Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute Of Technology

Faculty Of Electrical And Computer Engineering

Electrical material and technology

Chapter 4
 CHAPTER 4 Semiconductor Material
• Semiconductors are class of materials which are neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator (whose electrical conductivity is intermediate between insulator and conductor.)
Eg. Si, Ge, GaAs
• The conductivity of semiconductor can be greatly improved by adding certain impurity to
the crystalline structure (producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa), These
impurities are called donors or acceptors depending on whether they produce electrons or
holes.
• the process of adding impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity
atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.
• The most commonly used semiconductor material by far is silicon(formed by sharing of
electron).2D representation of silicon crystal

1
Concept of hole:
• When a small amount of external energy is applied to a semiconductor, the electrons
in a valence band move to the conduction band (where it can move freely) leaving a
vacancy behind in the valence band. This vacancy is called as hole.
• When a covalent bond somewhere in the solid breaks, this vacancy gets filled by
electron and a hole is created at another place, In this way, position of vacancy
changes within the crystal, in other words, the ‘hole’ moves from one place to other
within the crystal lattice, The movement of hole causes electrical current.
• The electric charge of hole is same as that of electron but has opposite polarity. That
is why a hole behaves like a free positive charge.

2
• Semiconductors are of two types.
1. Intrinsic(pure) and 2. Extrinsic(impure)
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• Semiconductors in their absolute pure state.
• In general semiconductors have small energy gap(<2eV) between valence band and conduction
band, even at ordinary room temperature there are many electrons which possess sufficient
energy to jump across the small energy gap into conduction band,
• When an electron jumps into conduction band it creates a hole in the valence band, higher the
temperature the greater is the number of free electrons in conduction band and holes in
valence band due to this semiconductor have negative temperature resistance coefficient
(The higher the temperature of a semiconductor lower is its resistance), If the temperature is
brought down to 0ok the intrinsic material will act as a good insulator.
• in intrinsic semiconductors electrical conduction is due to only thermally excited electrons and
holes.
• The electrons reaching the conduction band, due to thermal excitation leave equal number
of holes in valence band, Hence number of free electrons in conduction band is always equal
to the number of holes in the valence band.
3
Continued
• If there is no applied electric field The electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band moves in a random fashion within the crystal and the net current is zero.
• when an electric field is applied to a semiconductor The field produces a force that acts on
free electrons and holes, which then experience a net drift velocity and net movement,
• The drift of the electrons moving toward the positive terminal in the conduction band
and that of holes towards the negative terminal of the source in the valence band
produce an electric current.
• The currents produced by the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions,
Thus, the conventional current flows within the semiconductor from the positive electrode
to the negative electrode.

4
The salient features of an intrinsic semiconductor can be summarized as follows:
(i) Electrons and holes are generated in pairs.
(ii) The number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes
in the valence band(n = p = ni).
(iii) The Fermi level lies exactly between the valence and conduction bands (EF =
Eg/2).
(iv) The contribution of the electrons to the electric current is more than that due to
the holes, why ?
(v) An electron and hole can behave as a pair bound to each other. Such a bound
pair is usually referred as exciton. An exciton is electrically neutral and so does
not take part in electrical conduction.

5
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• Extrinsic semiconductors, also known as doped or impure semiconductors, are
created by adding small, controlled amounts of impurities (typically from Group III
or V of the periodic table) to their crystal structure. This process of adding impurities
is called doping, and the added elements are known as dopants.
• Pure semiconductor is no practical use as the number of charge carriers in them is
very small, can treat them as close to insulators.
• By doping we can increase the number of charge carriers. Consequently, heavily
doped semiconductors exhibit conductivity approaching that of conductors.

6
• Depending upon the impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors can be further
classified into (i) N-type & (ii) P-type semiconductors.
(i) N-type semiconductors
• An n-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a
pentavalent impurity (having 5-electrons in the outermost orbit(group 5 element))
such as Phosphorus, Arsenic or Antimony.
• The impurity atom has one excess unpaired electron as shown in figure.
• This impurity is called donor impurity, as it donates electrons, The addition of
donor impurity increases the number of electrons in the semiconductor, Hence in
N type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers

7
• the Fermi level is present just below the conduction band
• The impurity atom has five valence electrons. After donating one electron, it is left
with +1 net excess charge. It then becomes a positively charged immobile ion
(because it is held tightly in the crystal lattice by the four covalent bonds.) but the
semiconductor doped with impurity remains electrically neutral.
• Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs due to thermal energy and
negative charge of electrons donated by impurity atoms is exactly balanced by
positive charge of the immobile ions.

