AGSSL 4: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PRODUCTION

4.1 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN PLANT

REPRODUCTION
4.1.1 POLLINATION IN PLANTS
POLLINATION involves the transfer of pollen (which contains male gametes) from the male
reproductive organ (anther) of a flower to the female reproductive organ (stigma) of a compatible
flower. This transfer is essential for fertilization to occur, leading to seed development and the
next generation of plants.

Here’s a more detailed look at the process and mechanisms of pollination:

1. Types of Pollination

 Self-pollination: This occurs when pollen from the anther of a flower pollinates the
stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant. It ensures pollination
without relying on external agents. However, it limits genetic diversity.

 Cross-pollination: This type of pollination occurs when pollen from one plant is
transferred to the stigma of another plant of the same species. Cross-pollination promotes
genetic diversity, which enhances the resilience and adaptability of plant populations.

2. Pollination Agents

Several agents or vectors assist in the transfer of pollen:

 Insects: Insect pollination, or entomophily, is the most common form of pollination.

Bees, butterflies, moths, and beetles are the primary insect pollinators. They are attracted
to flowers by their color, scent, and nectar. As insects gather nectar, they unintentionally
 brush against the flower's anthers and pick up pollen, which they transfer to other
flowers.
 Wind: Wind-pollinated plants (anemophilous plants) release large amounts of
lightweight pollen that can be carried by the wind. This is common in grasses, conifers,
and some trees.
 Water: Aquatic plants, like seagrasses, rely on water currents to carry pollen from one
flower to another.
 Animals: Some plants rely on birds (e.g., hummingbirds) or bats to pollinate them. These
animals are attracted to brightly colored flowers, especially those that provide nectar.
 Humans: While not natural pollinators, humans sometimes assist in pollination,
especially in commercial agriculture (e.g., using bees in greenhouses).

3. The Pollination Process

 Pollen Transfer: During pollination, pollen grains from the anther are transferred to the
stigma, often facilitated by pollinators. In self-pollinating species, this can happen when
pollen falls directly from the anther to the stigma. In cross-pollination, pollen needs to be
carried from one flower to another, which is where pollinators come in.
 Germination of Pollen: Once pollen lands on a compatible stigma, it germinates. The
pollen tube forms and grows down the style toward the ovary.
 Fertilization: The sperm cells travel through the pollen tube to reach the ovule in the
ovary. One sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a zygote, while the other may fuse with
other cells to form endosperm, which nourishes the developing embryo.

4.1.2 Fertilization in plants is the process in which the male gamete (sperm) and the
female gamete (egg) unite to form a zygote, which eventually develops into a seed. This process
follows pollination, where pollen from the male reproductive organ (anther) is transferred to the
female reproductive organ (stigma) of a flower, enabling fertilization. Here's a step-by-step
description of fertilization in plants:

a. Pollination

Before fertilization can occur, pollination must take place. Pollination is the transfer of pollen
(which contains the male gametes, or sperm cells) from the anther (male reproductive part) to the
stigma (female reproductive part) of a flower. This can be achieved through various pollinators
such as insects, wind, water, or animals.

b. Pollen Germination

After pollination, the pollen grain germinates on the stigma. The stigma releases a chemical
signal that triggers the pollen to begin growing. The pollen grain produces a pollen tube, which
is a long tube that grows down through the style (the tube-like structure between the stigma and
the ovary) toward the ovary. The pollen tube is guided by chemical signals from the ovary.

c. Growth of the Pollen Tube

As the pollen tube grows down the style, it carries two male gametes (sperm cells) inside it. The
pollen tube passes through the style and eventually reaches the ovary, where the ovules (female
gametes) are located. The ovary contains one or more ovules, each of which contains an egg cell.

d. Sperm Cells Reach the Ovule

Upon reaching the ovule, the pollen tube penetrates the ovule through a small opening called the
micropyle. The tube releases the two sperm cells into the ovule.

e. Double Fertilization

Double fertilization is a unique feature of angiosperms (flowering plants), and it involves two
fertilization events:

 Fertilization of the Egg: One sperm cell fuses with the egg cell (female gamete) inside
the ovule. This union forms a zygote, which will develop into the embryo of the plant.
 Fertilization of the Polar Nuclei: The second sperm cell fuses with two other haploid
nuclei in the ovule (called polar nuclei), forming a triploid cell. This triploid cell will
develop into the endosperm, a tissue that nourishes the developing embryo.

f. Formation of the Seed

After fertilization, the zygote begins to develop into an embryo within the ovule. Meanwhile, the
surrounding tissues of the ovule, including the integuments, will develop into the seed coat,
which protects the seed. The fertilized ovule becomes a seed, containing the embryo, stored food
(in the form of the endosperm), and the protective seed coat.

g. Development of the Fruit

The fertilized ovary begins to mature into a fruit. The fruit serves as a protective structure for the
developing seed, and it often aids in seed dispersal. The ovary wall becomes the pericarp, or fruit
wall, which may be fleshy (like in apples or tomatoes) or dry (like in nuts or grains).

h. Seed Dormancy and Germination

Once the seed is fully developed, it may enter a period of dormancy, during which it remains
inactive until conditions are favorable for germination. Upon favorable conditions—such as the
presence of water, oxygen, and the right temperature—the seed will germinate. Germination
involves the growth of the seed into a new plant, starting with the development of roots and
shoots.

Summary of Fertilization in Plants:

1. Pollination: Transfer of pollen to the stigma.

2. Pollen Germination: Pollen grain germinates on the stigma, forming a pollen tube.
3. Pollen Tube Growth: The pollen tube grows down through the style toward the ovary.
4. Sperm Cells Enter the Ovule: The pollen tube reaches the ovule, releasing two sperm
cells.
5. Double Fertilization:
o One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote.
o The second sperm forms the endosperm with the polar nuclei.
6. Seed Development: The zygote becomes the embryo, and the ovule becomes a seed.
7. Fruit Formation: The ovary becomes a fruit that protects the seed.
8. Seed Dormancy and Germination: The seed may remain dormant until conditions are
favorable for growth.

Fertilization in plants is essential for reproduction and ensures genetic diversity in the plant
population. The resulting seeds are the basis for the next generation of plants, enabling species to
propagate and evolve.
4.1.3 PLANT PROPAGATION

Plant propagation is the process of producing new plants from existing ones. It can be done
through two main methods: sexual propagation and asexual propagation. Both methods
involve various techniques to reproduce plants, either through the use of seeds or vegetative parts
of the plant. Here’s an overview of both methods and common techniques used in plant
propagation:

4.1.4 METHODS OF PROPAGATION

1. Sexual Propagation (Seed Propagation)

Sexual propagation involves the use of seeds, which are produced through the fertilization of the
ovule by pollen (as described in the process of fertilization). Seeds contain the genetic material
of both parent plants and, therefore, grow into offspring with a combination of traits from both
parents. Sexual propagation is essential for the genetic diversity of plant populations.

