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History of C Programing

The C programming language is a general-purpose, high-level language that

was originally developed by Dennis M. Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating
system at Bell Labs. C was originally first implemented on the DEC PDP-11
computer in 1972.
In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first publicly
available description of C, now known as the K&R standard.
The UNIX operating system, the C compiler, and essentially all UNIX
applications programs have been written in C. The C has now become a widely
used professional language for various reasons.
Easy to learn
Structured language
It produces efficient programs.
It can handle low-level activities.
It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms.

C Environment Setup
This section describes how to set up your system environment before you start
doing your
programming using C language.
Before you start doing programming using C programming language, you need
the following
two softwares available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and (b) The C
Compiler.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include
Windows Notepad,
OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi. Name and version
of text editor can vary on different operating systems. For example, Notepad
will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on windows as well as
Linux or
UNIX.
The files you create with your editor are called source files and contain
program source
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code. The source files for C programs are typically named with the extension
“.c”.
Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place
and you
have enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file, compile
it and finally
Execute it.

The C Compiler
The source code written in source file is the human readable source for your
program. It
needs to be "compiled", to turn into machine language so that your CPU can
actually
execute the program as per instructions given.
This C programming language compiler will be used to compile your source
code into final
executable program. I assume you have basic knowledge about a programming
language
compiler.
Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler,
otherwise you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have
respective Operating Systems.
Following section guides you on how to install GNU C/C++ compiler on
various OS. I'm
mentioning C/C++ together because GNU gcc compiler works for both C and
C++
programming languages.

Why to use C?
C was initially used for system development work, in particular the programs
that make up the operating system. C was adopted as a system development
language because it produces code that runs nearly as fast as code written in
assembly language. Some examples of the use of C might be:

Semicolons ;
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In C program, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual

statement must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one logical
entity.

Identifiers
A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-
defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _
followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9).
C does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers.
C is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower
are two different identifiers in C. Here are some examples of acceptable
identifiers:

C Data Types
In the C programming language, data types refer to an extensive system used for
declaring variables or functions of different types. The type of a variable
determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored
is interpreted.
The types in C can be classified as follows:

Basic Types: They are arithmetic types and consists of the two types: (a) integer
types and (b) floating-point types.

Integer Types

Char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to

255

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

signed char 1 byte -128 to 127

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Int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or

-2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647

unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to

4,294,967,295

Short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65,535

Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

Floating-Point Types:-
float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 6 decimal
3.4E+38 places

double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 15 decimal

1.7E+308 places

long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 19 decimal

1.1E+4932 places

C Variables:-
A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can
manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size
and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored
within that memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore
character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and
lowercase letters are distinct because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic
types explained in previous chapter, there will be the following basic variable
types:

Char Typically a single octet(one byte).

This is an integer type.

Int The most natural size of integer for

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the machine.
Float A single-precision floating point
value.

Double A double-precision floating point

value.

Void Represents the absence of type.

Variable Definition in C:

A variable definition means to tell the compiler where and how much to create
the storage for the variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and
contains a list of one or more variables of that type as follows:
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

Escape sequence Meaning

\\ \ character
\' ' character
\" " character
\? ? character
\a Alert or bell
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n Newline
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\ooo Octal number of one to three
digits

C Operators:-
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An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical

or logical manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides
the following types of operators:
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators
Arithmetic Operators:-

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two A + B will give 30
operands
- Subtracts second A - B will give -10
operand from the
first
* Multiplies both A * B will give
operands 200
/ Divides B / A will give 2
numerator by de-
numerator
% Modulus Operator B % A will give 0
and remainder of
after an integer
division
++ Increments A++ will give 11
operator
increases integer
value by one
-- Decrements A-- will give 9
operator
decreases integer
value by one

Relational Operators:-
== Checks if the (A == B) is not
values of two true.
operands are
equal or not, if
yes then
condition
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becomes true.
!= Checks if the (A != B) is true.
values of two
operands are
equal or not, if
values are not
equal then
condition
becomes true.
> Checks if the (A > B) is not
value of left true.
operand is
greater than the
value of right
operand, if yes
then condition
becomes true.
< Checks if the (A < B) is true.
value of left
operand is less
than the value of
right operand, if
yes then
condition
becomes true.
>= Checks if the (A >= B) is not
value of left true.
operand is
greater than or
equal to the
value of right
operand, if yes
then condition
becomes true.
<= Checks if the (A <= B) is true.
value of left
operand is less
than or equal to
the value of right
operand, if yes
then condition
becomes true.
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Logical Operators:-

Operator Description Example

&& Called Logical AND (A && B) is false.
operator. If both
the operands are
non-zero, then
condition becomes
true.
|| Called Logical OR (A || B) is true.
Operator. If any of
the two operands is
non-zero, then
condition becomes
true.
! Called Logical NOT !(A && B) is true.
Operator. Use to
reverses the logical
state of its operand.
If a condition is
true, then Logical
NOT operator will
make false.

