Regulation-2018 (CBCS Scheme) Engineering Physics

18PHY12

Module- 2- Elastic Properties of Materials

Elasticity: Property by virtue of which materials regain their original shape and size after the
removal of deforming forces.

Stress and Strain: When a body is subjected to deforming force, a restoring force is developed in
the body. The restoring force per unit area is known as stress (T). This restoring force is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force. If F is the force applied and A is the area of
cross section of the body, then T = F/A.

The SI unit of stress is Nm-2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T-2].

The ratio of change in dimension (∆D) of a body to the original dimension (D) is called strain.

Strain has no units or dimensions. Strain = ∆D/ D

Types of stresses and strains

Normal stress: If a force is applied normal to the cross section of the body, then the restoring force
developed per unit area is called normal or longitudinal stress. Longitudinal stress may be of two
types i.e. tensile stress or compressive stress i.e. it can cause either extension (tensile stress) or
compression (compressive stress) depending on the direction . In both cases, there is change in
length of the body.

Shearing Stress: If a deforming force is applied parallel to the surface area of the body,
there is relative displacement between opposite faces. The restoring force per unit area
developed due to applied tangential force is known as tangential or shearing stress.

Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in the length (∆L) to the original length (L) of
the body is known as longitudinal strain.

Longitudinal = ∆L/ L

Shearing strain: As a result of applied tangential force, there is relative displacement ∆ between
opposite faces of the body as shown in figure. The strain so produced is known as shearing strain.

Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of relative displacement of the faces ∆ to the height ‘h’.

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i.e. Shearing strain= = ∆ /h

where, is the angular displacement of the surface from the vertical (original position). Usually
is very small and hence ≈ = ∆ /h

Volumetric strain: If forces are applied normal to the surface of a body in all directions it
undergoes change in volume. The ratio of change in volume (∆V) to the original volume (V),
without any change in shape is called volumetric strain and stress causing is called normal stress.

Hooke’s Law: It states that Stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit

i.e. stress α strain or

stress/ strain = constant, is called the modulus of elasticity or elastic constant.

It is a characteristic property of the material.

Young’s Modulus (Y):

Young’s Modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal (linear) stress to longitudinal

strain with in the elastic limit.

Since strain is dimensionless quantity, the unit of Young’s Modulus is the same as that of stress i.e.
Nm-2.

Y = {(F/A )/(l/L)} = ( FL)/(Al)

Where, F represents the force applied normal to the area ‘A’ of a wire of length ‘ L’ and ‘l’ is the
change in length.

For metals like iron, steel, copper, aluminium etc., the Young’s moduli are very large.
Therefore, these materials require a large force to produce small change in length.

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Stress-Strain Curve

Factors affecting Elasticity

Material Body generally can be single crystalline or polycrystalline and correspondingly behave
elastically different.

Single crystals when subjected to deformation show a remarkable increase in their hardness

Effect of hammering and rolling

Hammering and rolling helps in breaking crystal grains into smaller units, which result in an
increase of their elastic properties. The slipping (sliding between cleavage planes) starting at a weak
spot proceeds within the grain and stops at its boundary with the adjoining crystal. No further flow
possible makes that material hard.

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Effect of annealing

Annealing (heating and cooling gradually) favors grain growth in a particular crystallographic
direction results in large grains or less grain boundaries in the body, generally result in a decrease in
their elastic properties or an increase in the softness (plasticity) of the material. Metals with smaller
grains are stronger than those with larger grains.

Sir Lawrence Bragg said “ in order to be strong, a metal must be weak”

Effect of Impurities:

Suitable impurities deliberately added can alter elastic properties of metals as they settle between the
grains and brings connectivity between two grains.

Increase or decrease in elastic properties depends on the elastic or plastic property of the impurity
added respectively. Carbon is added to molten iron to increase the elasticity of iron.

Effect of temperature:

Increase in temperature generally decreases the elastic property.

Elastic properties of Invar steel are not affected by any change in temperature.

Important useful terms

Ductility: It is the property by virtue of which a material can acquire a large permanent deformation
without any fracture or rupture.

Brittleness: Property by virtue of which a material gets ruptured without any appreciable amount of
permanent deformation being produced in it.

Plasticity: Is the ability of a material to get deformed continuously and permanently without any
rupture

Elastic after effect: Delay in recovering back the original condition after the removal of deforming
forces within elastic limit. (glass like amorphous materials show slow recovery whereas metals ,
quartz like crystalline materials show fast)

Elastic fatigue: loss of materials strength when subjected to repeated strain.

Working stress and Factor of safety: Generally working stress will be set to far below UTS within
the elastic limit for the safety purpose.