Steps in Sexual Propagation:

1. Pollination: The transfer of pollen to the stigma of a flower.

2. Fertilization: The sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell in the ovule, leading to the formation
of seeds.
3. Seed Harvesting: After fertilization, seeds mature within the fruit or seed pod.
4. Seed Sowing: Seeds are collected and planted in soil or a growing medium, where they
undergo germination.
5. Germination: The seed absorbs water, swells, and breaks through its seed coat. The
embryonic plant (the seedling) begins to grow.

Advantages of Sexual Propagation:

 Genetic diversity: The offspring are genetically unique, which can help the species adapt
to changing conditions.
 Suitable for many species: Sexual propagation is applicable to a wide range of plants,
including many wild plants, fruits, vegetables, and flowers.

Disadvantages:

 Time-consuming: It can take time for seeds to mature and germinate.

 Variable results: Seeds may not produce plants identical to the parent, especially if the
parent is a hybrid, or if pollination involved a different variety.

2. Asexual Propagation (Vegetative Propagation)

Asexual propagation involves producing new plants from the vegetative parts of the parent plant,
such as stems, leaves, or roots. This method results in genetically identical offspring, called
clones, to the parent plant. Asexual propagation is typically faster than sexual propagation and is
often used for plants that do not reproduce well through seeds or for maintaining specific traits in
cultivars.

Common Techniques of Asexual Propagation:

 Cuttings: A piece of a plant (often a stem, leaf, or root) is cut from the parent plant and
encouraged to develop roots and grow into a new plant.
o Stem Cuttings: A stem section is taken and placed in a rooting medium (soil,
water, etc.), where it develops roots.
o Leaf Cuttings: Some plants, such as succulents, can be propagated from a leaf that
forms roots and shoots.
o Root Cuttings: Certain plants, like blackberries or raspberries, can be propagated
by cutting sections of roots and planting them.

 Layering: This involves bending a stem or branch of a plant to the ground and covering
part of it with soil. Roots will develop from the buried section, and once established, the
new plant is separated from the parent.

o Tip Layering: The tip of the stem is bent to the ground and buried.
o Ground Layering: The lower stem is covered with soil, often while the
plant is still attached.
 o Air layering
In air layering, a bark is ringed/tongued around on the branch; the ringed /tongued part is tied
/covered with plastic/polythene bag containing wet soil/growing medium; the rooted branch is
cut; planted as separate plant.

 Division: This method involves dividing a plant into several parts, each with its own
roots. This technique is commonly used for plants like perennials, grasses, or bulbs. Each
division grows into a new plant.
o Bulbs: Plants like onions or tulips propagate via bulbs that can be separated and
planted as new plants.
o Rhizomes and Tubers: Plants like ginger or potatoes can be propagated by
dividing rhizomes or tubers into sections, each of which can sprout into a new
plant.

 Grafting: Grafting involves attaching a piece of a plant (scion) to the rootstock of

another plant. The scion may be a variety with desirable fruit or flowers, while the
rootstock may be chosen for its hardiness or disease resistance. The two parts grow
together as one plant.
o Bud Grafting: A bud from one plant is inserted into the rootstock of another.
 o Cleft Grafting: A branch or stem from the parent plant is cut and inserted into a
slit on the rootstock.

 Budding- is a method of asexual reproduction where a small bud( which contains an

undeveloped shoot) from one plant is grafted onto another plant.

Advantages of Asexual Propagation:

 Clonal reproduction: The new plants are genetically identical to the parent plant,
ensuring consistency in traits like flower color, fruit size, or disease resistance.
 Faster results: New plants can grow quickly compared to seed propagation.
 No need for pollination: It can be used for plants that do not self-pollinate or are sterile.
 Preservation of traits: Asexual propagation is useful for maintaining specific desirable
traits, especially in horticulture and agriculture.

Disadvantages:

 Limited genetic diversity: Since all offspring are clones of the parent plant, asexual
propagation can lead to a lack of genetic diversity, making plants more susceptible to
disease or environmental changes.
  Higher susceptibility to disease: Since the offspring are genetically identical, if the
parent plant has any disease, the new plants may inherit it.
 Labor-intensive: Some asexual propagation methods, like grafting or tissue culture,
require skill and specialized equipment.

Comparison of Sexual and Asexual Propagation:

Feature Sexual Propagation Asexual Propagation

Low (offspring are genetically
Genetic Diversity High (offspring are genetically different)
identical)
Longer (time required for seed Shorter (quicker growth and
Time to Maturity
germination and plant growth) establishment)
Cuttings, layering, division,
Methods Used Seeds, pollination
grafting, tissue culture
Consistency of
Variable (may differ from parent) Consistent (clones of parent)
Traits
Higher (some methods require
Cost Low (seeds are often cheap)
special care or tools)

4.2 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN PLANT GROWTH

4.2.1 Seed germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant. It begins when
a seed absorbs water, swells, and the seed coat breaks open to allow the growth of the embryo
inside. Germination is a crucial stage in a plant’s life cycle because it marks the start of growth
and the potential for reproduction. Several factors, such as water, temperature, oxygen, and light,
influence the success of seed germination.

Process of Seed Germination

1. Imbibition (Water Absorption)

o The first step in seed germination is imbibition, the process by which the seed
absorbs water from its surrounding environment.
o Water causes the seed to swell and soften the seed coat, breaking down some of
the stored food within the seed. It also activates enzymes necessary for the seed’s
metabolic processes.
o The water activates the seed’s internal metabolic systems, preparing it for the
growth process.
2. Activation of Metabolism
o Once the seed has absorbed sufficient water, metabolic processes begin. The
stored food (starches, proteins, and fats) in the seed, which is often stored in the
endosperm or cotyledons (seed leaves), is converted into energy to fuel growth.
o Enzymes like amylase (for starch breakdown) and lipase (for fat breakdown) are
activated to break down these stored nutrients into simpler sugars and fatty acids,
providing energy for the seedling's growth.
3. Emergence of the Radicle (Root Development)
o The radicle, or embryonic root, is the first part of the plant to emerge during
germination. It is responsible for anchoring the seedling to the soil and absorbing
water and nutrients from the surrounding soil.
o The radicle pushes through the seed coat and into the soil, where it begins to grow
and establish the root system. The radicle's growth is critical because it ensures
that the plant can access water and nutrients necessary for further growth.
4. Growth of the Shoot (Stem Development)
o Following the emergence of the radicle, the hypocotyl (the stem-like structure
below the cotyledons) and epicotyl (the part of the stem above the cotyledons)
begin to elongate.
o The epicotyl pushes upward through the soil toward the surface, where it will
eventually form the stem and leaves of the plant.
o The cotyledons (seed leaves) often provide initial nourishment to the young
seedling. They may be the first "leaves" to emerge from the seed, and in some
plants, they may remain attached to the seedling for a while before falling off or
withering.
5. Formation of True Leaves
o After the cotyledons unfold and the stem reaches the surface, true leaves begin to
form. These leaves are responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which
plants convert sunlight into chemical energy, which is used to produce food for
the plant.
 o With the development of true leaves, the plant can begin to produce its own food
through photosynthesis, marking the transition from reliance on stored seed
reserves to independent growth.

