MA COLLEGE

MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT
COURSE TITLE: BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
HAND OUT

Prepared by: Anley Tadesse (BA, MBA)

 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The word research is composed of two syllables.

Re: meaning, again

Search: meaning to examine closely and carefully,

to test and try, or to probe (investigate).

Together they form a noun describing a careful,

systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge.
 Meanings of Research

Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an

art of scientific investigation.

Research is “a careful investigation or inquiry especially

through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”.

Research is the systematic collection and analysis of data

with the objective of finding answers to business
problems.
•According to Robert Ross, “Research is essentially an
investigation, a recording and an analysis of evidence for
the purpose of gaining knowledge.” It can generally be
defined as a systematic method of finding solutions to
problems.
According t Clifford woody, research comprises defining
and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating
data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
The main importance or uses may be
listed as under:
To find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered so far.

It provides basis for government policies

Helps in solving various operational and planning

problems of the organizations.

Research helps in problem solving

 To provide an educational program in the
accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in skills
of research, in techniques of training leaders and in
social action.

Is useful to students, professionals, philosophers,

literary men, analysts and intellectuals.

 Limitations of Research
Conclusions in research are based upon data collected. Therefore
when the data collected are not valid or adequate, the conclusion
won’t be convincing or appropriate.
Research results in theory
Activities in a society are influenced by various internal and
external factors
Small organizations cannot afford to have research on various
issues
Many people in society depend on customs, traditions, routines and
practices for taking decision; instead of going for research.
 Criteria of Good Research
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined
and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research for further advancement, keeping the continuity
of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete
information, flows in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently

adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those
justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.

7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if

the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
 Research Process
Nevertheless, the research process broadly consists of the following
steps and predominantly follows a sequential order
1. Problem formulation
2. Development of an approach to the problem
3. Research Design
4. Selection of Data collection techniques
5. Sampling techniques
6. Fieldwork or Data Collection
7. Analysis and interpretation
8. Report preparation and presentation
 Types of Research

The categorization depends on the

following perspectives in general:

•Application of research study

• Objectives in undertaking the research

• Inquiry mode employed for research

1. Pure Research: it is also known as
Basic or Fundamental Research.
It is a research concerning principles or
laws or rules. It aims at the achievement of
knowledge and truth. It may verify/testing
the old theory and hypotheses or establish a
new one.
It tries to explain the cause and effect

relationship in social phenomena. The

knowledge produced through pure research is

sought in order to add to the existing body of

research methods. It is essentially positive and

not normative.
Applied Research: (Decisional Research)
It aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
organization. The research that aimed at
certain conclusions (ex. solution) facing a
concrete social or organizational problem is
an example of applied research.
The research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institutions or the
copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are
examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem.
Applied research is concerned with the
solution of particular, problems; for policy
formulation, administration and
understanding of a phenomenon. It aims at
finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an organization.
It is an empirical and practical.
 B. ON THE BASIS OF OBJECTIVES
1. Exploratory research :
It is a type of research conducted for a problem that
has not been clearly defined. The exploratory research
helps determine the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects. The
results of exploratory research are not usually useful
for decision-making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insight into a given situation.
The exploratory research is not typically
generalizable to the population at large. The
exploratory research can be quite informal,
relying on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature and/or data like informal
discussions with consumers, employees,
management, case studies or pilot studies etc.
 Conclusive research :
Conclusive research is meant to provide
information that is useful in reaching conclusions. It
tends to be quantitative in nature, that is to say in the
form of numbers that can be quantified and
summarized. It relies on both secondary data,
particularly existing databases that are reanalyzed to
shed light on a different problem and primary data.
 3) Based on Inquiry Mode
I. Structured approach/ quantitative research-
It involves a collection of numerical data to answer a specific
research question. Quantitative research is applicable to
phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in
terms of quantity. the research process- objectives, design,
sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is
predetermined the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular
problem?
(b) Unstructured approach/ qualitative research-

•Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon. Research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular
subject. This approach allows flexibility in all
aspects of the research process. It is more
appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue
or phenomenon without quantifying it.
Main objective is to describe the variation in a
phenomenon, situation or attitude. e.g.,
description of an observed situation, the
historical enumeration of events, an account of
different opinions different people have about an
issue, description of working condition in a
particular industry.
 Some Other Types of Research
a)Historical Research-

b) Field setting or laboratory research

c) Educational Research
 CHAPTER TWO

DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
 What is Research Problem?
Problem means a question or an issue
to be examined. A research problem
refers to some kind of problem which a
researcher experiences or observes in
the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation.
Research problem is one which
requires a researcher to find out the
best solution for the given problem, i.e.,
to find out by which course of action the
objective can be attained in a best
possible context of a given environment.
 Formulating the research problem:
Problem formulation is perceived as
most important of all the other steps,
because of the fact that a clearly and
accurately identified problem would
lead to effective conduct of the other
steps involved in the research process.
Problem formulation refers to
translating the management problem
into a research problem. It involves
stating the general problem and
identifying the specific components of
research problem.
 ROLE OF INFORMATION IN PROBLEM
FORMULATION

Problem formulation starts with available

information seeking process by the researcher. The
decision maker is the provider of information
pertaining to the problem at the beginning of the
research process (problem formulation) as well as the
user of the information that germinates at the end of
the research process.
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
clear and unambiguous

Logical/Reasonable and systematic/methodical

Empirical

relation between variables

Verifiable/provable

interesting
 Selection and formulation of a research problem
Considerations in selecting a research
problem are:
Interest
Magnitude
Level of expertise
Relevance/Significance
Availability of data,
Ethical issues.
Steps for Defining and Formulating a
Research Problem
1. Stating the problem in a general way: - The
researcher should state the problem in general terms,
keeping in view either some practical concern or some
scientific or intellectual interest. Often the guides put forth
the problem in interesting terms and researcher narrows

down the problem and phrase the problem in operational

terms.
The problem stated generally may contain

various ambiguities which must be resolved by

proper thinking and rethinking over the problem.

There are two ways of stating a problem.

i. by way of posing questions

ii. by way of making statements.

2. Understanding the nature of the
problem: - For understanding the
nature of the problem in a better way,
the researcher has to hold discussions
with those who have Knowledge of the
problem.
(3) Surveying the available literature:-
This is necessary because only through
such a survey, a researcher can understand
the relevant theories, reports etc. studies on
related problems are useful for knowing the
type of difficulties that may encounter in
the present study.
4. Developing the ideas through
discussions: - A researcher must discuss
his problem with his colleagues and those
who have enough experience in the same
area or in working on similar problems.
People with experience can enlighten the
researcher on various aspects of his study.
5. Rephrasing/Reshape the research
problem: - A researcher must rephrase the
research problems into a working proposition.
The researcher puts the research problem in as
specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally feasible and may help in
the development of working hypothesis.
 HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis could be termed as tentative answers to a
research problem. They are deduced from theories,
directly from observation, intuitively, or from a
combination of these. Hypothesis deduced from any of
the means would have four common characteristics.
They should be clear, value-free, specific and
amenable to empirical testing.
 Research Questions
Research questions are refined statements of the
specific components of the problem. It refers to a
statement that ascertains the phenomenon to be
studied. The research questions should be raised in an
unambiguous manner and hence, would help the
researcher in becoming resourceful in identifying the
components of the problem.
 Research Approach
There are two main approaches to research,

namely quantitative approach and qualitative

approach. The quantitative approach involves

the collection of quantitative data, which are put

to meticulous quantitative analysis in a formal

and rigid manner.

The qualitative approach uses the method of the
results generated by this type of research are
either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which cannot be put to quantitative analysis.
Usually, this approach uses techniques like in-
depth interviews, focus group interviews etc.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
What is a Research Proposal?
A research proposal is a document written by a
researcher that provides a detailed description of the
proposed program/plan.
“A research proposal is a document that describes
the essential features of a study to be conducted in
the future, as well as the method whereby the
investigation may be logically and successfully
accomplished.”
In fact the research proposal is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

Generally, a research proposal should contain

all the key elements involved in the research
process and include sufficient information for the
readers to evaluate the proposed study.
Various terminologies are used to mean a research
proposal depending on why the research is carried
out.

 Research outline
Synopsis of research

Plan of research

Research proposal

Thesis plan etc

 Functions of Research Proposal
The research proposal may serve the following functions:

1. It provides guidelines to the researcher for adopting the

systematic approach towards the solution of the problems.

2. It provides a basis for the evaluation of the proposal by

researchers. It makes aware the researcher of the problems
and difficulties he/she will have face in his study
3. It restores (re-establish) confidence in researcher
about the feasibility and significance of his/her
investigations.