Input & Output

When we are saying Input that means to feed some data into program. This can
be given in the form of file or from command line. C programming language
provides a set
of built-in functions to read given input and feed it to the program as per
requirement.
When we are saying Output that means to display some data on screen, printer
or in any
file. C programming language provides a set of built-in functions to output the
data on the
computer screen as well as you can save that data in text or binary files.
The Standard Files
C programming language treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the
display are
addressed in the same way as files and following three file are automatically
opened when
a program executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.
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Decision Making in C
Decision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more
conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or
statements
to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other
statements to
be executed if the condition is determined to be false.
Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in
most of the
programming languages:

C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true,

and if it is
either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value. C programming language
provides
following types of decision making statements.

if statement
An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more
statements.
Syntax .The syntax of an if statement in C programming language is:
if(boolean_expression)
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */
}
If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the if
statement will be executed. If boolean expression evaluates to false, then the
first set of
code after the end of the if statement (after the closing curly brace) will be
executed.
C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true
and if it is
either zero or null then it is assumed as false value.
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switch statement :-
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of
values. Each
value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each
switch case.
Syntax
The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows:
switch(expression){
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break; /* optional */
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break; /* optional */

/* you can have any number of case statements */

default : /* Optional */
statement(s);
}
You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is
followed by
the value to be compared to and a colon.
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The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as the variable in
the
switch, and it must be a constant or a literal.

When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements

following that
case will execute until a break statement is reached.

When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow of
control jumps
to the next line following the switch statement.

Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of
control will fall
through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.

A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the
end of
the switch. The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the
cases
is true. No break is needed in the default case.
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while loop in C
A while loop statement in C programming language repeatedly executes a
target
statement as long as a given condition is true.
Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.
The condition may be any expression, and true is any nonzero value. The loop
iterates
while the condition is true.
When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line
immediately
following the loop.
Flow Diagram
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For Loop in C
A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a
loop that
needs to execute a specific number of times.
Syntax
The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:
for ( init; condition; increment )
Here is the flow of control in a for loop:
1.
The init step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to
declare and
initialize any loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement
here, as long
as a semicolon appears.

2.
Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is
executed. If it is
false, the body of the loop does not execute and flow of control jumps to
the next
statement just after the for loop.

3.
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After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up
to
the increment statement. This statement allows you to update any loop
control
variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a semicolon appears
after the
condition.
4.
The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and
the process
repeats itself (body of loop, then increment step, and then again
condition). After the
condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.
Flow Diagram

do...while loop in C
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Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop,
the do...while loop in C programming language checks its condition at the
bottom of the
loop.
A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a do...while loop is
guaranteed to
execute at least one time.
Syntax
The syntax of a do...while loop in C programming language is:
do
{
statement(s);

}while( condition );
Notice that the conditional expression appears at the end of the loop, so the
statement(s)
in the loop execute once before the condition is tested.
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C programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following
section
shows few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:
for ( init; condition; increment )
{
for ( init; condition; increment )
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}
The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming language is as
follows:
while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}
The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language
is as
follows:
do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
}while( condition );

}while( condition );

break statement in C
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The break statement in C programming language has the following two usages:
1.
When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is
immediately
terminated and program control resumes at the next statement following
the loop.

2.
It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement (covered in the next
chapter).
If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another loop), the
break statement
will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line
of code after
the block.
Syntax
The syntax for a break statement in C is as follows:
break;

The Infinite Loop :-

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop
is
traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that
form the for
loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the conditional
expression
empty.
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C Structures
C arrays allow you to define type of variables that can hold several data items
of the same
kind but structure is another user defined data type available in C
programming, which
allows you to combine data items of different kinds.
Structures are used to represent a record, suppose you want to keep track of
your books in
a library. You might want to track the following attributes about each book:

Title

Author
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Subject

Book ID
Defining a Structure
To define a structure, you must use the struct statement. The struct statement
defines a
new data type, with more than one member for your program. The format of the
struct
statement is this:
struct [structure tag]
{
member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more structure variables];
The structure tag is optional and each member definition is a normal variable
definition,
such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable definition. At the end of the
structure's
definition, before the final semicolon, you can specify one or more structure
variables but it
is optional. Here is the way you would declare the Book structure:
struct Books
Accessing Structure Members
To access any member of a structure, we use the member access operator (.).
The member access operator is coded as a period between the structure variable
name and the structure member that we wish to access. You would use struct
keyword to define variables of structure type. Following is the example to
explain usage of structure:

Practical Program

Assignment-1 (Intro to c how to create & run)

#include<stdio.h>
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#include<conio.h >
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf("my name is kailash punjabi.\n");
printf("i reside at:\t109 prem bhuvan,");
printf("\n\t\tbazar road,");
printf("\n\t\tbandra(w),");
printf("\n\t\tmumbai 400050");
getch();
}

Explanation :-
#include<stdio.h> This is header file standard input out
#include<conio.h> This is also header file Console Input Out put
Void main()  Main program where u have to write code
Printf  It will show out put on turbo C
Getch()  it will hold the output.
Clrscr();  it will clear the screen

-
Assignment- 2 (Declaring And Intitalizing Variables)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
//Declaring And Intitalizing Variables
char xyz= 'A';
int inum= 21;
float fnum=87.65;
clrscr();
//Displaying the values with Conversion And Escape Characters
printf("\n\n");
printf("Char is \t= %c \n",xyz);
printf("Int is \t= %d \n",inum);
printf("Float is \t= %f \n",fnum);
getch();
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Assignment- 3 (Use of printf() and scanf() function with output.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
//Declaring Variables
int rollno;
float height;
char name[20];
//Use of printf() and scanf() function
clrscr();

printf("\nEnter Your name ");

scanf("%s",&name);
printf("\nEnter the roll no: ");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
printf("\nEnter the height: ");
scanf("%f",&height);
//Displaying the values entered
printf("\nyour name is:%s",name);
printf("\nRoll no is:%d",rollno);
printf("\nHeight is:%f\n",height);
getch();
}

Assignment- 4 (Arithmetic Performance)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
//Declaration and Intialization of the variable
int a,b,c,d;
int sum, multi, div,remainder, minus, increase, decrease;
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c=25;
d=12;

printf("\nEnter First Number: ");

scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nEnter Second Number ");
scanf("%d",&b);

// Use of Arithmatic operators

sum = a+b;//Addition
minus = a-b;//Subtraction
multi = a*b;//Multiplication
div = b/a;//Division
remainder = a%b;//Modular Division
increase = ++c;
decrease = --d;
//Displaying the results
clrscr();
printf ("Sum is %d\n",sum);
printf ("Minus of two number is %d\n",minus);
printf ("multiplication of two num is %d\n",multi);
printf ("Division of two number is %d\n",div);
printf ("Remainder is %d\n",remainder);
printf ("After Increasing the values is %d\n",increase);
printf ("After Decreasing the values is %d\n",decrease);
getch();
}

Assignment- 5 (Displaying the size occupied by each data type)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
//Declaring variables
clrscr();
int a;
char b;
float pi;
// Displaying the size occupied by each data type
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printf("Size of Character variable is %d\n", sizeof(char));

printf("Size of Integer variable is %d\n", sizeof(a));
printf("Size of Float variable is %d\n", sizeof(float));
getch();
}

Assignment- 6 (Swap Program)

#include<conio.h>
# include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf("\n enter the first number:");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\n enter the second number:");
scanf("%d “,&b);
// Displaying the numbers before interchanging
printf("\n\n printing the numbers before interchanging");
printf("\n the first number is:%d",a);
printf("\n the second number is:%d",b);
//Interchanging the numbers
c=a;
a=b;
b=c;
// Displaying the numbers after interchanging
printf("\n\n printing the numbers after interchanging");
printf("\n the first number now is:%d",a);
printf("\n the second number now is:%d",b);
getch();
}

Assignment- 7 (Salary Calculation With If Else)