4.2.2 Factors Affecting Seed Germination

For germination to occur, several environmental factors or conditons must be just right:

1. Water (Moisture)
o Water is essential for germination because it activates enzymes and allows the
seed to absorb the nutrients it needs to begin growth. Without sufficient water, the
seed will not be able to initiate germination. However, too much water can cause
the seed to rot.
2. Temperature
o Each species of plant has an optimal temperature range for germination.
Generally, temperatures between 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F) are ideal for most
plants. Too low a temperature may prevent the seed from germinating, while
excessively high temperatures may damage the seed.
3. Oxygen
o Oxygen is required for respiration, which provides the energy for germination.
The embryo uses oxygen to break down stored food and fuel growth. Seeds buried
too deeply in the soil or in waterlogged environments may not receive enough
oxygen for successful germination.
4. Light
o While light is not required for all seeds, some seeds require light to germinate,
while others prefer darkness. For example, small seeds like those of many flowers
often need light to trigger germination, while large seeds, such as those of trees,
may germinate better in the dark.
5. Seed Dormancy
o Many seeds exhibit dormancy, a state in which they are inactive and do not
germinate immediately, even when environmental conditions are favorable.
Dormancy helps protect seeds from germinating at the wrong time, such as during
unfavorable weather.
o To break dormancy, some seeds may require specific conditions, such as exposure
to cold temperatures (stratification), light, or scarification (mechanical or
chemical abrasion of the seed coat).

4.2.2 EXPERIMENT ON CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR GERMINATION

 Experiment steps:

1. Prepare your seeds- space seeds evenly on a paper towel or cotton wool
2. Create different conditions-moisten the paper towel or cotton wool, cover with water or
add oil
3. Place the seeds- put the paper towel or cotton wool in a test tube, petri dish or beaker
4. Observe- place the setup in different environments, like in a warm room, fridge or dark
room
5. Compare- after a period of time, count how many seeds germinated in each condition.

WHAT TO OBSERVE
 Water-whether the cotton wool or soil stays moist
 Light-whether the seeds are exposed to direct, indirect or no light.
 Temperature-whether the seeds are in warm or cold area
 Chlrophyll- whether the stems of germinated seeds are green, which indicates the
presence of chlorophyll

WHAT TO CONSIDER

 Some seeds may require more time to germinate

 Some seeds may be dormant, meaning they are prevented from germinating even
in favorable

4.2.3 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PLANT GROWTH

1. Light

 Purpose: Light is essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light
energy into chemical energy to produce food (glucose) for their growth.
 Quality: Plants need the right type of light. Sunlight provides a broad spectrum of light,
but certain wavelengths (especially red and blue light) are most effective for
photosynthesis.
 Quantity: Different plants have varying light requirements:
o Full sun plants require 6-8 hours of direct sunlight each day.
o Partial shade or shade plants can tolerate lower levels of light and thrive under
indirect light or filtered sunlight.
 Duration: Day length (photoperiod) can affect flowering, fruiting, and other growth
stages, particularly in some species that require specific light periods to bloom or set
fruit.

2. Water

 Purpose: Water is essential for nutrient transport, cellular processes, and maintaining
plant structure (through turgor pressure). It also helps in the process of photosynthesis
and cooling the plant.
 Availability: Plants require a consistent supply of water, but overwatering can lead to
root rot, while underwatering can cause dehydration and stress.
  Soil Type: The soil's ability to retain or drain water affects how much water is available
to the plant. Well-drained soils are preferred for many plants, while others, such as rice,
thrive in waterlogged conditions.

3. Temperature

 Purpose: Temperature influences the rate of plant metabolism, enzyme activity, and
growth. Plants have a specific optimal temperature range where they grow best.
 Ideal Temperature Range: Most plants prefer temperatures between 18°C and 24°C
(65°F to 75°F), though there are exceptions:
o Cool-season plants (e.g., lettuce, spinach) thrive in cooler temperatures, typically
between 10°C and 20°C (50°F to 68°F).
o Warm-season plants (e.g., tomatoes, peppers) require warmer temperatures,
typically between 21°C and 30°C (70°F to 85°F).
 Frost Sensitivity: Temperatures below freezing can damage or kill many plants,
especially those that are not frost-tolerant.

4. Air (Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide)

 Oxygen: Plants need oxygen for respiration, a process where they convert stored food
(usually sugars) into energy. Roots require oxygen for healthy growth.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis,
where they convert light energy into food (glucose). Increased levels of CO2 generally
enhance photosynthesis and plant growth, within limits.

5. Soil (lele)

 Purpose: Soil provides support, nutrients, and water for plants. The quality of the soil—
including its texture, structure, and fertility—affects plant health.
 Soil Types:
o Loam: A mixture of sand, silt, and clay, loam is considered the best soil for most
plants because it retains moisture but also drains well.
o Clay: Clay soils are nutrient-rich but may retain too much water, causing poor
root aeration.
o Sandy: Sandy soils drain quickly but may not hold enough nutrients.
 Soil pH: The pH level of the soil affects nutrient availability. Most plants prefer a slightly
acidic to neutral pH (around 6-7). Some plants, like blueberries, thrive in more acidic
soils, while others, like lavender, prefer alkaline conditions.
 Nutrient Content: Soil must have sufficient amounts of macronutrients (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium) and micronutrients (iron, manganese, etc.) for plant growth.

6. Nutrients

 Macronutrients:
o Nitrogen (N): Essential for vegetative growth and the production of chlorophyll.
o Phosphorus (P): Important for root development, flowering, and fruiting.
 o Potassium (K): Supports overall plant health, including water regulation and
disease resistance.
 Micronutrients: These include iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, and
others, which are needed in smaller quantities but are vital for plant growth and
development.
 Fertilization: Fertilizers (organic or synthetic) provide these nutrients, especially in soils
that may be deficient.

7. Humidity

 Purpose: Humidity affects the rate of water loss from plants through transpiration,
which is the process of water vapor moving from the plant to the atmosphere.
 High Humidity: In humid environments, transpiration is slower, and plants tend to retain
water better, which is beneficial for many tropical plants.
 Low Humidity: Low humidity increases transpiration, which can lead to dehydration,
especially in plants with large, thin leaves.

8. Air Circulation

 Purpose: Proper air circulation helps prevent the build-up of excessive moisture around
the plant, reducing the risk of fungal diseases and pests. It also ensures that plants have
access to sufficient carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration.
 Ventilation: In greenhouses or indoors, proper ventilation is necessary to avoid stagnant
air that can promote disease.

9. Space

 Purpose: Plants need adequate space for their roots to spread out and for their above-
ground parts to grow. Crowded plants can compete for nutrients, light, and water, which
stunts their growth.
 Root Space: Plants with extensive root systems require larger spaces, while smaller
plants or those with shallow roots may be more compact.
 Plant Spacing: Proper spacing between plants ensures better air circulation, reduces
competition, and allows for healthy growth.

10. Protection from Harmful Factors

 Pests and Diseases: Plant pests (such as insects, rodents, and fungi) can damage plants
and reduce their growth. Regular monitoring, pest control, and disease management are
important for plant health.
 Physical Damage: Wind, heavy rain, or mechanical damage can harm plants. Providing
support structures (like stakes or trellises for climbing plants) and protection from severe
weather helps ensure healthy growth.
4.2.4 EXPERIMENT ON CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PLANT
GROWTH

Example: test how different types of light affect plant growth, such as the direction
of growth, the rate of photsynthesis or the colour of leaves.