4. It stimulates the researcher and moves him/her to

the goal of completing his/her study

5. It also enables the advisor to assess the progress of

work of his/her advisee at regular intervals
 General Format of Research Proposal
Usually, each proposal has the following sections in the following order:

Title
Abstract
Key terms
Table of content
Introduction
 Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Objectives of the research
Hypothesis/Research Question
 Significance of the research

Scope and limitations of the study

Operational definitions of terms used

 Organizations of Chapters

Review of literature

Methodology Used
Time schedule/work plan

Budget/estimated cost built up

Organization of the report/chapter outline

References

Appendix (Attachments)
 TITLE
It should be concise and descriptive. It is first page.

This is essential – it identifies your research area via

a tentative or proposed title, your name,
qualifications, the institutional or university name, as
well as the specific department, supervisor’s and co-
supervisor’s names and the degree level being
attempted.
In selecting the title, the following points should be
taken care of:

After identifying a research problem a suitable title of the

research should be given. The research title should be –

direct, concise, meaningful and easily understandable; not

more than one or two lines; must accurately represent the

objective and indicate the significance of the study.

Bracket; arithmetic figures, etc must be avoided.

 Abstract
It is a brief summary of the study. It should
include the research question, the rationale
for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the
method and the main findings.
 Table of contents
A table of contents should:
list the research proposal sections in a
hierarchical way
using titles and subtitles
give accurate page references/numbers
for each section
 Introduction
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the
necessary background or context for your research problem.
How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest
problem in proposal writing. An introduction should:
Follow a general-to-specific writing pattern
Start by providing background information that orientates
the reader to the research’s general socio-political, historical,
scientific, and educational contexts (whichever is most
relevant)
 Statement of the problem
•Establishes the existence of a unique problem

• Relates the problem to its general antecedents/

previous

• Suggests the benefits to be derived from the

study

• Justifies the utility, significance, or interest

inherent in the pursuit of the problems

 Objective of the Study
Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. They inform a
reader what you want to attain through the study. Each objective should contain
only one aspect of the Study. Objective must contain the main associations and
relationships that you seek to discover or establish.

The objectives should start with words such as

‘To determine’,

‘To find out’,

‘To ascertain’,

“To describe ‘

“To measure’,

‘To explore’ etc

 Literature Review
Review of literature pertaining to the current field of
investigation mainly aims at critically reviewing and
re-examining the earlier conceptual and empirical
studies, the major methodological limitation, and
direction for further research highlighted by the
previous research with a view to identifying and
defining the ‘research gap’ to be addressed by the
current research study
Before formulating the research it is desirable that
researcher examines all available literature, both
conceptual and empirical.
The conceptual literature -is one which deals with
concepts and theories.
Empirical literature is that which contains studies made
earlier and so it consists of many facts and figures
observed in the earlier studies. The source literature are-
books, journals or articles and the like, and
Identified the gap of research for future study
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING

OF RESEARCH PROJECT
 Meaning of Research Design
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.” (Kothari, 2004)
A research design specifies the methods and
procedures for conducting a particular study. The
researcher should specify the approach the researcher
intends to use with respect to the proposed study.
As such the design includes an outline of what
the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to

the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the

desining decisions happen to be in respect of:
 Important Concepts Concerning Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept
which can take on different quantitative values is called a
variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income
are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or
the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s).
Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different
values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous
variables’.
But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be
expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous
variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.
Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number
of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If
one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and
the variable that is ahead to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are

not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the

dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that

there is a relationship between children’s gains in social

studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case

self-concept is an independent variable and social studies

achievement is a dependent variable.

Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the
researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous
variable. Whatever effect is noticed on
dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error’.
3. Control: One important characteristic of a
good research design is to minimize the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The
technical term ‘control’ is used when we design
the study minimizing the effects of extraneous
independent variables. In experimental
researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is
not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed
as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent
variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least,
one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive
statements which are not to be objectively verified or the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not
termed research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research: When the purpose of research is to test
a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the experimental design or of the
non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research
in which an independent variable is not manipulated is
called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental
hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual
conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’. In the above illustration, the Group A can
be called a control group and the Group B an experimental
group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies
programs, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental
groups.’ It is possible to design studies which include only
experimental groups or studies which include both experimental
and control groups.
8.Treatments: The different conditions under which
experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken
above, the two treatments are the usual studies
program and the special studies program. Similarly, if
we want to determine through an experiment the
comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of
fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
9. Experiment: The process of examining the
truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined

plots or the blocks, where different treatments
are used, are known as experimental units. Such
experimental units must be selected (defined)
very carefully.
 Features of Research Design
• The design should be an activity and time based plan
• It is always based on research question
• It guides the selection of sources and types of
information
• It indicates a framework for specifying the
relationship among the study’s variables
• Outlines procedures for every research activity
• It must be appropriate, efficient and economical
• It should be flexible
• It must be adequate
 Primary Data
Data that has been collected from first-hand-
experience is known as primary data.

The primary data are those which are

collected a fresh and for the first time; and thus
happens to be original in character.

This data are also called first hand

information.
There are several methods of collecting
primary data. Some of them are:
 Observation

 Interview

Experimentation

Questionnaire

Use of telephone

Focus group discussion etc

 Observation
Observation offers the researcher a distinct
way of collecting data. It does not rely on what
people say they do, or what they say they think.
It is more direct than that. Instead, it draws on
the direct evidence of the eye to witness events
first hand. It is a more natural way of gathering
data. Whenever direct observation is possible it
is the preferable method to use.
A. Purpose of Observation
The purpose of observation techniques are:
To collect data directly.

To collect significant amount of data in short time

span.

To get eye witness first hand data in real like

situation.

To collect data in a natural setting.

Steps of Effective Observation

As a research tool, effective observation needs

effective:

Planning

Execution

Recording and

Interpretation
 Interview
The interview is a process of communication or
interaction in which the subject or interviewee
gives the needed information verbally in a face – to
– face situation (Koul, 1996). Interview is a two-
way systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated for
obtaining information relevant to a specific study.
Interviewing requires face to face contact or over
telephone.
 Types of Interview
Structured

Semi -structured

Unstructured

Interview can also be classified as:

Individual interview

Group interview

Supervisor interview
Structured Interview: In structured
interviews, questions are planned and created in
advance. All candidates are asked the same
questions in the same order. In structured interviews
all the candidates are asked the same questions. The
choice of alternative answers is restricted to a
predetermined list. This type of interview is rigidly
standardized and formal.
Semi structured Interview: a type of interview in which
the interviewer asks only a few predetermined
questions while the rest of the questions are not planned in
advance. Since semi-structured interviews combine both
the structured and unstructured interview styles, they can
offer the advantages of both. They allow for the
objective comparison of candidates, while also providing
an opportunity to spontaneously/unexpectedly explore
topics relevant to that particular candidate.
Unstructured Interview: An unstructured
interview is a type of interview in which the
interviewer asks questions which are not
prepared in advance. Instead, questions arise
spontaneously/unexpected in a free-flowing
conversation, which means that different
candidates are asked different questions.
Single Interview

This is a common form of semi structured or un-

structured interview. It involves a meeting
between one researcher and one informant. It is
easy to arrange this type of interview. It helps
the researcher to locate specific ideas with
specific people. It is also easy to control the
situation in the part of the interviewer.
Group Interview: group interviews have several
advantages over individual interviews. In
particular, they help to reveal consensus views,
may generate richer responses by allowing
participants to challenge one another's views,
may be used to verify research ideas of data
gained through other methods and may enhance
the reliability of responses.
Supervisor Interview

Supervisor interview is a type of interview which is

conducted with the manager of the section we need.

Supervisor interviews with one or more supervisors

who have detail knowledgeable about the type of data
we want to collect.
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
A focus group discussion allows a group of 8-12
informants to freely discuss on a certain subject
with the guidance of a facilitator, rapporter or
mediator. FGD is a qualitative method.
Participants of a FGD are selected from a
narrowly defined population whose opinions and
ideas are relevant to the research.
The purpose of FGD is to obtain in-depth information
on concepts, perception and ideas of a group. That is,
unlike interview, FGD helps to get an in-depth data
since participants interaction with each other is a
common feature of FGD. FGD aims to be more than a
question-answer interaction. The idea is that group
members discuss the topic among themselves while
interview focuses on question – answer interactions.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure
responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers
to questions by using a form which the respondent fills by
himself/herself. It is a systematic compilation of questions that
are submitted to a sampling of population from which
information is desired. Questionnaire relies on written
information supplied directly by people in response to questions.
The information from questionnaires tends to fall into two broad
categories - 'facts' and 'opinions'.
A. Purpose of Questionnaire