#include<conio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
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float basic,da,hra,salary;
char d[15];
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter Your Name : ");
scanf("%s",&d);
printf("\n enter the basic salary :");
scanf("%f",&basic);
// Calculate the da,hra and salary
da=basic*40/100;
hra=basic*25/100;
salary=basic+da+hra;
//Displaying the details
printf("\nyour name is: %c ",d);
printf("\n\n salary details :");
printf("\n Basic salary is: %f",basic);
printf("\n Dearness Allowance is: %f",da);
printf("\n House Rent Allowance is: %f",hra);
printf("\n\n Total salary earned %f\n",salary);
if(salary>=80000)
{
printf("\nYou are ceo ");
}
else if(salary>=50000)
{
printf("\nYou are purchase manager");
}
else if(salary>=25000)
{
printf("\nyou are sales manager");
}
else
{
printf("\nyou are clerk");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 8 (Use Of If Else)

#include <stdio.h>
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#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int num1,num2, sum;
printf("enter two numbers:");
scanf("%d %d", &num1,&num2);
sum= num1+num2;
if(sum>100)
printf("\n the sum of two numbers is greater than 100\n");
else
printf("\n the sum of two numbers is smaller than 100\n");
getch();
}

Assignment- 9 (Voting System Using if Else)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
char name;
clrscr();
printf("\n enter your name:");
scanf("%s", &name);
printf("\n enter your age:");
scanf("%d", &age);
if (age>=19)
{
printf("\n you are eligiable for voting\n");
}
else
{
printf("\n you are not eligible for voting\n");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 10 (Use Of Ladder If)

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int num1,num2, num3;
clrscr();
printf("\n enter 3 numbers:");
scanf("%d %d %d", &num1,&num2,&num3);
if((num1>num2) && (num1>num3))
printf("\n the largest of three numbers is %d \n",num1);
if((num2>num1) && (num2>num3))
printf("\n the largest of three numbers is %d \n",num2);
if((num3>num1) && (num3>num2))
printf("\n the largest of three numbers is %d \n",num3);
getch();
}

Assignment- 11 (Use Of If & Ladder Else If)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char in_char;
printf("\nEnter a character in lower case: ");
scanf("%c", &in_char);
if(in_char=='a' || in_char=='A')
printf("\nThe character input is a vowel a\n");
else if (in_char=='e')
printf("\nThe character input is a vowel e\n");
else if (in_char=='i')
printf("\nThe character input is a vowel i\n");
else if (in_char=='o')
printf("\nThe character input is a vowel o\n");
else if (in_char=='u')
printf("\nThe character input is a vowel u\n");
else
printf("\nThe character input is not a vowel\n");
getch();
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Assignment- 12 (Switch Program)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
//Declaration and Intialization of the variable
int a;
printf("\nEnter Number with in one to seven: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf ("you have entered number is %d\n",a);
switch(a)
{
case 1 : printf("you have selected monday");
break;
case 2 : printf("you have selected tuesday");
break;
case 3 : printf("you have selected wednesday");
break;
case 4 : printf("you have selected thursday");
break;
case 5 : printf("you have selected friday");
break;
case 6 : printf("you have selected saturday");
break;
case 7 : printf("you have selected sunday");
break;
default : printf("wrong choice");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 13 (Arithmetic Using Switch)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
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{
//Declaration and Intialization of the variable
int a,b,choice,add,sub,div,mul;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter 1 st Number: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nEnter 2nd Number");
scanf("%d",&b);
printf("\nPress 1 for addition\nPress 2 for substraction \nPress 3 for
Division \nPress 4 for multiplication");
scanf("%d",&choice);
add=a+b;
sub=a-b;
div=a/b;
mul=a*b;

switch(choice)
{
case 1 : printf("addition of two num is %d",add);
break;
case 2 : printf("substraction of two num is %d",sub);
break;
case 3 : printf("division of two num is %d",div);
break;
case 4 : printf("multiplication of two num is %d",mul);
break;
default : printf("wrong choice");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 14 (While Loop )

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int num1=1, num2=5, count=1;
int product;
while (count<=5)
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{
product = num1*num2;
printf("Product=%d\n", product);
count = count+1;
num1 = num1+1;
}
getch();
}
Assignment- 15 (While Loop with calculation)

#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x=1,n,r;
clrscr();
printf("enter any number ");
scanf("%d",&n);

while(x<=10)
{
r=n*x;
printf("\n%d*",n);
printf("%d=",x);
printf(" %d ",r);
x++;
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 16 (Star Printing using While Loop)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1, j;
while(i <=10)
{
j=1;
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while (j <= i)
{
printf("*");
j++;
}
printf("\n");
i++;
}

getch();
}

Assignment- 17 (While Loop With If Else)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int number;
int sum=0;
printf("\nEnter the number:");
scanf("%d", &number);
if (number>0)
{
while(number>0)
{
sum = sum+number;
number = number-1;
printf(“\nnumber value is: %d”,number);
printf(“\nsum is : %d”,sum);
}
printf("\nThe sum %d\n", sum);
}
else
printf("\n%d is not valid.", number);
getch();
}