4.2.5 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy, usually from the sun, into chemical energy in the form of glucose (a type of sugar). This
process is vital for life on Earth as it provides the primary source of energy for almost all
organisms. It also releases oxygen, which is essential for the survival of aerobic (oxygen-
breathing) organisms.

The overall chemical equation for photosynthesis is:

Energy from
6H2O +6C O2 C₆H₁₂O6 + 6O2

Sunlight

This equation summarizes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen
using light energy. Here's a detailed breakdown of the process:

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:

Several factors can influence the rate of photosynthesis:

 1. Light Intensity: As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until it
reaches a point where it levels off due to other limiting factors.
2. Carbon Dioxide Concentration: Higher concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) can
increase the rate of photosynthesis, up to a certain point.
3. Temperature: Photosynthesis has an optimal temperature range. If temperatures are too
high or too low, enzymes involved in the process may not function properly, reducing the
rate of photosynthesis.
4. Water Availability: Water is crucial for photosynthesis, especially in the light-dependent
reactions where water molecules are split. If water is scarce, the plant may close its
stomata to conserve water, limiting CO₂ intake and reducing the rate of photosynthesis.
5. Chlorophyll and Pigments: The amount and efficiency of chlorophyll, the primary
pigment involved in photosynthesis, can affect the plant's ability to capture light. Plants
with more chlorophyll typically perform more efficient photosynthesis.

4.2.6 EXPERIMENT ON THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Experiments on photosynthesis demonstrate how plants can convert carbon dioxide and water
into oxygen and organic substances.
Here are some experiments that can be performed to study
Test tube Leaf starch Floating leaf Pondweed Variegated leaf
experiment experiment experiment experiment experiment
It demonstrates Demonstrate that Demonstrate how Demonstrate how Demonstrate that
the production of photosynthesis the rate of the rate of chlorophyll is
oxygen during produce starch in photosynthesis photosynthesis necessary for
photosynthesis plants can be measured can be measured photosynthesis
by counting by counting
number of gas number of gas
bubbles produced bubbles produced
by leaves by pondweed

4.2.7 PROCESS OF RESPIRATION

RESPIRATION
This is the process by which energy is released in cells by the oxidation of carbohydrates.
Respiration is represented by the following equation
The breaking down of carbohydrates to release energy OR The oxidation of carbohydrates to
release energy.
 o this takes place in the mitochondria of all living cells
o it combines carbohydrates and oxygen to release energy, water and carbon-dioxide -
respiration can be aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) or anaerobic (in the absence of
oxygen) or fermentation

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Means oxygen
C6H12O6 + O2 6 CO₂ +6 H₂0
Carbohydrates + Oxygen aerobic Carbon-dioxide + Water + Energy

o the anaerobic respiration releases ethyl alcohol, carbon-dioxide and energy

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (without air)

Glucose enzyme Ethanol + Carbon-dioxide +Energy

Chemical equation C6H12O6 enzymes 2C2H5OH +2CO2 +Energy

4.2.8 PROCESS OF TRANSLOCATION

The transportation of soluble organic products of photosynthesis within the plant
OR
Movement of food materials within the phloem tubes from area of manufacture to other parts of
the plant for storage or use.
soluble substances can be translocated but insoluble forms are stored e.g. starch is stored but
glucose can be translocated within the plant. Movement of food up and down in the phloem is
possible at the same time
Utilisation of food in plants
- growth and development - protection against pests and diseases
- respiration to release energy - fruit and seed formation
- storage for future use - tissue and cell formation and maintenance

4.2.9 FOOD STORAGE IN PLANTS

 o Some plants have specialised food storage organs which acts as reserves for translocated
food
o The storage organs usually enlarges in favourable conditions the stored food enables the
plant to flower and produce seeds
o the food stored acts as reserves for drought periods

FOOD STORAGE EXAMPLE OF CROPS FOOD MATERIAL

ORGAN STORED
Bulb Onion, garlic Sugars
Stem tuber Irish potato starch
Root tuber Sweet potato, cassava starch
Inflorescence/flower Broccoli, cauliflower
Leaves Cabbage, spinach sugar
Rhizomes Ginger starch
Seeds Peas, beans Starch/proteins
Fruits Tomato, green pepper, okra, Starch/sugar
cucumber
Stem Sugarcane, sweet-reed sugar
corn cocoyam starch

4.2.10 PROCESS OF TRANSPIRATION

Water movement into and in the plant
 Water vapour - cell walls of 1Root hairs absorb water from the soil by osmosis
 extra water getting into root hair cell sap increases the concentration of water molecules
as compared to the immediate cortex cell thus water moves from the root hair to cortex
cell by osmosis; the water moves from cell to cell across the cortex until it reaches the
xylem vessels .Water in the xylem vessels is drawn up the stem by a combination of
root pressure and suction effect thus transpiration stream
 Water moves from stem xylem to leaf xylem
 from leaf xylem, water moves to mesophyll and out through the stomata by the process of
transpiration leaf cells are continuously covered by a thin film of water vapour
 this vapour evaporates into the intercellular spaces.
 water vapour then diffuses into the atmosphere through the stomata along the
concentration gradient.
 loss of water from the plants through the leaves is regarded as TRANSPIRATION.
NB: stomata closure by guard cells greatly reduces water loss but does not prevent loss of water
from the leaves entirely.

4.2.11 EXPERIMENT ON TRANSPIRATION

 If we put a plastic bag over a branch of a

4.3 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CONTROLLING

CROP PESTS
4.3.1 PEST
A pest is an organism that is harmful to plants. Crop pests include:- insects, nematodes, rodents,
mites, birds, snails and slugs, pathogens.
EFFECTS OF PESTS ON CROPS
 cause direct/ visible damage by feeding on plants parts ( leaf, stem, root destruction)
which reduces the plant’s ability to grow and photosynthesize e.g insects, birds, rodents
 spread diseases- many pests are vectors for plant disease like aphids
 Reduce crop quality-insects may cause deformations or discoloration of fruits making
them unmarketable.
 Yield loss
 Competition of resources like nutrients, water, sunlight
 Economic impact- crop damage due to pests can result in increased costs for farmers in
terms of control measures