8
(ii) P-type semiconductors
• A p-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a
trivalent impurity (three electrons in outer most orbit(group 3 element)) such as
Boron, Aluminum, Gallium or Indium.
• Them impurity atom is deficient of one electron. The absence of one electron is
treated as hole, The impurity atom supplied holes which are ready to accept
electrons.
• The presence of a hole attracts a nearby electron, which can move to fill it. This
electron's movement, however, creates a new hole in its previous location. This
process repeats, with subsequent electrons filling the newly created holes,
giving the impression that the hole itself is moving as a positive charge through
the semiconductor.
• As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known
as "Acceptors" as they are continually "accepting" extra electrons.

9
• the Fermi level is present just above the valence band.
• The number of holes is thus more than electrons in P-type semiconductor.
Therefore, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
charge carriers in P-type semiconductor. The conductivity is mainly due to holes
in this semiconductor.

• The impurity atom has three valence electrons. After receiving one electron, it is
left with -1 net excess charge. It then becomes a negative charged immobile ion
but the semiconductor doped with impurity remains electrically neutral, It is
immobile because it is held tightly in the crystal lattice by the four covalent bonds.
• Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs due to thermal energy and hole
gained by impurity atoms is exactly balanced by negative charge of the
immobile ions.
10
Merits of Semiconductor materials
• The devices are much smaller in size and lighter in weight.
• They consume low power resulting in high efficiency.
• They are almost shock proof.
• They operate on low voltages.
• Versatility
• They have long life and hardly show ageing effects.
• The resistance of semiconductors decreases nonlinearly with rise in temperature.
• When used as rectifiers and transistors they do not require a heater or filament as
is required in electron tube rectifiers and valves.

11
Factors affecting semiconductors
The resistance of semiconductor materials can be controlled by the following
factors
1. Temperature: The resistance of the semiconductors decreases with the increase
in temperature. This property is used in thermistors.
2. Illumination: The resistance of semiconductor is low in light and increases in
darkness. This property is used in photo conductive cells(light-dependent
resistors (LDRs) or photoresistor).
3. Impurities: The resistance of semiconductor varies greatly when a small
amount of impurity is introduced in it. This property is used in rectifiers.
4. Voltage: The resistance of semiconductor varies with applied voltage. This
property is used in varistors(voltage-dependent resistors (VDRs) ).
5. Electric Field: The resistance of semiconductor greatly depends on the
magnitude of electric field. The current in a semiconductor does not follow
ohm’s law and increases far more rapidly than the voltage. This property is used
in transistors, amplifiers.

12
Drift and Diffusion currents
• The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes to move in a semiconductor are:
A, Drift currents, which is the movement caused by electric fields, and
B, Diffusion currents, which is the flow caused by variations in the concentration, that
is, concentration gradients.
A, Drift current :
• When an electric field is applied to a semiconductor. The field produces a force that acts
on free electrons and holes, which then experience a net drift velocity and net movement.
Drift velocity Vd = (mobility of the charge carriers)x( Applied Electric field intensity).
• electrons move towards the positive terminal of the battery and Holes move towards the
negative terminal of the battery. This combined effect of movement of the charge carriers
constitutes a current known as “drift current”.
• Drift current due to the charge carriers (free electrons and holes) are the current passing
through the area, perpendicular to the direction of flow.

13
• Consider n-type semiconductor with a large number of free electrons, An electric
field E applied produces a force on the electrons in the opposite direction, This force
causes the electrons to experience a drift velocity in the direction opposite to the electric
field

Vdn = -µnE
• The electron drift produces a drift current density Jn
Jn =qnVdn = (-e)n(-µnE) = +enµnE
• The conventional drift current is in the opposite direction from the flow of
negative charge, which means that the drift current in an n-type semiconductor is in
the same direction as the applied electric field.
• Next Consider p-type semiconductor with a large number of holes, An electric field
E applied produces a force on the holes in the same direction, This force causes the
hole to experience a drift velocity in the same direction to the electric field.
Vdn = +µnE
14
• The hole drift produces a drift current density Jp given by
Jp = +epvdp = +ep(+µpE) = +epµpE
• The conventional drift current is in the same direction as the flow of positive
charge, which means that the drift current in a p-type material is also in the same
direction as the applied electric field.

• Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and holes, the total drift current
density is the sum of the electron and hole components.
J = (+enµnE) + (+epµpE) = σ E, σ = enµn + epµp

15
B, Diffusion currents
• In a semiconductor material the charge carriers have the tendency to move from the
region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration (called concentration
gradient, it exists if the number of either electrons or holes is greater in one region of a
semiconductor as compared to the other the region. This movement of charge carriers
takes place resulting in a current called diffusion current .
• consider an electron concentration that varies as a function of distance x, as shown in
Figure.

• The diffusion of electrons from a high-concentration region to a low-concentration region

produces a flow of electrons in the negative x direction, Since electrons are negatively
charged, the conventional current direction is in the positive x direction.

16
• The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons can be written as (for
one dimension)
Jn = eDndn/dx
where e, is the magnitude of the electronic charge, dn/dx is the
gradient of the electron concentration, and Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient.
• The diffusion of holes from a high-concentration region to a low-concentration
region produces a flow of holes in the negative x direction. (Conventional current is
in the direction of the flow of positive charge.)
• The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of hole can be written as (for one
dimension)
Jp = -eDpdp/dx
where p, is the magnitude of the electronic charge, dp/dx is the gradient of the hole
concentration, and Dp is the hole diffusion coefficient.
173,187

17
Example
1. Calculate the drift current density for a given semiconductor. Consider silicon at
T = 300 K doped with arsenic atoms at a concentration of Nd = 8 × 1015 cm−3 .
Assume mobility values of µn = 1350 cm2 /V–s and µp = 480 cm2 /V–s. Assume
the applied electric field is 100 V/cm. ni of silicon is 1.5*1010
2. Calculate the diffusion current density for a given semiconductor. Consider
silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the electron concentration varies linearly from n =
1012 cm−3 to n = 1016 cm−3 over the distance from x = 0 to x = 3 µm and Dn = 35
cm2 /s.

18
PN Junction
• A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductor are joined
metallurgically. The boundary between P-region and N-region is called PN
junction.
• In P-region, holes are majority charge carriers and in N-region, electrons are
majority charge carriers. This creates concentration gradient near the junction.
• Because of the concentration difference, holes nearer to the junction begin to
diffuse from p-side to the n-side (see Fig. a, b). Similarly, electrons nearer to the
junction begin to diffuse from n-side to the p-side. Thus, majority carriers start
moving into opposite regions.
• As electrons and holes are charged particles, their motion produces electron
diffusion current and hole diffusion current respectively.

19
• When the hole from P-region enters the N-region, it combines with electron over there and electron-
hole pair disappears, this is called recombination process, Similarly, when electron from N-region
enters the P-region, it is surrounded by large no. of holes, which leads to recombination process.

• At the junction the holes and electrons meet each other and undergo recombination.
• As a hole recombines with an electron, both the hole and electron disappear. This leads to the
disappearance of mobile charge carriers in the junction region.
• The holes coming out of P-region leave behind negative acceptor ions and electrons from N-region
leaves behind positive donor ions near to the junction.
• The double layer of ions around the junction is known as the space charge region. This narrow space-
charge region is depleted of mobile charges carrier and contains only the immobile uncompensated
ions. Therefore, this region is also called the depletion region.
20
• Depletion region is a narrow region of oppositely charged ions on either side of PN junction
which is depleted of mobile charge carriers(Fig.).

• These oppositely charged fixed ions produce internal electric field E directed from the donor
ions on N region towards the acceptor ions P region at the junction.
• This electric field is in a direction that opposes the diffusion of majority carriers into
opposite sides.
• The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which acts as a barrier
for majority charge carriers to cross the junction, hence called as built in potential barrier.
• Due to application of internal electric field E, minority carriers i.e. electrons drift from P
region to N region and holes drift from N region to P region. An electric current flows across
the junction. This current, which is caused by electric field, is called drift current.

24
• At equilibrium the net diffusion current through the junction must be equal and
opposite to the net drift current so that the total current is zero. This condition is
called UNBIASED condition of PN-JUNCTION diode.
UNBIASED PN-JUNCTION.
• When a PN-junction diode is not connected with any external supply it is called as
unbiased.
• Once equilibrium is attained no net current will flow through it because diffusion
current becomes equal and opposite to drift current, hence diode is at equilibrium.
• The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which act as a
barrier for majority charge carriers to cross the junction.