Assignment- 18 (Do While Loop )

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main ()
{
int a = 10;

do
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );

getch();
}

Assignment- 19 (table printing using For Loop)

#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf("enter table number : \n");
scanf("%d",&b);
for(a=1;a<=10;a++)
{
c=a*b;
printf("%d*",b);
printf("%d=",a);
printf("%d\n",c);
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 20 (Star Printing Using For Loop)

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#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
for(a=1;a<=10;a++)
{
for(b=1;b<=a;b++)
{
printf("*",b);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 21 (Star Printing REVERSE-RIGHT-ANGLE)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,k,a,b,c;
for(i=1;i<=8;i++)
{
for(j=8;j>=i;j--)

printf(" ");
for(k=1;k<=i;k++)

printf("*");

printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 22 (SUN-RAYS star design)

#include<stdio.h>
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#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,x,y,z;
printf("Enter a number..\n");
scanf("%d",&x);
for(a=1;a<=x;a++)
{
for(y=1;y<=a;y++)
{
printf(" ");
}
for(z=1;z<=a;z++)
{
printf("* ");
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 23 (Array one dimension )

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x[3];

x[0]=10;

x[1]=20;

x[2]=30;

printf("%d",x[0]);

printf("%d",x[1]);

printf("%d",x[2]);
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getch();

Assignment- 24 (Array multi dimension)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x[2][3];
//first row of array
x[0][0]=10;
x[0][1]=20;
x[0][2]=30;
clrscr();
printf("%d",x[0][0]);
printf("%d",x[0][1]);
printf("%d",x[0][2]);
//secon row of array
x[1][0]=40;
x[1][1]=50;
x[1][2]=60;
printf("\n%d",x[1][0]);
printf("%d",x[1][1]);
printf("%d",x[1][2]);
getch();
}

Assignment- 25 (String Compare Function)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>

int main()
{
char a[100], b[100];

printf("Enter the first string\n");

gets(a);

printf("Enter the second string\n");

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gets(b);

if (strcmp(a,b) == 0)
{
printf("Entered strings are equal.\n");
}
Else
{
printf("Entered strings are not equal.\n");
}
getch();
}

Assignment- 26 (Strcat use for joining two string)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char a[20],b[20];
clrscr();
printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");
scanf("%s",a);
printf("ENTER 2ndTHE STRING");
scanf("%s",b);
strcat(a,b);
printf("concatenation of string is %s",a);
getch();
}

Assignment- 27 (string copy & str lenth)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char a[20],b[20];
int len;
clrscr();
printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");
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scanf("%s",&a);
len =strlen(a);
strcpy(b,a);
printf("copy string is %s",b);
printf("lenth of string is %d",len);
getch();
}

Assignment- 28 (String reverse )

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char a[20];
clrscr();
printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");
scanf("%s",&a);
strrev(a);
printf("reverse string is %s",a);
getch();
}

Assignment- 29 (Pointer will read the address value of Variable)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10;
int *p; /*pointer variable*/
p=&a; /*assign memory address of variable */
printf(“address of a =%u”,p);
printf(“value of a =%d”,*p);
getch();
}

Assignment- 30 (Pointer of Pointer)

#include<stdio.h>
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#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x,*p1,**p2;
x=5;
p1=&x;
p2=&p1;
printf(“x=%d”,x);
printf(“address of x =%u”,&x);
printf(“address of p1=%u”,p1);
printf(“address of p2=%u”,p2);
getch();
}

Assignment- 31 (Use of Function Declaration)

#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>

// function prototype, also called function declaration

float square ( float x );

// main function, program starts from here

int main( )
{

float m, n ;
clrscr();
printf ( "\nEnter some number for finding square \n");
scanf ( "%f", &m ) ;
// function call
n = square ( m ) ;
printf ( "\nSquare of the given number %f is %f",m,n );
getch();
}

float square ( float x ) // function definition

{
float p ;
p=x*x;
return ( p ) ;
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Assignment- 32 (Structure in c )

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>

struct Books
{
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
};

int main( )
{
struct Books Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */
struct Books Book2; /* Declare Book2 of type Book */
clrscr();
/* book 1 specification */
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
Book1.book_id = 6495407;

/* book 2 specification */
strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
Book2.book_id = 6495700;