4.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS

Pests are classified according to the way they feed. (insect pests, rodents, birds, pathogens,
mammals)
PEST MODE OF FEEDING (4.3.4) TYPICAL EXAMPLES
CLASS/GROUP
1. Biting and Have specially adapted mouthparts Grasshoppers, leaf miners, termites,
chewing pests with which they bite and chew plant beetles, locusts, armyworm
tissues/ mandibles
2. Piercing Have mouthparts that are adapted Aphids, mealy bug, scale insect, bagrada
and into a needle-like stylet/ proboscis, bug
sucking with which they pierce plant tissue
 pests and suck plant sap
3. Boring pests Have mouthparts which are Stalk borer, weevil, American bollworm
specialized for biting and chewing,
but they enter the plant tissue (e.g.
stem or fruit) and remain inside the
plant tissue.
4. Rodents
Mice, rats and voles can damage crops by feeding on seeds, roots or stems and can also spread
diseases.
5. Birds- some birds such as crows and pigeons can feed on grains, fruits or seeds causing significant
crop loss.
6. Weeds- invasive plants while not classified as pests, some weeds can outcompete crops for
resources, causing reduced yields. Example include grasses like crabgrass and broadleaf weeds like
dandelions
7. Pathogens
 Bacterial pathogens- Some bacteria like Pseudomonas species can cause infections that
damage plant tissues, leading to wilting, spots and decay
 Viral pathogens- virus is transmitted by pests such as aphids, cause plant diseases that can
stunt growth, distort leaves, or even kill the plant. Example include mosaic virus and tomato
spotted wilt virus.
 Fungal pathogens- many fungi acts as plant pathogens, causing diseases that affect crop
yield. Examples include powdery mildew, rust and blight
8. Mammals – cause damage to crops, gardens and orchards in various ways. Examples
squirrels, chipmunks, dee, rabbits, wild pigs
MOUTH PARTS OF CROP PESTS

4.3.5
DESCRIPTION OF A BITING AND CHEWING PEST (LOCUST) BASING ON:
 A) LIFE CYCLE
Locust undergoes an incomplete lifecycle where the young ones look like the adults. It
has a three- stage lifecycle consisting of egg, nymph and adult
Stages 1-5 shows developmental stages of the nymph during mounting

Female lays eggs in protective pods underground; egg hatches into nymph after 30 days; Nymph
feeds and grows into an adult after 4 to 5 moults (developmental stages); nymph stage lasts for
40 days; adult feeds and reaches sexual maturity after 45 days; then mating occurs; female starts
laying eggs, thus starting another cycle.
B) HOST CROPS

Locusts attack a wide a range of crops, but they prefer the grass family.
C) DAMAGE CAUSED TO CROPS

Cuts and chews leaves and shoots of young plants; reduced leaf area and hence
photosynthesis; swarms cause complete loss of leaves leading to severe crop losses.
D) METHODS OF CONTROL

Biological control: Locusts’ population is kept under control by their natural enemies such as
reptiles, birds, mammals
Chemical control:- bait with aldrin added to bran; spray swarms with aldrin, dieldrin or carbaryl.
Cultural control:- early planting; effective weed control; adding fertilizer to crops to encourage
vigorous growth of crops.

DESCRIPTION OF A PIERCING AND SUCKING PEST (APHIDS) BASING ON:

 A) LIFE CYCLE

Aphids undergo an incomplete lifecycle where the young ones look like the adults. It has a three-
stage lifecycle consisting of egg, nymph and adult but can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Asexual
Egg stage: When conditions are favorable the female lays large number of eggs that hatch
into nymphs inside the body without being fertilized. This method of reproduction is referred
to as parthenogenesis.
Nymph stage: Nymphs are born alive; then moult several times and reach adult stage after 7
days; nymphs feed on plant sap.
Adult stage: wingless adults remain on the same plant during their whole life and produce
nymphs. But when they are overcrowded they develop wings and fly to other plants.
Sexual mode
Male aphids are produced which then mate with winged females. Females lay eggs in
protective shells which hatch when conditions are favorable.
B) HOST PLANTS
Aphids attack a wide range of plants such as maize, beans, groundnuts, variety of vegetables etc.
C) DAMAGE CAUSED TO CROPS

Suck plant sap; reduced plant growth and production; causes leaf discolouration due to
sucking of plant sap; act as vectors of viral diseases
D) METHODS OF CONTROL
Biological control: allow ladybirds to feed on aphids
Cultural control: early planting; crop rotation; plant resistant varieties; always control
weeds; make sure crops are healthy and vigorously growing
Chemical control: spray affected plants with dimethoate or Malathion; apply menazon to
seeds to protect seedlings during early stages of growth.
DESCRIPTION OF A BORING PEST (STALKBORER) BASING ON:
A) LIFE CYCLE

Maize stalk borer undergoes complete lifecycle where young ones are completely different from
the adult. Stalk borer has a four stage life-cycle consisting of egg, larva, pupa and adult.

Female moth lays eggs in columns on a leaf or under the leaf sheath; after about 10 days the egg
hatches into larva, a caterpillar; caterpillar crawls up the plant into the funnel and starts feeding
on the folded leaves; half- grown caterpillar bores down the funnel into the stalk centre; it feeds
on the stem tissue until it is fully grown this stage lasts for about 35 days; mature caterpillar
forms a pupa in the tunnel of the stem- this stage lasts for about 10 days; adult moth emerges
through the hole and mating occurs 2 to 3 days after the emergence; female moth starts laying
eggs thus starting another cycle.
B) HOST PLANTS
They include sorghum, maize, reeds and other thick stemmed plants in the grass family.
C) DAMAGE CAUSED TO CROPS

Caterpillar feed on the leaves resulting in holes and window-like leaves hence reducing
photosynthetic area; caterpillar makes tunnels in the stem making plant weak; caterpillar
bores holes in stems and cobs hence reducing yield.
D) METHODS OF CONTROL

Cultural control: Uproot and burn crops after harvest; eliminate thick-stem grasses or plants
attacked by the larva; winter ploughing to eliminate crop remains; Plant large hectares of maize
at a go.
Chemical control: add carbaryl granules inside the funnel as soon as signs of attack are noticed;
spray with Thiodan inside the funnel as soon as injury is noticed; repeat the application if
necessary 2 to 3 weeks later.

4.3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS

WEED: - A PLANT GROWING WHERE IT IS NOT DESIRED OR WANTED
WEEDS FOUND IN BOTSWANA
Argemone Mexicana; Xenostegia tridentate; Xanthium strumarium ; Cucumis myriocarpus ;
Datura ferox
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF WEEDS
Reduced crop yields; reduced quality of crop produce; sheltering of pests and diseases;
allelopathy/phytotoxic; crop parasites (parasitic weeds e.g striga witch weed); Reduced crop
vigor
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF WEEDS/ BENEFITS OF WEEDS TO CROPS
Used as mulch to conserve moisture/reduce evaporation from the soil; protects crops by serving
as trap crops; decompose to add organic matter/nutrients to soil/improve soil fertility; weed
growth between crop rows help to reduce erosion/ provide vegetative cover/bind soil preventing
erosion; roots of weeds tap nutrients from deeper soil levels and return these to soil surface as
litter as their shed their leaves or plants die and decay; leguminuous weeds add nitrogen; reduce
run-off/lowers speed of water; some weed plants may serve as hosts for predators and other
useful organisms.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
1. LIFE CYCLE/LENGTH OF GROWING PERIOD: annuals; biennials and perennials:-
Annuals complete their life-cycle in one year or less, biennials have a two year cycle E.G
parsley and perennials live for more than two years they flower and produce seed eg
flarenda.
 2. MORPHOLOGY:shape and structure of the plants. narrowleaf/monocotyledont They
have long thin leaves viens that are parallel. (sedges and grasses) and broadleaf or woody
and herbaceous (dicotyledons) veins are letarela like trees.flowers/vegetables
3. Means of dispersal: wind; water; animal and explosion.
 Wind:- the seeds are very light and shaped in a way that is easier for them to be
blown by wind
 Animal:- fruits or individual seeds are covered in hooks or spines which attach
the seed to the animal’s fur or feathers, the seeds are then carried a sufficient
distance from the parent plant and eventually fall off/rubbed off by the animal.
 Water:- seeds float in water and carried away from the parent plant.

4.3.6 METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

1. MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL: - use of physical means , it involve the use of farm
implements and machinery These can be grouped into:-
Hand tools(hoes, spades, slashers); ox-drawn implements (ox-drawn weeders); tractor –drawn
weeders:-spring tine cultivator, rotary cultivator

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Environmentally friendly, do not pollute the environment Labour intensive and time consuming
Can be used by both commercial and subsistence farmers May cause damage to crop roots
Loosen the soil resulting in improved water infiltration Unsuitable to steep and rough topography
and aeration.
Organic matter is mixed with the soil during tillage Frequent tillage and cultivation damages soil
structure and exposes soil to agents of erosion
Effective in controlling both annual and perennial weeds Mechanical cultivation possible in row planted
crops but fails to control weeds in intra-row
spaces.
Do not need special skills and knowledge

2. CULTURAL WEED CONTROL:-Use of best conditions that favour crop growth and health
so that the crop out-compete weeds. These include;-crop rotation, mulching, proper spacing,
burning, timely planting, hand pulling, use of clean seed, fertilizer application, flooding, use of
proper spacing and suitable varieties.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Effective in controlling parasitic weeds such as striga Some of these methods are time consuming
(witchweed) in maize
Majority of these methods are preventive so they help They are only effective when combined with
prevent introduction and spread of weeds. other methods of weed control.
Can easily be used with other methods of weed control. Require farmers to have basic skills and
knowledge of crop husbandry.
Environmentally friendly as chemicals are not used. Proper timing is essential for successful
implementation of some of these methods.
 No special technical skills and knowledge are needed.

3. BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL :-(Use of natural enemies of weeds).

Living organisms are used to control weeds, these include the use of: - insects; pathogens;
animals; live mulch; cover crops; trap crops; bush and planted fallow. e. g use of cattle to
control couch grass before planting.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Environmental friendly It takes a long time to develop biological agents and it is costly
Use natural processes Biological agents introduced from other places may fail or take
a long time to adapt to new environment
Some of these methods promote soil Biological agents introduced might become a nuisance and
conservation and increase soil organic cause a lot of damage to grown crops
matter.
Promote integration of farming systems Control agents may not be large enough to control weeds
effectively

4. CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL: - Use of herbicides (weed killers).

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Fast acting and effective Herbicides are toxic to man and livestock
Lower costs of production; time is saved and less labour Require skills and knowledge to apply
is spent per unit area.
Higher yields achieved due to effective weed control Expensive
Effective in controlling perennial weeds Continuous use lead to environmental pollution
Promotes minimum tillage/cultivation Continuous use of herbicides may lead to
development of herbicide resistance in weeds

5. INTEGRATED PESTS MANAGEMENT AND BIOTECHNICAL

Integrated pests management- is used to reduce amount of pesticides used on crops. Variety of
techniques to reduce the need for pesticides are:
 Biological control- use of predatory insects or mites to kill or disrupt the breeding cycles
of pests.
 Cultural control- use of crop production practices to make the environment lesss
hospitable to pests.
 Pest resistant varieties- breed plants to be more resistant to pests.
 Physical removal- remove pests by hand or with other physical means
 Heat or cold treatment to kill pests
 4.4 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CONTROLLING
CROP DISEASES

4.4.1 DISEASE

Defination: a change in a plant’s normal functioning or appearance that is caused by a

pathogen or environmental factor.

Or an impairment of the normal stateof a plant that interrupts or modifies its vital functions.

Effects of diseases on crops

 The affected plant change in appearance

 Yield less than a healthy plant
 Causes stunted growth, wilting and plants die
 Quality deterioration- infected crops may develop deformities, discoloration or decay
reducing their market value
 Disruption of plant growth- pathogens interfere with plant functions like water and
nutrient uptake, photosynthesis and reproduction

4.4.2 identification of plant diseases

Disease Causative examples

group agent
Bacterial Bacteria Bacterial wilt of tomatoes, and potatoes, bacterial blight of cotton and
soya bean, soft rot of cabbage
fungal Fungi Damping –off of seedlings, downy mildew of peas, powdery mildew of
beans, sorghum downy mildew ,sorghum and maize smuts
viral virus Maize dwarf mosaic virus, tobacco mosaic virus on tomato, cassava
mosaic virus, maize streak virus on maize

4.4.3 -4.4.6 MODE OF INFECTION, HARMFUL EFFECTS, PREVENTION

AND CONTROL OF ONE PLANT DISEASE FROM EACH OF THE
FOLLOWING GROUPS: BACTERIAL, FUNGAL AND VIRAL DISEASE.
disease Mode of infection Harmful effects Prevention /control
Bacterial Pseudomonas solanacearum Temporary or permanent wilting Using seeds and seedlings
wilt of (bacterium) of affected plants; death of certified free from the diseases,
tomatoes -The pathogen is soil-borne and it infected plants; chlorosis and Using resistant varieties, rooting
gets into the plant tissue through necrosis and leaf shedding; out affected plants and destroy
root wounds; It affects the vascular discoloured xylem vessels; mass them by burning, weeding,
bundles, particularly the xylem of slimy bacteria form in sterilizing or fumigating soil used
vessels; water and nutrients conducting vessels of roots and in plant nurseries
 conducting process is interrupted stems; severe crop loss
Maize A virus is transmitted by Leaves turn light green with Using resistant varieties, planting
streak virus leafhoppers yellow stripes running parallel to early in the rains, rooting out the
on maize -The maize streak virus is the leaf veins. This reduces the infected plants and burning them,
introduced into the tissue of the photosynthetic area; small and spray with carbaryl
host plant by sap sucking partially filled ears (cobs);
leafhoppers; the pathogen affects reduced crop yields
mainly the leaf tissue.
Wild grasses are good vectors
Leaf spots Source of infection is air borne Severe leaf spotting resulting in Destruction of crop residues; early
of conidia (asexual reproductive premature leaf loss; reduced planting; adequate or proper
groundnut structures of the fungus) carried photosynthetic capacity of spacing; optimal fertilization of
s from the infected plants, volunteer affected plants; reduced crop soil;apply benomyl (benlate) and
crops and crop residues. yield; appearance of captafol(difolatan)
lesions(wounds) on stems

4.5 DEMONSTRATE THE SAFE USE OF CHEMICALS IN THE

FARM
4.5.1 SAFE HANDLING OF FARM CHEMICALS

 Read labels, instructions and follow them- provide critical information about proper use,
dosage and precautions to prevent misuse, which could lead to poisoning, crop damage,
or environmental harm.
 Wear protective clothing – minimises exposure to harmful chemicals, reducing risks of
skin absorption, inhalation or eye irritation.
 Store chemicals safely – in lockable areas, away from food,and animal feed to prevent
accidental exposure, unauthorized access, and environmental contamination through
spills or leaks.
 Ensure containers are sealed and labelled to avoid spills and leaks
 Dispose containers properly – prevents environmental pollutionand accidental reuse of
containers for unsafe purposes
 Mix and apply chemicals safely to prevent over exposure, reduces envirinmental harm
and ensures effective weed and pest control
 Maintain equipment- inspect and clean sprayers and other equipment used for chemical
application.

Precautions before Application

-Always wear protective clothing when working with chemicals. The person working
with dangerous chemicals should wear rubber or plastic clothing or overalls, rubber
boots. Rubber gloves and face mask to prevent breathing in fumes and to keep spray out
of the eyes.
-Always use the correct pesticide for the pest being controlled.
-Read the labels carefully, especially the safety precautions before use.
-Always use the correct dosage, manufacture’s instructions or expert advice should be
followed. Too small dose may result in poor control and too high a dose may damage the
crops.
-Do not use persistent chemicals when there are effective less persistent alternatives.
-Avoid using pesticide if you have a cut or sore on the skin.

Precautions in handling chemicals during application

- wear protective clothing (e.g. overalls, goggles, mouth mask)
- ensure correct dilution of chemical
- avoid eating, drinking, smoking when handling chemicals
- avoid tasting or smelling chemicals
- wash thoroughly after application
- ensure proper and safe disposal of empty containers and left over chemicals
- Avoid spraying on a windy day
- Read and follow owners’ instruction

Precautions after use when storing farm chemicals and disposal of containers

 Never store dangerous or poisonous chemicals in anything other than their original
containers.
  Wear protective clothing when cleaning spray equipment after use.
 If chemicals are left over after spraying or dusting, they must be returned to the safe
lockable cup board.
 Empty containers must not be burned because the smoke could carry the poison to other
places.
 Do not throw empty containers in rivers or wells because this will pollute the water.
Burry the containers deep in the ground, where the soil is dry, so that the poison cannot
get in underground water.
 After spraying wash your hands, arms, head, face and feet with clean water and soap.
 Allow the correct time to pass between spraying a crop and harvesting for consumption.

4.5.2 CALIBRATION OF CHEMICAL APPLICATION

Knapsack sprayer is used for chemical application

Calibration
To calibrate is to calculate or determine the quantity of liquids/ spray needed to cover a
particular area.
The amount of spray solution depends on:
 Speed at which the operator moves.
 Pressure in the tank
 Type of nozzle
 Method of spraying

Calibration of a knapsack sprayer. This helps determine the amount of chemical to be used in
each area.

Steps in calibration
 1. select and measure a test area i.e. about 100 m2
2. fill the tank with known volume of water (litres)
3. spray test area at constant speed and height until the test area is completed
4. measure amount of water remaining in the tank
5. determine the amount of water used by subtracting the remaining water volume from the
initial volume
6. divide the water used by the test area size to get spray volume
Spray rate = initial volume (Vi ) - final volume (Vf )
Test area
7. multiply the spray volume by the size of the field to get the quantity of mixture
Spray mixture/Volume needed = Spray rate x field area
Units are liters/ m2

4.5.3 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING USED WHEN HANDLING FARM

CHEMICALS

 Coveralls or overalls- made of chemical resistant materials e.g coated fabric, PVC. Long
sleeved and full length to cover the body
 Gloves- chemical resistant gloves and avoid leather or fabric gloves
 Goggles or safety glasses to protect eyes from splashes and vapors
 Rubber boots- pants should be worn outside the boots to prevent chemicals from dripping
inside
 Apron
 Head or neck protection- chemical resistant hat or hood
 Hearing protection (if required)- earplugs or earmuffs if working around noisy chemical
application equipment.

4.5.4 IMPORTANCE OF SAFE STORAGE OF FARM CHEMICALS

  Proper storage reduces the risk of accidental exposure to human, especially children,
farmworkers, and other vulnerable individuals.
 It minimizes the likelihood of inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with hazardous
chemicals.
 Prevents chemical spills, leaks or runoff that can contaminate soil, water sources and
ecosystems.
 Preventing cross contamination- keeps chemicals away from food, animal feed, and
seeds preventing contamination that could harm livestock, crops or humans consuming
the produce.
 Reducing fire and explosion risk- many chemicals are flammable or reactive, proper
storage in cool, ventilated, and designated areas reduces the risks of fire or explosions.
 Enhancing farm safety- organized storage helps farmer to easily locate and identify
chemicals, reducing the likelihood of mixing incompatible substances or using the
wrong product.

4.5.5 APPROPRIATE USE OF TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY AND

MATERIALS
 Use specialized tools for chemical handling
 Always wear appropriate protective equipment
 Safe handling procedure
 Maintenance of equipment
 Disposal of chemicals and containers
 Consideration of safety, health and environment

4.6 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN THE PRODUCTION

OF A CROP
4.6.1- 4.6.8 IDENTIFYING A CROP

SEEDRATE
30 seeds per metre of a row or 5-9 kg/ha
Spacing:- 2cm between seeds at planting time : row spacing: -30-45cm; spacing between
plants at final thinning 20-25cm.

1. FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS
A. Basal dressing:- broadcast and plough into the soil compost or composted kraal manure
at the rate of 6kg/m2 before planting. Or add 60g/m2 of 2:3:4(24) compound fertilizer.
 B. Top dressing :- apply 14g/m2 of LAN a week after thinning. Repeat treatment every 2 to
3 weeks, use side dressing or ring method to apply fertilizer

2. COMMON PESTS OF SPINACH

Aphid; cutworm; cabbage moth; leaf miner; looper and spinach flea beetle.
APHID
Signs of damage caused:- reduced plant viguor; yellowing and curled up leaves; stunted
growth; growth of sooty mould and wilting of plants in severe cases of attack. Aphids are
transmitters of mosaic virus from one plant to another.
Control and prevention:-
 spray using Dimethoate 50% (Roger) at a rate of 5 litres of water.
 Kerosene –soap emulsion can also be used to spray against aphids
 spray or dust with pyrethrum, rotenone and sabadilla, botanical insecticides
 ensure presence of nectar producing plants nearby to encourage growth and stability of
parasitic wasps, lacewings and ladybugs, beneficial insects which prey on aphids.
 grow spinach plants with effective companion crops such as garlic and petunias.

3. COMMON DISEASES OF SPINACH

Leaf spot; damping-off; mosaic; downy mildew; fusarium wilt

LEAF SPOT (most common disease of spinach, which is worst during hot wet weather).
Cause:- fungus
Symptoms: -small light brown circular spots with dark edges. They give scorched appearance to
the leaves when they become many.
Control and prevention measures;
Use captan dust or Dithane M45 at the rate of 10g per 5litres of water; plant resistant varieties of
spinach; immediate removal and destruction of affected leaves.

4. SIGNS OF MATURITY

uniformly dark green in colour; fully turgid; firm and strong stalks; fully savoyed (wrinkled)
blade; crisp texture; large, edible size
5. HARVESTING
Harvesting of leaves starts about 40-60 days after planting and continues for 3-4 months.
Cut the outer, mature leaves with a sharp knife 4cm above ground level without injuring
the new buds. Regular harvesting promotes production of new leaves.
 6. MARKETING

Leaves are sold soon after harvesting while they are still fresh. They are tied in 0.5kg bundles for
marketing. Several methods are used to keep leaves fresh; - leaves may be wrapped in plastic
bags, bungles of leaves may be put in cold water. Spinach can be marketed to individual
consumers, supermarkets, schools, clinics and hospitals, army barracks and vegetable traders.
7. STORAGE

Spinach is very perishable and cannot be stored longer than 10-24 days. It should be cooled
rapidly to 0◦C and placed under a relative humidity of 95-100%. Crushed ice, hydro-coooling,
vacuum cooling are methods used for cooling spinach.
8. RECORD KEEPING
A. Diary
B. Production records include; - labour use record, machine/tractor use record, water and
fertilizer use record, field operations record per field, stock control records.

Spinach crop records include; - areas, yields, planting and harvesting time, cultivars, and inputs
use
C. Financial records include: - income and expenditure records, sales records, record of
debtors and creditors, cash book(cash and bank account), profit and loss account and
balance sheet

FIELD CROP
MAIZE PRODUCTION
Climatic requirements
Temperature- it is a summer crop; thrives at 24- 30◦C; very sensitive to frost. Temperature
above 35◦C reduces pollination and fertilization
Rainfall- requires well distributed rainfall; ranging from 500 – 900 mm per annum. It requires a
lot of water during flowering and grain filling.
Soil requirements- prefer deep loam soils that are freely draining. Its optimum pH is 5.2- 7.5.
Seedbed preparation
 Seedbed should be ploughed in April- May to a depth of 20-25 cm.
 Manure and/or lime should be applied and mixed with soil when discing. Discing also
reduce soil clots size
 Just before planting the seedbed should be Harrowed to produces medium tilth suitable
for maize. In addition, this breaks up the crust.
Sowing /planting
  Recommended varieties in Botswana- SR52, Kalahari early pearl, Potchefstroom pearl.
The choice of varieties to grow depend on:
o Purpose for which crop is grown
o Adaptability to climatic conditions
o Time taken to maturity
o Consumer preferences
o Resistance to pests and diseases
 Spacing, planting depth, and seed rate
o Sown at depth of 5- 7 cm or 10 cm for larges seeds
o Spaced at inter-row spacing of 90 cm and intra- row spacing of 30- 50cm.
o The spacing gives plant population of 20 000- 40 000 plants /ha
o Recommended seed rate is 15-25 kg/ha
Fertilizer requirements
o Basal dressing
o Kraal manure at the rate of 12t/ha once every 3 years, 4-6 weeks before planting
o Lime at the rate of 500kg/ha; 6 weeks before planting. Liming is done when soil
is acidic
o Single superphosphate (10%P) at the rate of 200 kg/ha
o NB: Basal dressing can be done by method of banding and Broadcasting
o Top dressing
o LAN (28%N) at 150 kg/ha or urea (46%N) at 100kg/ha when plants are about 5-6
weeks after emergence
o Side dressing method of application is used since nitrogenous fertilizers can
easily burn crops
o On sandy soils top dressing is split into two applications:
1. When plants at knee height
2. Just before tasseling starts
Weed control
It is most important in the first 2 weeks after emergence.
 Witch weed can be controlled using cultural method by rotation with legumes
 Other weeds can be controlled by mechanical methods e.g. hoeing, hand pulling, inter-
row cultivator
 Chemical control using pre-emergence and post emergence herbicides:
o Pre-emergence herbicides e.g. atrazine and simazine
o Post- emergence herbicides e.g. MCPA and 2,4-D
Pests and diseases of maize
 Pests- most common insect pests of maize are:
o Stalk borer, African bollworm, Wire worm, Cutworm, Maize weevil
Maize stalk borer
Stalk borer causes most of the damage to maize crop at larval stage. It damages the crop by;
- Caterpillar/larva eats and make holes on the upper leaves of maize
- Feed on growing points (meristem) from the center of the plant
- Tunnels deep into the stalk making it week
- Bore holes into the stalk and cob lowering yields
Prevention and control of stalk borer
- Collect and destroy crop residue after harvesting
- Practicing crop rotation to prevent buildup of the pest
- Seed treatment with appropriate pesticide
- Chemical control with dipterex or thiodan added into the funnel each plant; Endosulphan
(35%EC) is applied at the rate of 560ml/ha as direct spray into the funnel of each plant.
Diseases- Maize is affected by diseases such as:
 Maize smut, cob rot, maize rust, leaf blight, downey mildew, maize streak virus disease
(MSD)
Maize streak virus disease
 Cause: MSD is cause by a virus. The virus is transmitted by leafhoppers
 Symptoms of Maze streak virus disease
o Stunted growth
o Sterile inflorescence
o White to yellow streaks running parallel to the veins of the leaves
 Prevention and control
o Practicing early planting
o Planting resistant varieties
o Chemical control e.g. spraying with carbaryl W.P 10 to 20g/10L of water
(dilution rate) once a week when plants are still young. This pesticide controls
leafhoppers
o Remove and burn infected plants and crop residues
Signs of maturity
Maize is ether harvested as fresh cobs (green mealies) or dry maize
 Fresh cobs (green mealies)
o Cobs well filled with grains
o Grains can be crushed between thumb and index finger
 Dry maize
o Leaves of maize plant turn yellow
o Husks become dry and papery
o Grains become hard with glossy surface
o Cobs hang down
o Moisture content reduce to less than 20%
Harvesting
 Green mealies- harvested 90 – 105 days after planting; harvested by hand
 Dry maize- dry cobs are harvested 125 days after planting; harvested by hand or by
combine harvester;
 In Botswana yield varies from 100kg to 5.2 tons per hectare
Uses of maize and its by-products
- Source of food products e.g. mealie meal/ maize meal, green mealies, samp , corn flakes
etc.
- Source industrial products e.g. oil , glycerine, starch, beer
- Raw material for manufacture of livestock feeds

Marketing of maize
The market include individual members of the community, retailers, BAMB, milling companies
Maize can be marked as:
 Green mealies/fresh maize
 Dry maize
Marketing maize involve:
 Cleaning e.g. shelling and winnowing for dry maize
 Packaging in different size and containers
 Pricing
 Storage
 Transport to the market
Record Keeping
Types of records Examples of records Record entries
(a) diary Daily farm activities Daily activities
(b) production records (i) labour records Wages received, staff contracts,
leave etc.
(ii)machinery records Model, age, book value, service,
insurance etc.
(iii)crop cultivation Yield potential, seeding, weed and
and fertilizer records pest management etc.
(c)Financial records (i) profit and loss Income/sales, expenses
account
(ii) balance sheet Capital, liabilities, assets
(iii) sales and Income earned though sale of
expenses product.
office expenses, rent, insurance,
cost of goods sold
Relevant legislation- documents containing regulations/ laws that control production of maize in
Botswana:
(a) control of maize milling act 1961
(b) Agrochemicals act of 1999
(c) Botswana Agricultural marketing Board Act of 1974