The purpose of the questionnaire is to

gather information from widely scattered
sources. It is mostly used in uses in cases
where one can not readily see personally all
of the people from whom he desires
responses.
Questionnaire can be closed or open ended.
The questions that call for short check responses are known as
restricted or closed form type. For Example, they provide for
marking a yes or no, a short response or checking an item from a
list of responses. Here the respondent is not free to write of
his/her own, s/he was to select from the selected from the
supplied responses. On the other hand, increase of open ended
questionnaire, the respondent is free to response in his/her own
words. Many questionnaires also included both close and open
type questions. The researcher selects the type of questionnaire
according to his need of the study.
Questionnaire can also be fact or opinion

In case of fact questionnaire, the respondent is

expected to give information of facts without
any reference to his opinion or attitude about
them. But in case of opinion questionnaire the
respondent gives the information about the
facts with his own opinion and attitude.
 Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
Questionnaire should deal with important or
significant topic to create interest among
respondents.
It should seek only that data which cannot be
obtained from other sources.
It should be as short as possible but should be
comprehensive.
It should be attractive.
Directions should be clear and complete.
It should be represented in good psychological
order proceeding from general to more specific
responses.

Putting two questions in one question also should

be avoided.

It should be designed to collect information which

can be used subsequently as data for analysis.

Questionnaires must be serially arranged

When is it appropriate to use a questionnaire for research?
Questionnaires are used at their most productive:
When used with large numbers of respondents.
When what is required tends to be fairly straight forward
information.
When there is a need for standardize data from identical
information.
When time is allows for delays.
When resources allow for the cast of printing and postage.
When respondents can be expected to be able to read and
understand the questions.
DESIGNS OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

After construction of questions on the basis of its

characteristics, it should be designed with some
essential routines like:

Background information about the questionnaire.

Instructions to the respondent.

The allocation of serial numbers and

Coding Boxes
1. Background Information about the Questionnaire
Both from ethical and practical point of view, the researcher need to
provide sufficient background information about the research and the
questionnaire. Each questionnaire should have a cover page, on which
some information appears about:
The sponsor
The purpose
Return address and date
Confidentiality
Voluntary responses and
Thanks
2. Secondary Source
Secondary sources include secondhand information, such
as a description of an event by someone other than an
eyewitness, or a textbook author’s explanation of a
researcher’s theory. Secondary sources are the reports of a
person that relate the testimony of an actual witness of, or
participant in, an event. The writer of the secondary
source was not on the scene of the event, but merely
reports what the person who was there said or wrote
(Kahn, 1999).
 Some Fundamental Definitions
Population : is the full universe or entire group of
people or things from which the sample is selected.

Sampling is the process of selecting the right

individuals, objects, or events as representatives for
the entire population.
Sample Frame : The list of individual or people included
in the sample
Sample Size: The number of people in the selected
sample
 Advantages/Merits of Sampling
1. It saves time
2. It reduces cost:

3. More reliable results can be obtained:

4. It provides more detailed information:

5. Sometimes only a sampling method to depend upon:

6. Administrative convenience:

7. More scientific:
Steps in Sampling Design

1. Define the population or universe

2. State the sampling frame

3. Identify the sampling unit

4. State sampling method

5. Determine the sample size

6. Spell out the sampling plan

7. Select the sample

 ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING
In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should

possess the following essentials:

1. It must be representative: The sample selected should

possess the similar characteristics of the original universe from

which it has been drawn.

2. Homogeneity: Selected samples from the universe should

have similar nature and should mot have any difference when

compared with the universe.

3. Adequate samples: In order to have a more reliable
and representative result, a good number of items are
to be included in the sample.

4. Optimization: All efforts should be made to get

maximum results both in terms of cost as well as
efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is
better efficiency and at the same time the cost is more.
A proper size of sample is maintained in order to have
optimized results in terms of cost and efficiency.
 Sampling Technique
Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling
Technique Technique

Simple random Convenience

Sampling Sampling

Systematic Sampling Judgmental

Sampling
Stratified Sampling

Quota Sampling
Cluster Sampling

Snowball
Multi Stage Sampling Sampling
 1. Probability Sampling
• A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the
population has a chance of being selected in the sample.