Factor of safety = tensile strength or breaking stress/ working stress.(generally 5-10)

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Rigidity modulus(n): The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called the
shear modulus or Rigidity modulus of the material.

η = {(F/A) / θ } Nm-2

F is the tangential force and θ is the shear strain.

Bulk Modulus (K): Bulk Modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain with
in the elastic limit. = {(F/A)/(v/V)}

F/A is the normal stress, v is the change in volume and V is the original volume.

K is also referred as incompressibility and compressibility represents strain per unit stress.

is increase in length per unit length per unit stress in the direction of the stress and β is decrease in
length per unit length per unit stress in a direction perpendicular to the stress.

β is lateral strain per unit stress and is the longitudinal strain per unit stress.

Poisson’s ratio ( ) is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain

=β/

Expression for Bulk Modulus K in terms of α and β:

Bulk modulus is the ratio of normal stress to volume strain.

Consider a unit cube (OX = OY =OZ = 1 ) The initial volume of the unit cube = V = 1

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Let the cube be subjected to tensile stresses Tx , TY , TZ along the X,Y and Z axes.

Each of these stresses is tensile along the direction in which it is applied and compressive in
directions perpendicular to it. TX produces extension of the side OX and TY and TZ produce
compression of OX.

Let α represents the linear strain per unit stress and β is the lateral strain per unit stress.

Due to these stresses the dimensions of OX, OY and OZ are altered and can be written as

OX = 1+αTx– βTy- βTz {linear Strain/T = α }

OY = 1+αTy– βTz- βTx

OZ= 1+αTz– βTx- βTy

Final volume = {1+ (α-2β)(Tx+ Ty+ Tz)} (Neglecting higher order terms of α and β)

Using Tx= Ty= Tz = T K = 1/3(α-2β)

Final volume = {1+ (α-2β)(3T)}

Volume strain = Final volume – Initial Volume = {(α-2β)(3T)}

Bulk Modulus ‘K’ = T/ {(α-2β)(3T)}

= 1/3(α-2β)

Expression for Youngs modulus :

Y = Linear stress/ linear strain

(F/A)/(l/L) = T/T = 1/ ( is strain/T) Y=1/

Expression for Rigidity modulus :

Consider a cube of dimension ‘L’ . The bottom face of the cube is fixed and a tangential stress ‘T’ is
applied along the top face.

Under the action of the tangential force, the cube gets deformed to A’B’ C D. The shear strain is
equal to θ and is given by the ratio, θ = BB’/BC = /L

The tangential stress is equal to a tensile stress T along BD and compressive stress T along AC.

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These tensile and compressive stresses produce extension of the diagonal BD.

The increase in length of diagonal BD = MB’

If α is linear strain per unit stress and β is the lateral strain per unit stress ,

The strain produced along the diagonal BD = T(α+ β) = MB’ /BD

MB’ = BB’ cos (BB’M) = BB’ cos 45⁰ = /√2

Therefore T (α + β ) = { /(√2)} / L (√2) = l/2L = θ/2

Or T/ θ = 1/ 2(α + β ) = n n = 1 /2(α + β )

Relation between Y, n and K :

K = 1/ 3 ( − 2 )

= 1/ 3 (1−2 )

= / 3(1 −2 )

1−2 = /3 ----------------(i)

= 1/ 2 ( + ) = 1/ 2( 1 + ) = / 2(1 + )

2+2 = / ----------------(ii)

Add (i) and (ii) and rearrange the terms to obtain the relation between the elastic modulii as

/ = / + 1/

Theoretical limits of

The elastic moduli are positive, so (1 − 2 ) is positive and it places a upper limit equal to 0.5 on the
value

of σ. Similarly we can deduce the lower limit to be equal to -1 from eqn. (ii).

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Torsion of a Cylinder

Consider a cylinder of length ‘L’ and radius ‘R’ . Let the cylinder be

clamped at the upper end and a twisting couple be applied at the lower end .

Let θ be the angle of twist.

The cylinder can be considered as made up of a number of co-axial hollow cylinders of varying radii
(0 to R) . At the bottom end, each of these radii are twisted through an angle, θ due to the applied
external couple. As a result, OB is displaced to OB’ and OP is displaced to OP’ without change in
dimensions.
A line AB parallel to OO’ is displaced to AB’ through an angle, φ,
called the angle of shear. This is an example of pure shear as
there is no change in either length or radius of the cylinder.
We can calculate the twisting couple on the co-axial cylinder of radius OB(OB = x ) and
integrate the expression between the limits , x=0 and x=R to obtain the magnitude of the twisting
couple on the cylinder.

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We can write from the geometry of the figure,

′= =
Or, = / ---------------(i)
If δ F is the tangential force acting on a cylindrical shell of radius ‘x’ and thickness, ‘ dx ‘,
The tangential stress = δF /area of the shell = δF /2πx dx --------(ii)
The rigidity modulus = tangential stress/shear strain
n = δF /2πx dx) / ------(iii)
δF = 2 n x dx. ---------(iv)
Twisting couple on the hollow cylinder of radius ‘x’ and thickness, ‘dx’ can be written as
= × = . . . ----------(v)
n , is the rigidity modulus of the material and is given by the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain.
Substitute for φ in eqn. ii to obtain
= . = -------------------------------(vi)
Twisting couple on the solid cylinder of radius ‘R’ ,
=( / )∫ =( / )[ / ]= /

Torsional Pendulum:

A rigid wire of length’ L’ and radius ‘r’ is fixed at one end and forms the

axis of rotation for a regular or an irregular body attached to the free end. When the

wire is twisted at the free end, the body is set into oscillations and these oscillations

are called torsional oscillations.

Let I be the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis and T be the time

period for torsional oscillations. Let the restoring couple per unit twist be ‘C’ and ‘θ’

be the angle of twist.

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Angular acceleration = -(C /I) θ

represents the simple harmonic equation for torsional oscillations.

From the above equation, we can get the time period for torsional oscillations

Period = 2π √(displacement/acceleration)

For a given wire, C is constant and hence the ratio I/T2 is constant irrespective of the body or the
axis of rotation. This principle is used to determine the moment of inertia of the irregular objects and
rigidity modulus of the material wire using n = (8πl/r4)(I/T2)

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Bending Moment of a Beam:

A beam is a structural member whose length is very large compared to other dimensions. In the
simple theory of bending of beams, the shear stresses are neglected and only tensile or compressive
stresses are considered.

Consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end. Due to the applied force, a force of
reaction is set up at the fixed end of the beam. These two equal and opposite forces constitute a
couple which tends to rotate the beam. Since the beam is elastic a restoring couple is set up to bring
the beam back to equilibrium.

The beam can be imagined as made up of a number of longitudinal filaments. Under the applied
load the upper filaments will undergo extensions and assume a convex form and the lower filaments
will undergo compressions and assume a concave form. The filament that does not undergo any
change in dimension is the neutral axis. The magnitude of extension or compression will depend
on the distance of the filament from the neutral axis.

The moment of the restoring couple is called bending moment of a beam.

Expression for the bending moment of a beam :

Let ABCD be a section of the beam. EF is the neutral axis. Under the action
of the external couple, the section will bend into an arc without any change in
length of neutral axis.

The upper filaments will undergo extension and A’B’ > AB.
The lower filaments will be subjected to compressive stresses and C’D’ < CD

The beam is bent into an arc of a circle of radius ‘R’ with the center at O .

Consider a small portion of the neutral axis, ef , subtending an angle θ at the center. a’b’ is another
small portion of the filament a’b’ which is at a distance z, from the neutral axis.

In the absence of bending, a’b’ = ef = R θ and

a’b’ = ( R+z ) θ

Strain in the filament, a’b’ = {( R+z) θ – R θ} /Rθ = z/R,

If δA is the area of the filament a’b’ , which is at a distance z from the neutral axis and Y is the
Youngs modulus,

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Force acting on the filament, δF = and Moment of the force about neutral axis =
.

The bending moment of the beam is obtained by summing over the moments of all the filaments
above and below the neutral axis

is the geometrical moment of inertia and depends on the area of cross section, A of the beam and
the radius of gyration k of the area about the neutral axis.

For rectangular cross section , where, b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the
beam.

For circular cross section, where, r is the radius

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Expression for Young's Modulus of a cantilever: A cantilever is a beam fixed at one end and
loaded at the other end. Consider a load, ‘W’ applied to the free end of the cantilever of length, ‘l ’.
Let δ be the deflection of the free end of the cantilever under the load. The deflection is maximum
at the free end and is equal to zero at the fixed end. Let PQ =dx ,be a small section of the neutral
axis AB.

PQ is at a distance x from the fixed end.

Radius of curvature of neutral axis = R, Deflection of PQ = dy

The radius of curvature of the neutral axis is given by standard expression

dy/dx is very small and the higher power can be neglected.

The moment of applied force acting on the element PQ = W( l-x) ------(ii)

The restoring couple due to the elasticity of the beam = g/ ---------(iii)

At equilibrium, these two are equal and opposite,

so

On integration, we obtain the expression

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The deflection is zero at x = 0 and dy/dx = 0 implies C=0.

Therefore

For a rectangular cross section, Ig = bd3/12, and

Young’s modulus is given by

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