/* print Book1 info */

printf( "Book 1 title : %s", Book1.title);
printf( "\nBook 1 author : %s", Book1.author);
printf( "\nBook 1 subject : %s", Book1.subject);
printf( "\nBook 1 book_id : %d", Book1.book_id);

/* print Book2 info */

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printf( "\nBook 2 title : %s", Book2.title);

printf( "\nBook 2 author : %s", Book2.author);
printf( "\nBook 2 subject : %s", Book2.subject);
printf( "\nBook 2 book_id : %d", Book2.book_id);

getch();
}

Question And Answer For interview Purpose

What is the difference between declaration and definition of a

variable/function
Ans: Declaration of a variable/function simply declares that the
variable/function exists somewhere in the program but the memory is not
allocated for them. But the declaration of a variable/function serves an
important role. And that is the type of the variable/function. Therefore, when a
variable is declared, the program knows the data type of that variable. In case of
function declaration, the program knows what are the arguments to that
functions, their data types, the order of arguments and the return type of the
function. So that’s all about declaration. Coming to the definition, when we
define a variable/function, apart from the role of declaration, it also allocates
memory for that variable/function. Therefore, we can think of definition as a
super set of declaration. (or declaration as a subset of definition). From this
explanation, it should be obvious that a variable/function can be declared any
number of times but it can be defined only once. (Remember the basic principle
that you can’t have two locations of the same variable/function).

When should we use pointers in a C program?

1. To get address of a variable
2. For achieving pass by reference in C: Pointers allow different functions to
share and modify their local variables.
3. To pass large structures so that complete copy of the structure can be
avoided.
C
4. To implement “linked” data structures like linked lists and binary trees.
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What is NULL pointer?

Ans: NULL is used to indicate that the pointer doesn’t point to a valid location.
Ideally, we should initialize pointers as NULL if we don’t know their value at
the time of declaration. Also, we should make a pointer NULL when memory
pointed by it is deallocated in the middle of a program.
What are static functions? What is their use?
Ans:In C, functions are global by default. The “static” keyword before a
function name makes it static. Unlike global functions in C, access to static
functions is restricted to the file where they are declared. Therefore, when we
want to restrict access to functions, we make them static. Another reason for
making functions static can be reuse of the same function name in other files.
See this for examples and more details.

What are main characteristics of C language?

C is a procedural language. The main features of C language include low-level
access to memory, simple set of keywords, and clean style. These features make
it suitable for system programming like operating system or compiler
development.

Some coders debug their programs by placing comment symbols on some

codes instead of deleting it. How does this aid in debugging?
Placing comment symbols /* */ around a code, also referred to as “commenting
out”, is a way of isolating some codes that you think maybe causing errors in
the program, without deleting the code. The idea is that if the code is in fact
correct, you simply remove the comment symbols and continue on. It also saves
you time and effort on having to retype the codes if you have deleted it in the
first place.

What is variable initialization and why is it important?

This refers to the process wherein a variable is assigned an initial value before it
is used in the program. Without initialization, a variable would have an
unknown value, which can lead to unpredictable outputs when used in
computations or other operations.

In C programming, how do you insert quote characters (‘ and “) into the

output screen?
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This is a common problem for beginners because quotes are normally part of a
printf statement. To insert the quote character as part of the output, use the
format specifiers \’ (for single quote), and \” (for double quote).

What is the use of a ‘\0′ character?

It is referred to as a terminating null character, and is used primarily to show the
end of a string value.

What is the difference between the = symbol and == symbol?

The = symbol is often used in mathematical operations. It is used to assign a
value to a given variable. On the other hand, the == symbol, also known as
“equal to” or “equivalent to”, is a relational operator that is used to
COMPARE two values.

What is the modulus operator?

The modulus operator outputs the remainder of a division. It makes use of the
percentage (%) symbol. For example: 10 % 3 = 1, meaning when you divide 10
by 3, the remainder is 1.

What is a nested loop?

A nested loop is a loop that runs within another loop. Put it in another sense,
you have an inner loop that is inside an outer loop. In this scenario, the inner
loop is performed a number of times as specified by the outer loop. For each
turn on the outer loop, the inner loop is first performed.

Which of the following operators is incorrect and why? ( >=, <=, <>, ==)
<> is incorrect. While this operator is correctly interpreted as “not equal to” in
writing conditional statements, it is not the proper operator to be used in C
programming. Instead, the operator != must be used to indicate “not equal to”
condition.

How do you declare a variable that will hold string values?

The char keyword can only hold 1 character value at a time. By creating an
array of characters, you can store string values in it. Example: “char
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MyName[50]; ” declares a string variable named MyName that can hold a

maximum of 50 characters.

Can the curly brackets { } be used to enclose a single line of code?

While curly brackets are mainly used to group several lines of codes, it will still
work without error if you used it for a single line. Some programmers prefer
this method as a way of organizing codes to make it look clearer, especially in
conditional statements.

What are header files and what are its uses in C programming?
Header files are also known as library files. They contain two essential things:
the definitions and prototypes of functions being used in a program. Simply put,
commands that you use in C programming are actually functions that are
defined from within each header files. Each header file contains a set of
functions. For example: stdio.h is a header file that contains definition and
prototypes of commands like printf and scanf.

What is syntax error?

Syntax errors are associated with mistakes in the use of a programming
language. It maybe a command that was misspelled or a command that must
was entered in lowercase mode but was instead entered with an upper case
character. A misplaced symbol, or lack of symbol, somewhere within a line of
code can also lead to syntax error.

What are variables and it what way is it different from constants?

Variables and constants may at first look similar in a sense that both are
identifiers made up of one character or more characters (letters, numbers and a
few allowable symbols). Both will also hold a particular value. Values held by
a variable can be altered throughout the program, and can be used in most
operations and computations. Constants are given values at one time only,
placed at the beginning of a program. This value is not altered in the program.
For example, you can assigned a constant named PI and give it a value
3.1415 . You can then use it as PI in the program, instead of having to write
3.1415 each time you need it.

How do you access the values within an array?

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Arrays contain a number of elements, depending on the size you gave it during
variable declaration. Each element is assigned a number from 0 to number of
elements-1. To assign or retrieve the value of a particular element, refer to the
element number. For example: if you have a declaration that says
“intscores[5];”, then you have 5 accessible elements, namely: scores[0],
scores[1], scores[2], scores[3] and scores[4].

Can I use “int” data type to store the value 32768? Why?
No. “int” data type is capable of storing values from -32768 to 32767. To store
32768, you can use “long int” instead. You can also use “unsigned int”,
assuming you don’t intend to store negative values.

Can two or more operators such as \n and \t be combined in a single line of

program code?
Yes, it’s perfectly valid to combine operators, especially if the need arises. For
example: you can have a code like ” printf (“Hello\n\n\’World\'”) ” to output the
text “Hello” on the first line and “World” enclosed in single quotes to appear on
the next two lines.

Why is it that not all header files are declared in every C program?
The choice of declaring a header file at the top of each C program would depend
on what commands/functions you will be using in that program. Since each
header file contains different function definitions and prototype, you would be
using only those header files that would contain the functions you will need.
Declaring all header files in every program would only increase the overall file
size and load of the program, and is not considered a good programming style.

When is the “void” keyword used in a function?

When declaring functions, you will decide whether that function would be
returning a value or not. If that function will not return a value, such as when
the purpose of a function is to display some outputs on the screen, then “void” is
to be placed at the leftmost part of the function header. When a return value is
expected after the function execution, the data type of the return value is placed
instead of “void”.

What is the advantage of an array over individual variables?

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When storing multiple related data, it is a good idea to use arrays. This is
because arrays are named using only 1 word followed by an element number.
For example: to store the 10 test results of 1 student, one can use 10 different
variable names (grade1, grade2, grade3… grade10). With arrays, only 1 name is
used, the rest are accessible through the index name (grade[0], grade[1],
grade[2]… grade[9]).

What are comments and how do you insert it in a C program?

Comments are a great way to put some remarks or description in a program. It
can serves as a reminder on what the program is all about, or a description on
why a certain code or function was placed there in the first place. Comments
begin with /* and ended by */ characters. Comments can be a single line, or can
even span several lines. It can be placed anywhere in the program.

What is debugging?
Debugging is the process of identifying errors within a program. During
program compilation, errors that are found will stop the program from executing
completely. At this state, the programmer would look into the possible portions
where the error occurred. Debugging ensures the removal of errors, and plays an
important role in ensuring that the expected program output is met.

What does the && operator do in a program code?

The && is also referred to as AND operator. When using this operator, all
conditions specified must be TRUE before the next action can be performed. If
you have 10 conditions and all but 1 fails to evaluate as TRUE, the entire
condition statement is already evaluated as FALSE.

What are logical errors and how does it differ from syntax errors?
Program that contains logical errors tend to pass the compilation process, but
the resulting output may not be the expected one. This happens when a wrong
formula was inserted into the code, or a wrong sequence of commands was
performed. Syntax errors, on the other hand, deal with incorrect commands that
are misspelled or not recognized by the compiler.

What is || operator and how does it function in a program?

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The || is also known as the OR operator in C programming. When using || to

evaluate logical conditions, any condition that evaluates to TRUE will render
the entire condition statement as TRUE.

What are preprocessor directives?

Preprocessor directives are placed at the beginning of every C program. This is
where library files are specified, which would depend on what functions are to
be used in the program. Another use of preprocessor directives is the declaration
of constants.Preprocessor directives begin with the # symbol.
How do you determine the length of a string value that was stored in a
variable?
To get the length of a string value, use the function strlen(). For example, if you
have a variable named FullName, you can get the length of the stored string
value by using this statement: I = strlen(FullName); the variable I will now have
the character length of the string value.

Why is C language being considered a middle level language?

This is because C language is rich in features that make it behave like a high
level language while at the same time can interact with hardware using low
level methods. The use of a well structured approach to programming, coupled
with English-like words used in functions, makes it act as a high level language.
On the other hand, C can directly access memory structures similar to assembly
language routines.

What are the different file extensions involved when programming in C?

Source codes in C are saved with .C file extension. Header files or library files
have the .H file extension. Every time a program source code is successfully
compiled, it creates an .OBJ object file, and an executable .EXE file.

What is the difference between the expression “++a” and “a++”?

In the first expression, the increment would happen first on variable a, and the
resulting value will be the one to be used. This is also known as a prefix
increment. In the second expression, the current value of variable a would the
one to be used in an operation, before the value of a itself is incremented. This
is also known as postfix increment.
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In C language, the variables NAME, name, and Name are all the same.
TRUE or FALSE?
FALSE. C language is a case sensitive language. Therefore, NAME, name and
Name are three uniquely different variables.

What is an endless loop?

An endless loop can mean two things. One is that it was designed to loop
continuously until the condition within the loop is met, after which a break
function would cause the program to step out of the loop. Another idea of an
endless loop is when an incorrect loop condition was written, causing the loop
to run erroneously forever. Endless loops are oftentimes referred to as infinite
loops.

What is a program flowchart and how does it help in writing a program?

A flowchart provides a visual representation of the step by step procedure
towards solving a given problem. Flowcharts are made of symbols, with each
symbol in the form of different shapes. Each shape may represent a particular
entity within the entire program structure, such as a process, a condition, or
even an input/output phase.

What is a newline escape sequence?

A newline escape sequence is represented by the \n character. This is used to
insert a new line when displaying data in the output screen. More spaces can be
added by inserting more \n characters. For example, \n\n would insert two
spaces. A newline escape sequence can be placed before the actual output
expression or after.

What are run-time errors?

These are errors that occur while the program is being executed. One common
instance wherein run-time errors can happen is when you are trying to divide a
number by zero. When run-time errors occur, program execution will pause,
showing which program line caused the error.

What are control structures?

Control structures take charge at which instructions are to be performed in a
program. This means that program flow may not necessarily move from one
statement to the next one, but rather some alternative portions may need to be
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pass into or bypassed from, depending on the outcome of the conditional

statements.

When is a “switch” statement preferable over an “if” statement?

The switch statement is best used when dealing with selections based on a
single variable or expression. However, switch statements can only evaluate
integer and character data types.

What are structure types in C?

Structure types are primarily used to store records. A record is made up of
related fields. This makes it easier to organize a group of related data.

is it possible to create your own header files?

Yes, it is possible to create a customized header file. Just include in it the
function prototypes that you want to use in your program, and use the #include
directive followed by the name of your header file.

What are the different data types in C?

The basic data types are int, char, and float. Int is used to declare variables that
will be storing integer values. Float is used to store real numbers. Char can store
individual character values.

In a switch statement, what will happen if a break statement is omitted?

If a break statement was not placed at the end of a particular case portion? It
will move on to the next case portion, possibly causing incorrect output.

What are pointers?

Pointers point to specific areas in the memory. Pointers contain the address of a
variable, which in turn may contain a value or even an address to another
memory.

What is the use of a semicolon (;) at the end of every program statement?
It has to do with the parsing process and compilation of the code. A semicolon
acts as a delimiter, so that the compiler knows where each statement ends, and
can proceed to divide the statement into smaller elements for syntax checking.
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