Types of Probability Sampling

1) Simple random sample: Every member of the
population has a known and equal chance of being
selected. This sample technique gives each element an
equal and independent chance or probability of selection.
For example in a population of 25 students in a college
under master of commerce studies each student has
1/25th chance of being selected. This method can be
used for populations of any size with homogenous
character. Three methods can be used to draw sample
in this approach

a) lottery method,

b) use of random table number and

c) Computers.
2) Systematic Sampling/Fixed interval sampling-The entire list of
items of the population are given serial numbers. Thereafter the
sample items are selected with equal intervals, then the first unit of a
sample is selected randomly and the remaining units at the fixed
interval (Kth element) in a given series. In this case, k = (population
size/sample size). For example in a population of 25 students in a
college under master of commerce studies. The management is going
to select 5 students out of 25 then the process is:

• Starting number: Select the starting number randomly for this

purpose researcher can use lottery method taking 1-3 number (k =
population size/sample size 25/5=5 is the k th number).
• Interval: The researcher picks second number taking

interval of k th (k=5) which will serve as the constant

difference between any two consecutive numbers in the

progression till the sample size.

• Selection of Sample- first sample number selected

randomly by using lottery method is 3 the second sample

is (3+kth i.e. 3+5=8) then and so on. E.g. sample is 3, 8,

13, 18 and so on till sample size of 5 students.

3) Cluster Sampling-is a sampling technique where
the entire population is divided into groups, or
clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are
selected. All observations in the selected clusters are
included in the sample. The most common cluster used
in research is a geographical cluster. (E.g. household,
income levels, etc) .
– Divide in to groups/cluster-First the Research can
divide the entire population (high schools of
Ramanagaram) into different clusters (taluk).
– Select cluster-Then the researcher selects a number
of clusters (taluk) through simple or systematic
random sampling.
– Selected cluster include all the element-Then, from
the selected clusters (randomly selected Taluk) the
researcher can either include all the high school
students as subjects or he can select a number of
subjects from each cluster through simple or
systematic random sampling.
4) Stratified Random Sampling- The researcher
divides the entire heterogeneous population into
different non-overlapping homogeneous subgroups or
strata, and sample items are selected from each
stratum (group) randomly, all the units drawn from
each stratum is called sample size. The most common
strata used in stratified random sampling are age,
gender, socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and
educational attainment.
The process is:

– divide members of the population into homogeneous

subgroups (stratum)

– The strata should be mutually exclusive (i.e. every

element in the population must be assigned to only one
stratum)

– Then simple or systematic sampling is applied within

each stratum

– The units drawn from each stratum is called sample size.

 Types of stratified sampling
a) Proportionate stratified sampling: the sample are
drawn from each stratum in the same proportion as
they occur in the universe.

Example; 50 pupils in a school of a 1000 pupils

were asked to select
Sample size for each Strata = size of whole sample/size of
population × size of Strata
Years Number of Solution: The proportion of pupils from
pupils each of the other year groups would be as
follows
17 180 17 (50/1000)* 180 =9
18 200 18 50/1000)* 200 = 10
19 240 19 50/1000)* 240 = 12
20 220 20 50/1000)* 220 = 11
21 160 21 50/1000)* 160 = 8
N = 1000 = 50

b) Disproportionate Stratified Sampling- the number of elements drawn

from the various strata is independent of the size of strata, is called
disproportionate stratified sampling
 5. Multi-Stage Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling: Multi-stage sampling is a further
development of the principle of cluster sampling. Suppose
we want to investigate the working efficiency of
nationalized banks in India and we want to take a sample
of few banks for this purpose. The first stage is to select
large primary sampling unit such as states in a country.
Then we may select certain districts and interview all
banks in the chosen districts.
This would represent a two-stage sampling design with
the ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts. If
instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
districts, we select certain towns and interview all banks
in the chosen towns. This would represent a three stage

sampling design. If instead of taking a census of all banks

within the selected towns, we randomly sample banks
from each selected town, then it is a case of using a four-
stage sampling plan.
 2. Non Probability Sampling Technique
1) Accidental sampling-It is known as grab or
convenience sampling or opportunity sampling. the
sample being drawn from that part of the population
that is close to hand. That is, sample populations
selected because it is readily available and convenient,
as researchers are drawing on relationships or
networks to which they have easy access.
2) Purposive Sampling/Judgmental sampling

• Purposive Sampling/Judgmental sampling:

the researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study.
This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.
3) Quota Sampling

• Quota Sampling –Quota sampling is a non-probability

sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the
same proportions of individuals as the entire population
with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused
phenomenon. The process is – Population is first
segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups, – Then
judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told
to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 25 and 40.