22
BIASING OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE
• When dc voltage is applied to the diode it is said to be biased. A PN-junction diode is biased
in two ways:
(1) Forward biasing (2) Reverse biasing.
1. Forward biasing:
• When positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and negative terminal of source
(battery) is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be forward biased.
• If this external applied voltage ‘V’ becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier Vo, the
potential barrier’s opposition will be overcome due to this The width of depletion region reduces.
• The potential barrier reduces to (Vo – V), Hence majority charge carriers start crossing the
junction and large current starts flowing. Vo is approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium.

23
2. Reverse biasing:
• When negative terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and positive terminal of
source (battery) is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
• The potential barrier increases to (Vo + V), The width of depletion region increases.
Hence majority charge carriers are unable to cross the junction.
• The direction of electric field supports the flow of minority charge carriers across
the junction, hence a small amount of current flows.

24
• (a) Unbiased diode(b) Forward biasing (c) Reverse biasing

25
 The Hall Effect
• The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall.
• Hall Effect: When a current carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a magnetic
field perpendicular to the flow of current (each moving charge carrier experiences a
magnetic Lorentz force (Fm = q (v × B)).
• then it is observed an electric field is created perpendicular to both flow of charge
carriers(current) and magnetic field, this field is known as Hall field and corresponding effect
is called Hall effect.

28
THEORY
When a perpendicular magnetic field is present, A Lorentz force is exerted on the electron. Due to this
Electron moves in perpendicular direction to both current and Magnetic Field. And develop a
Potential difference across the conductor or semiconductor.
Lorentz force: force exerted on a charged particle moving through an electric field, a magnetic field, or
both.
• Consider a charged particle of charge ‘q’ moving with a velocity of ‘v’ in a uniform magnetic field
‘B’, then the MAGNETIC LORENTZ force is given by,

• Let us consider a P-Type semiconductor Sample placed in a magnetic field as shown in the figure,

30
• The magnetic fields exerts a force called, LORENTZ force = q (vx x BZ ) acting on holes
and deflecting them towards side1.
• As a consequence, holes completely accumulate on side 1 creating a NET POSITIVE
charge, as side3 is depleted of holes and is net negatively charged.
• when the magnitude of the electric force due to the Hall electric field becomes equal and opposite
to the magnitude of the magnetic force on the moving charge carriers Equilibrium is reached
• Once equilibrium is established, NO further accumulation of HOLES takes place on the
side1 and HALL FIELD (Ey)(Eh) reaches a steady value.
• The contacts 1(A) and 3(B) are called as HALL contacts and Ey and Vab are called as
HALL electric field and HALL voltage respectively.

31
Derivation:
• Under equilibrium conditions , the force on the charges due to HALL electric field and
LORENTZ force counterbalances each other, that is.
eEy = evxBz ………………….1
Ey = vxBz…………………….....2
• We know that the CURRENT DENSITY ‘Jx ’ is given by
Jx = p e vx………………………..3
vx = Jx/p e ……………………...4
• Now substituting vx from 4 into 2, we get
Ey = BzJx/(pe)=JxRHBz RH=1/pe or RH=Ey/JxBz
• Hall coefficient RH is the measure of the resulting hall field per unit transverse
applied current and magnetic field
32
Hall Coefficient Sign Indicates Carrier Type: The sign of the Hall coefficient (R_H) tells us
about the type of the majority charge carriers in the material:
•A negative R_H indicates that the majority carriers are electrons (n-type material).
•A positive R_H indicates that the majority carriers are holes (p-type material).
• Example
1. The hall coefficient of specimen of a doped silicon is found to be
0.00366cm3/c the resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 ohm m. determine the
mobility of the charge carrier?
2. A bar of p-type Ge of size 0.010m x 0.001m x 0.001m is mounted in a
magnetic field of 2x10-1T. The electron density in the bar is 7x1021/m³. If one
millivolt is applied across the long ends of the bar, determine the current
through the bar and the voltage between Hall electrodes placed across the
short dimensions of the bar. Assume mobility of electrons = 0.39 m²/V-sec

30
32
3, N-type germanium sample has a donor density of 1021 / m3 . It is
arranged in a Hall experiment having magnetic field of 1 T and the
current density is 100 A/m2 . Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 1
mm wide.
4, How is depletion region formed in a junction of the diode.

33