networks are not available to everyone, they increase security and avoid
complications from too many people using the network. This helps to give those using the
network more control.

At a high level, both public and private networks are wireless networks that use the same underlying solutions,
including hardware and software, the same coding schemes, and the same spectrum.

What are the types of private 5G networks?

Private 5G networks can be divided into two types: independent and dependent networks. Let's
take a look at each:

Independent network

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In an independent network, the organization is responsible for selecting which spectrum to use
(licensed, unlicensed, or shared), including procuring and leasing the spectrum, installing
network solutions (radio access network (RAN) and core network), managing the users, and
maintaining the network.

The organization can choose whether to own and operate private 5G networks with an in-house
IT team or collaborate with system integrators and managed service providers to deploy and
manage their private 5G network.

Either way, the organization will have an extra layer of safety, as all data stays onsite and within
the network. Additionally, it can control network settings.

The organization can also decide whether to allow connection to a public network for roaming
purposes or allow external users to access the private network.

Dependent network

A dependent network is built and maintained by any mobile network operator (MNO). The MNO
can either dedicate the spectrum to the enterprise or use network slicing technology to create
multiple virtual networks from a single physical network.

The MNO installs the network, maintains it, and manages user access based on a mutually
agreed business model.

How can 5G networks be deployed?

5G networks can be deployed in one of three ways: isolated private networks, shared private
networks, and private network slices under a public network.

Each categorization is simply based on the level of integration with the mobile operator's public
network. Let's take a look at each in more detail:

Isolated private network

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In an isolated private network architecture, the entire network is hosted and operated by the user
to ensure full control of the network.
The network is completely isolated from the public network, which helps to reduce the risk of
data breaches.
The downsides of using these networks, however, are that they require a lot of investment in
building and operating its infrastructure, and they require personnel with a high level of
knowledge about telecom networks.

But isolated private networks are still suitable for public safety agencies or large enterprises with
an abundance of resources and high concern for data privacy.

Shared private network

In a shared private 5G network architecture, the network shares the infrastructure of a mobile
network operator's public network to lower the cost of setup for the private 5G network.

Users can choose how many components will be managed by them instead of the mobile
network operator based on business requirements.

Shared private networks allow for a private 5G architecture where users can get low-latency
communications with room for future modifications; they also allow for local RAN maintenance
for a fast, stable connection and to ensure that the network coverage and quality is under control
while leaving the rest of the system management to the network operator.

Network slicing private network

Network slicing private networks help to ensure data isolation and network quality with an end-
to-end private 5G connection provided by a mobile operator's existing infrastructure, but it lacks
control for the network.
Network slicing private networks are suitable for scenarios that require deployment on a wide
area like IoT connections or autonomous vehicles.

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Organizations can lease a private bandwidth from the operator and choose different service level
agreements (SLAs) to fit their business needs.

What are the benefits of private 5G networks?

As the amount of available data increases, so does reliance on digital services like private 5G
networks to deliver robust, flexible, and secure communication.

Private 5G networks depend heavily on open, programmable, and intelligent virtual radio access
networks (vRANs) for increased scalability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness.

When properly designed, deployed, and managed, private 5G networks can offer a variety of
benefits anywhere, anytime.

Let's take a look at these benefits in more detail:

Security

Security is ingrained into private 5G networks, and it is a critical component during their
development. Data and user identities that are transported over the network are encrypted. The
vRANs enable quick adjustments and eliminates specific hardware that can be compromised.

Additionally, since applications and intelligence reside at the edge, close to the user, this enables
network operators to quickly and precisely detect threats.

Reliability, scalability, and flexibility

As the number of connected devices and applications continue to grow, so does the amount data
transferred across these networks. This is in addition to the trillions of transactions from
connected devices, users, and applications.

Private 5G networks ensure smooth, effective operation through continual optimization of virtual
network elements that ensure customer demands are being met as they grow in size, number, and
complexity.

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In addition to improving performance and capacity, private 5G networks are individually
monitored and managed. Operators can offer sophisticated service level agreements that ensure
business customers have reliable access whenever and wherever they need it.

Configurability

Network operators as well as users require that private 5G networks are continually optimized
and readily configurable to make upgrades easier as workloads evolve.

Network slicing and virtual network resources allow for vRANs to be individually managed and
configured. But the design of the network and integration with existing network and operations
resources must be completed in a manner that ensures the network can be continually optimized.

Additionally, virtualization means that updates only need to be made to software, not hardware,
helping to reduce costs and minimize downtime.

Final thoughts

Both public and private networks provide users with a means of communication that can quickly
crunch and transfer large amounts of data at the edge within the harshest of environments.

Though public networks can play a role within the 5G ecosystem, private 5G networks are
becoming increasingly favored due to their enhanced security, scalability, virtualization, and
configurability.

Within a military environment, private 5G networks help securely deliver immediate, actionable
insights to increase situational awareness and shorten response times to effectively detect, track,
and engage with enemy threats.

The Evolution of Telephone Technology: A Brief History

Table of Contents

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  Precursors to the Telephone
 Invention of the Telephone
 Telephone History Timeline
o 1876-1880: The First Telephone Network
o 1880-1890: Telephone Exchanges, Pay Phones, and Phone Books
o 1890-1900: Pulse Button & Rotary Dialing
o 1960s-1980s: Touch Tone, Cordless, and the First Cell Phones
o 1990-2020s and Beyond: Smartphones Take Over the World
 Voice Over IP (VOIP) and Internet Calling
 Phone Technology Has Come a Long Way, and So Have We
 Small Business Resources for Business & Personal Growth

Who Invented the First Telephone?

While Alexander Graham Bell is typically credited with the invention of the telephone, he was
just the first to receive a U.S. patent for it. Predecessors were the Italian innovator Antonio
Meucci, who invented the first simple telephone in 1849, and Charles Bourseul of France in
1854, who also came up with a very early example of the technology.

Over the last couple of decades, phones have gone from a humble yet essential tool in our
communications toolbox to something that their inventors never could have envisioned: an all-in-
one life management, entertainment, and virtual business device, without which most of us
would be crippled in our ability to navigate and engage with the modern world.

But just how did we get here? How did we go from the simplest of inventions to one of the most
complex, versatile, pervasive, and powerful devices ever known? Come with us for a quick tour
through the history of the telephone and the evolution of telephone technology, from the liquid
transmitter to the iPhone 14, and learn about what’s happened from 1876 (and before) until
today.

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LinkedPhone serves the small business community with local & toll-free business numbers that
work with your cell phone, desk phone, & laptop. Add a 2nd phone number to your cell phone
with our mobile app. Talk & text with clients on the go. Add team members too. Finally break
free from the desk phone. At LinkedPhone, freedom rings! 🔔📱💻☎️

Precursors to the Telephone

Prior to the telephone’s invention, there were a tremendous number of active and experimental
technologies in the field of wired and wireless communication. The simple telegraph was the
most common, with wires criss-crossing the United States strung up by the Western Union
Telegraph Company. Telegraph lines ran alongside electrical wires, themselves a relatively new
phenomenon, in the latter half of the 19th century.

While Alexander Graham Bell is typically credited with the invention of the telephone, he was
just the first to receive a U.S. patent for it. Predecessors were the Italian innovator Antonio
Meucci, who invented the first simple telephone in 1849, and Charles Bourseul of France in
1854, who also came up with a very early example of the technology.

Early versions of radio technology also existed at the time. However, it would take some time for
the devices to become sufficiently powerful, small enough to be usable, and for a network of
transmitters and receivers to be developed in order for radio to become the ubiquitous medium
for one-way and two-way communication that it would, long beyond the invention of television.

Invention of the Telephone

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Many large companies and entrepreneurs resented the monopolistic stranglehold that Western
Union held over telegraph communication. One such individual, an attorney from Boston named
Gardiner Greene Hubbard, future father-in-law of inventor Alexander Graham Bell, provided
funding to the young entrepreneur to create a system for transmitting multiple telegrams along
the same wire at the same time via means of varying the frequency of transmissions. It was in the
course of work on this multiple telegram system that Bell would discover, quite by accident, the
means to transmit sound over electrical wires.

The first patented telephone wasn’t actually a telephone at all. While working on what they were
calling the “harmonic telegram”, Bell and his assistant, Thomas Watson, accidentally triggered
the reproduction of sound over the wire between two linked devices. Bell had been quietly
working to develop something akin to a telephone for some time, but this was the breakthrough
he needed to make the device a reality. Before long, he would speak the famous first words via
telephone to Watson from one room to another: “Mr. Watson, come here–I want to see you.”

By an incredible coincidence, Bell and another inventor, Elisha Gray, had both created the
invention that would lead to the telephone (Bell called his the “liquid transmitter”) right around
the same time. The two men both rushed to the patent office to register the invention, with Bell
arriving just hours before Gray. The men then became embroiled in a legal dispute over who had
the rights to the invention, but since both devices were substantially similar, the fact that Bell had
gotten there first meant the patent would go to him.

Telephone History Timeline

There are a few significant milestones in the timeline of the telephone, some of which came
quickly, others which took decades to develop or take hold. Let’s take a look at a few of the
more significant moments in telephone history, and some different kinds of phones throughout
the years.

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1876-1880: The First Telephone Network

By 1877, just a year after Bell patented the telephone (on March 7, 1876), the first regular
telephone line was completed, from Boston to Somerville, Massachusetts. Just 3 years later, by
the end of 1880, there were almost 50,000 telephones in the United States alone.

Although Bell started his first company, the Bell Telephone Company, in 1877, the nascent
industry grew by leaps and bounds. Bell’s control of the intellectual property and patents allowed
him to buy out telephone service competitors which sprang up, leading to the mergers which
formed the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, later simplified to AT&T.

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Ironically, it was the attempt to break Western Union’s monopoly on telegram service which led
to a complete monopoly on the first telephone service. AT&T would control all long-distance
telephone service until the 1980’s, when the U.S. Justice Department ordered AT&T to break up
into regional and local providers (the so-called “Baby Bells”) in a landmark antitrust lawsuit, and
to allow more robust competition.

1880-1890: Telephone Exchanges, Pay Phones,and Phone Books

The very first telephone calls on the fledgling service had to be connected directly between
subscribers; phones and telephone wire were sold in pairs. The next development was of
telephone exchanges, which would require an operator to physically switch a wire connector
between one connection and another. In 1889, an undertaker named Almon B. Strowger invented

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a system to allow a central exchange to “switch” calls between different pairs of subscribers
using relays and sliders. The system was so simple and effective that it remained in use until
digital switches began to replace analog ones over 100 years later.

Initial pay phones were not as we think of them today, since you would first place the call, then
pay for the time used afterwards. Of course, even pay phones have gone the way of the dodo
since the advent of smartphones. In 2018, there were fewer than 100,000 payphones remaining in
the U.S., and many of those were disabled or otherwise non-functional.

The first phone book was published in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878, and consisted of one
page with just 50 names and no numbers. Calls were connected by operators in telephone
exchanges, and it would be a few years before further advances would allow people to call each
other directly. The first Yellow Pages branded directory of businesses categorized by products
and services provided appeared in 1886.

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1890-1900: Pulse Button & Rotary Dialing

One of the first methods for direct dialing from one telephone to another was known as pulse
dialing. You might recognize this from old movies, when someone would lift up the telephone
receiver and tap the receiver or a button on the device in certain patterns, representing parts of a
phone number, which would allow a direct call to be placed via automated exchanges. In 1896,
an associate of Almon Stowger invented the rotary dial, which would allow the pulses to be
recreated by turning a dial on the phone to the desired numbers in sequence.

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1960s-1980s: Touch Tone, Cordless, and the FirstCell Phones

Phone technology didn’t advance much during the first half of the 20th century. Other
technologies like radio and television made huge strides during that time, but it wasn’t until the
1960s that the first touch tone phones became available on the market. Researchers had been
experimenting with dual-tone multifrequency signaling since the 1940s, making little headway.
In 1963, the first commercially-viable tone dialing phones went on the market, introduced by
AT&T as Touch-Tone dialing, but which were slow to replace rotary phones. It wasn’t until the
1990s that Touch-Tone phones began to take over a majority of market share from rotary phones.

The next evolution in telephone technology standards came with wireless, or cordless phones,
followed in quick succession by cell phones. Cordless phones were approved by the Federal

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Communications Commission (FCC) in 1986 to operate on the 47-49 megahertz frequency of the
radio spectrum, and in 1990 expanded this to the 900 MHz range. Digital cordless phones
entered service in 1994, along with Digital Spread Spectrum (DSS) a year later, developments
intended to increase security and reduce the ability of others to eavesdrop on calls. Later the FCC
expanded these types of phones to the 2.4 and 5.8 gigahertz/GHz frequencies.

The first portable phones were bulky radio-controlled devices designed for use in vehicles
(remember the bag phone?), and entered use as early as 1946. However, these early units never
saw widespread use. By 1980, the necessary radio frequencies for the modern cellular network
had become commercially available, and handheld cell phones, although quite expensive
initially, started to become more common.

The first mobile phone was the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X, introduced by Martin Cooper, a
senior engineer at the company, in 1973. Just the handset weighed 2.5 pounds, featured a
staggering 30 minutes of talk time, six hours of battery standby, and had enough memory to store
up to 30 contacts and their phone numbers.

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1990-2020s and Beyond: Smartphones Take Overthe World

It goes without saying that smartphones have become an integral part of life for billions of
people all over the world. Now it seems like they’ve always been there, and for the youngest
among us, the humble landline phone is little more than an obscure relic of the past. A few
noteworthy types of telephones in the transition from simple cell phone to the endlessly-evolving
smartphone include:


o Nokia 1011 (November 10, 1992) - first cell phone with a picture display, featuring
mobile calling, SMS messaging, and simple games.

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 o IBM Simon (August 16, 1994) - first to combine cell phone with PDA (personal digital
assistant) elements like note-taking, fax, and e-mail.
o BlackBerry (January 19, 1999) - evolution in phone/PDA combination devices, featuring
full on-device keyboards, originally created to allow users to send email over multiple
cellular networks.
o Apple iPhone (June 29, 2007) - first fully functional touchscreen device combining all the
features of a cell phone with modern portable computing, allowing installation of various
applications within Apple’s native digital ecosystem. Credited with exploding the
popularity of smartphones and inspiration of many competitors and copycats.
o HTC Dream/T-Mobile G1 (October 22, 2008) - first Android device, offering many of
the features of the iPhone but using Google’s Android operating system, an open-source
competitor to Apple’s iOS, opening the doors to the development of more and better
Android devices in competition to the iPhone.

Voice Over IP (VOIP) and Internet Calling

Along with the development of cell phones and smartphones, and as a consequence of the
explosion of new communications technologies during the internet era, came Voice Over IP
(VOIP), also known as IP telephony. In a nutshell, VOIP technology allows calls to be placed
over internet-connected devices without the use of telephone infrastructure or private PBX
(Personal Branch Exchange) systems, although VOIP can be hosted on internal company PBX’s,
and originally was exclusive to those systems.

The VOIP revolution allowed the development of new types of mobile, desktop, and computer-
based calling devices and applications, none of which were beholden to traditional telephone
service providers. Now you can place calls via applications like Google Voice, WhatsApp,
Signal, Telegram, and countless others that are constantly being rolled out.

You can also get a feature-rich virtual phone system for your small business via companies like
LinkedPhone. The benefits of cloud-based business calling platforms are many, such as multiple

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lines for co-workers and employees, phone trees (“press 1 for customer service”, etc.), private
voicemail, access from any device, client notes, and much more.

Even as a solo entrepreneur, you can have a complete business calling solution which used to
require lots of expensive equipment and service, full-time technical support, and physical
limitations which kept most small and medium size businesses from accessing the benefits of
these systems. VOIP technology is so powerful, you could even run a full call center with
hundreds of representatives on a 100% remote basis.

Phone Technology Has Come a Long Way, and So Have We

From the simplest of beginnings (“Watson, come here!”), the telephone was one of the most
powerful influences on the explosion of technological and economic development in the late
19th and 20th century. The direct communication it enabled between people in far-flung
locations removed barriers of time and space that slowed exchanges of thoughts and ideas, and
empowered us in ways that we never could have imagined. In its modern incarnation, the
smartphone, it has become perhaps the most powerful piece of technology for personal and
business communication ever created.

Find out more about how the next evolution in the history of telephone technology, a virtual
business phone system, can help give your startup or small business the tools you need to grow
and thrive in the new digital economy. Check out some of the many benefits that a business
phone number can provide, and sign up for a 7-day free trial of LinkedPhone with your own
number, or a new local, long-distance, or toll-free number today!

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