• The sample is representative of the entire

population. It also allows the researcher to
study traits and characteristics that are
noted for each subgroup.
4) Snowball sampling
• Snowball sampling- it is also known as chain
sampling, chain-referral sampling, referral
sampling. It is used by researchers to identify
potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard
to locate. After observing the initial subject, the
researcher asks for assistance from the subject to
help identify people with a similar trait of interest.
The sample group appears to grow like a rolling

snowball. For example a researcher is studying

environmental engineers but can only find five. The

researcher asks these engineers if they know any more.

They give several further referrals, which in turn

provide additional contacts. In this way, researcher

manages to contact sufficient engineers.

 7.1 Analysis of data
Analysis of data means critical examination of
the data for studying the characteristics of the
object under study and for determining the
patterns of relationship among the variables
relating to it’s using both quantitative and
qualitative methods. Data can be analyzed
either manually or with the help of a computer.
1. Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the
number of respondents is reasonably small, and there
are not many variables to analyze.

2. Data Analysis Using a Computer: If you want to

analyze data using computer, you should be familiar
with the appropriate program. In this area, knowledge
of computer and statistics plays an important role.
 Steps in Analysis
Different steps in research analysis consist of the following.
–Construction of statistical distribution-The first step involves
construction of statistical distributions and calculation of simple
measures like averages, percentages, etc.
–Compare two or more distribution-The second step is to
compare two or more distributions or two or more subgroups
within a distribution.
–Study the nature of relationship of variable-Third step is to
study the nature of relationships among variables.
–Find the factor affect the variable-Next
step is to find out the factors which affect
the relationship between a set of variables

–Inferences-Testing the validity of

inferences drawn from sample survey by
using parametric tests of significance.
 Types of Analysis
Statistical analysis may broadly classified as

descriptive analysis and inferential analysis

a)Descriptive Analysis- quantitatively describing

the main features of a collection of data. They

provide simple summaries about the sample and

the measures. In descriptive analysis there are-

1)Univariate analysis: Describing the distribution of
a single variable by using statistical method /tools e.g.
Central tendency (mean, median, and mode)
dispersion (range and quartiles, standard deviation etc)
Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be
depicted in graphical or tabular format, histograms
2)Bi-variate analysis: the analysis of two variables
(often denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining
the empirical relationship between them. E.g. ratios,
percentage table or a scatter plot graph and simple
correlation coefficient.

3)Multivariate analysis: involves observation and

analysis of more than one statistical outcome variable
at a time. I.e. Multiple relations between multiple
variables are examined simultaneously
b)Inferential analysis: is concerned with making
predictions or inferences or judgment about a
population from observations and analyses of a
sample. That is, we can take the results of an analysis
using a sample and can generalize it to the larger
population that the sample represents. There are two
areas of statistical inferences
i. Statistical estimation and
ii. Testing of hypothesis.
•A Statistical hypothesis: is an assumption about a population
parameter. This assumption may or may not be true. A parameter
is a measurable characteristic of a population, such as a mean or
a standard deviation.
•Hypothesis testing: refers to the formal procedures used by
statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses. The best
way to determine whether a statistical hypothesis is true would
be to examine the entire population. Since that is often
impractical, researchers typically examine a random sample
from the population. If sample data are not consistent with the
statistical hypothesis, the hypothesis is rejected.
Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerals or
other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into
a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes
should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also possess the characteristic of
exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data
item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means
that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one
cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is
that of unidimensionality by which is meant that every
class is defined in terms of only one concept.
Classification: is the process of reducing large mass of data in to
homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis. It converts data
from complex to understandable and unintelligible to intelligible
forms. It divides data in to different groups or classes according
to their similarities and dissimilarities. When the data are
classified, they give summary of whole information. Broadly
speaking, there are four types of classification. They are:
(i) Geographical classification,
(ii) Chronological classification,
(iii) Qualitative classification, and
(iv) Quantitative classification.
CHAPTER EIGHT
INTERPRETATION AND
REPORTING THE RESEARCH
RESULT
A research report is a detailed description of what
has been done and how it has been done with respect
to a particular area or topic. The purpose of the
written report is to present the results of your
research, but more importantly to provide a
persuasive/convincing argument to readers of what
you have found. It is the end product of a research
activity. It is highly skilled work it is the final stage
of the research work.
A research report is the formal statement of the
research process and its results. It is the end product of a
research activity, it narrates the problems studied, methods
used for studying and the findings and conclusions of the
study. The purpose of research report is to informs the
world what you have done, what you have discovered
and what conclusions you have drawn from your
findings . The report should be written in an academic
style . Language should be formal and not journalistic
• Characteristics of the Report:
An ideal report must have following characteristics-
An ideal report should be Clear, concise, accurate
and well organized with clear section headings.
Formatting, revising and proof reading are important
process for good report writing.

Easy for the audience to understand.

Presentation is a key element in successful report
writing.
All reports should have an executive summary
that presents the essential elements of the report
from the introduction through to the outcomes
and recommendations.

Reports should be visually appealing and easy

to read. Diagrams, figures, charts, tables and
graphs can all add interest to a report.
 Types of Report
a) Technical Report- is used in industry to communicate
technical information. These reports help businesses make
decisions, for example, in selecting and purchasing
equipment, or finding solutions to technical problems.
Engineering and applied sciences subjects often set
assignment tasks that require technical report writing. E.g.
solve a design problem; investigate and evaluate the
solutions to an environmental problem; develop a program
or an information management plan for a specific issue or
company.
b) Business reports- are practical learning
tasks where you apply the theories you
have been studying to real world (or
realistic) situations. Reporting financial
information, marketing and management
strategies and issues to others is an
important component of business studies.
c) Abstract or Executive Summary - An abstract

is a brief summary of a research article, thesis review,

conference proceeding . The whole traditional report
Divisions : objective, method, discussion, Conclusions
in a concise paragraph of about 200 300 words . It
emphasizes the objective and the analysis of the
results in a precise and Specific summary. It is
submitted before submitting full article or thesis.
.
d) Interim report- In research, the research timing is
long; an interim report is often compiled to analyze how
the research work is proceeding, before its final
completion.
e) Research article- this is designed for publication in a
professional journal. A research article must be clearly
written in concise and lucid/clear language. It must be
logically organized progressing from statement of
problem and the purpose of the study, through analysis
and evidence, to the conclusions and implications.
 Qualities of a Good Report
 Clarity
 Continuity
 Consistency
 Readability
 Interest and attractive
 Avoiding personal opinion
 Concentrate on Central Ideas
 Proper Reference
 Elements of Research Report

Different research Organizations or

Universities have established their own

format to write any research papers, but all

formats are somewhat similar to the

following outline which comprises:

1. PRELIMINARY PAGES
• Title Page
• Researcher’s Declaration
• Approval Sheet
•Table of Contents
• Acknowledgements
• List of Abbreviations (Acronyms)
• List of Tables
• List of Figures/Charts
• List of Appendices/Appendixes
• Abstract
 2. Main body
Chapter 1
Introduction
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Objectives of the research
Research question/Hypothesis
Scope
Limitation
Operational definitions
Chapter two
Related Literatures
Chapter Three
Methodology and Data Base
Type of research/Method of Study Sources of
data Primary Data and Secondary data
Tools/instruments for Data Collection-
•Interview Schedule •Observation
•Questionnaire • Focus Group Discussion etc.
Technique used for data collection- Sampling or
census
– Specify the sampling method e.g. Random sampling
– Determine the sample size
– Select the final sample
 Method adopted for the analysis of the Data-
descriptive or inferential
– Tools for the analysis- Mathematical and Statistical
Chapter format of Presentation of the Study
• Chapter -4 Analysis and interpretation/Results of
The Work/Discussion

– Chapters based on the objectives of the Study

– Use of Tables/Graphs/Diagrams for effective

representation - Title, Source etc

– Presentation style – Simple & Clear Style with the

help of application Mathematical & Statistical Tools.
• Chapter-5 Summary of Findings, Conclusion
and Recommendations:
Summary of Findings- numbering each of the
finding
Conclusions- should be given so as to justify the
objectives of the study.
Possible solution for the problems investigated by
the researcher should be recommended ; and
Recommendations/Suggestions for further study.
3. References: All the materials used as a
reference must be enumerated alphabetically.

4. Appendices: