Planning and Production Control 2012

Dr.Mostafa M.
Elafandy
Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding
Prepared by: Dr / Mostafa Mohamed El-Afandy
Alexandria University - Faculty of Engineering Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department
Shipbuilding Process
SHIPBUILDING PROCESS
Shipbuilding is an industry that produces products (ships, offshore structures, floating plants, etc) for customers (private owners, companies, governments, etc.), In most cases, the product is built to order and customized to the specific requirements of the purchaser. This applies even in cases where a similar series of ships is being built. The entire process is likely to vary somewhat, depending on the customer involved, but it generally involves a number of specific stages. These may be summarized as:

Development of owner's requirements. Preliminary/concept design. Contract design. Bidding/contracting. Detail design and planning. Construction. Contract Signing
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Dr.Mostafa M. Elafandy
Owner requirements & Preliminary Design
Start of Production Detail Design Planning & Scheduling Production Delivery
Main Stages in Shipbuilding Process The first stage in the shipbuilding process is the formulation of the product requirements by the customer. The definition of the use or mission of a new ship may be narrow or broad, but the end product should reflect the owner's needs and intended use. Once an owner has identified the need for a new ship and defined operational requirements, the next stage involves preliminary definition of the basic characteristics of the vessel. This preliminary or concept design stage can be done internally by the owner's staff, by a design agent hired by the owner, or by the staffs of one or more shipyards Common practice in the United States (but not overseas) has been to use a design agent for preliminary design. The aim is to develop a design that will meet the requirements while taking advantage of the building experience and capability of a particular shipyard to minimize construction time and cost. The end product of this stage is a general definition of the ship, including dimensions, hull form, general arrangement, powering, machinery arrangement, mission systems definition (such as cargo capacity and handling equipment, combat systems, or habitability), capacities of variable weights (such as fuel oil, water, crew, and stores) and preliminary definition of major systems [such as structural, piping, electrical, machinery, and heating/ ventilation/ air conditioning (HVAC)]. Based on the general description of the ship to be built, as determined by the end product of the preliminary design stage, more detailed information is required to permit bids and/or contracts to be prepared. This information, called the contract design, must be of sufficient detail to permit the preparation of cost and time-to-build estimates by shipyards interested in the shipbuilding project. As in the preliminary design stage, this work can be performed by the owner's staff, by design agents, or by shipyard personnel. Following completion of the contract design stage, a specific shipyard is chosen to build the vessel. Unless an owner has involved a shipyard in the preliminary and/or contract design stage and thus is negotiating a contract based on a mutually agreeable design, competitive bidding based on the contract design and specifications is common practice, Due to the high cost of a new ship, contracts are generally very long and complex The most significant factors are cost, delivery date, and performance requirements, After the bidding process is complete and a contract has been signed, the fifth stage of the shipbuilding process, detail design and planning and scheduling. Shipbuilding involves the purchasing of tons of raw materials and many thousands of components, the manufacturing of thousands of parts from the raw materials, and the assembly of these parts and components Therefore, complex and very detailed planning is required Detail design and planning must answer the questions of "what, where, how, when, and by whom Determining what parts, assemblies, and systems are to be built and what components are to be purchased is primarily detail design, Where and how are facility- use questions that include determination of the location within the shipyard and construction tools and techniques to be used. Considerations of subcontracting and in-house manufacture versus purchasing are also answered here. These questions are resolved as part of planning. When determines the sequencing of all operations, including purchasing and manufacturing, as well as need times for information (design, planning,
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approvals, etc.) This is the scheduling function. Finally, by whom relates to the utilization of the shipyard work force. Clearly, there is considerable interdependence among the answers to these questions. The success of any shipyard or shipbuilding project is directly related to the answers to the questions or to the detail design and planning process.
Shipyard Organization:
The final stage of the shipbuilding process is the actual construction of the vessel. Ship construction can be considered to occur in four manufacturing levels The first is parts manufacturing, using raw materials (such as steel plate and sections, pipe, sheet metal, and cable) to manufacture individual parts The purchasing and handling of components can be considered to be a part of this lowest manufacturing level. The next manufacturing level involves the joining of parts and/or components to form subassemblies or units These small collections of joined parts are then combined in the third manufacturing level to form hull blocks Hull blocks are commonly the largest sections of ships built away from the final building site. Erection, the final manufacturing level, involves the landing and joining of blocks at the building site (such as launching ways, graving dock, or dry dock).
The actual construction phase of shipbuilding is primarily involved with assembly, whether of parts, subassemblies, or blocks, to form a completed vessel. An important part of the construction phase is verification that the ship complies with the contractual requirements. Consequently, the vessel is subjected to a series of tests and trials prior to delivery to the owner. Shipbuilding can therefore be viewed as a process that begins when an owner perceives a need for a vessel to perform some set of' functions, that proceeds through a number of stages of paperwork (design, contracting, planning, etc), and that culminates in a massive collection and joining of parts and
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components to manufacture the desired vessel. Productive shipbuilding is highly dependent on careful consideration, control, and performance in each of these stages. The shipbuilding industry is centuries old, paralleling the history of man. Shipbuilding techniques have changed in response to changes in vessel design, materials, markets, and construction methods. As industrial processes became more complex and efficient, shipbuilders kept pace with changing technology. Shipbuilding began to be subdivided into specialties, such as hull construction, machinery, outfitting, and painting. More recently, the development of mass production techniques and welding both had profound impacts on shipbuilding.
SHIPBUILDING MANAGEMENT
Shipbuilding production Shipbuilding Economic Theory
phases Optimum construction rate is determined by several factors which include fixed costs, work space, inventory costs, and changes in the construction rate. In addition to the cost of capital and the usual overhead items, fixed costs include security, fire watches, corrosion control, and some support crafts. A ship sitting in the yard incurs these costs whether work is being accomplished or not Consequently, these costs lead to a shortening of the optimum construction time. This effect is countered by costs associated with increased construction rate As manning and construction rate are increased, so is interference among the crafts. This effect tends to lengthen the optimum construction time. Figure 2-1(b) can be interpreted as either production rate (output per unit time) or required labor hours (manning) per unit time as long as actual production corresponds to planned (optimum) production.
Fig (2.1) Production plan for traditional ship construction
Planning and Scheduling

The planning phase of a project is the listing of all jobs that must be performed in order to complete the project. As part of planning, any required ordering of the jobs must be determined, as well as gross requirements for material, manpower, and facilities Additionally, estimates of costs and job durations are developed as a part of the planning process. Figure 7-1 shows the basic management cycle.
Management Cycle.
Scheduling is the laying-out of the actual time order in which jobs are to be performed in order to complete the project. Material and manpower requirements needed at each stage of production are determined, as well as start and finish times for each job Production control is the monitoring of the difference between actual and scheduled performance.
Networks:
In defining planning and scheduling, the need to identify independent jobs or activities and an order of precedence for these jobs was described These data represent the prerequisites for employing the primary techniques of the Critical Path Method (CPM) or the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Both are based on networks Although it is rare in shipbuilding to actually employ formal CPM or PERT algorithms, networking of subsets of the total project is often used to aid in planning and scheduling Networks are formed by connecting events, represented by nodes, with activities, represented by arrows Events occur' at the start or completion of an activity. The following example of building a steel block (block 1-2) which consists of two subassemblies (subassemblies 1 and 2), each of which is made up of steel parts fabricated from plate, will serve to illustrate the generation of a network. Table 7-1 identifies the activities and their precedence relationships Based on Table 7-1, it is now possible to draw the network representing this project
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(see Figure 7-4) In order to preserve the logical flow of the network, it is occasionally necessary to utilize one or more dummy activities, shown in Figure 7-'1 as Dr Dummy activities may be used where different activities have the same immediate predecessor and immediate successor They are also required when the project contains groups of two or more jobs which have some, but not all, of their immediate predecessors in common With the duration of each activity known, it is now possible to determine the minimum project duration by finding the critical path A path through a network is a set of nodes connected by arrows which begin at the initial node of a network and end at a terminal node The length of a path is the total time it takes to traverse the path A critical path is the longest path in a project network. There may be more than one critical path, and the length of a critical path is the minimum project duration In the example, the path a, b, e, g, i, D2, j, is the critical path, with a project duration of 23 days. The use of networks, with variations on job duration options, can provide planning and scheduling with quantitative decision making information PERT is used to consider activity duration uncertainties and CPM is used to trade off total cost and the shortening of individual activities. Further extensions of these techniques exist to evaluate resource limitations, multiple shipbuilding programs, etc. A primary weakness of network management systems such as PERT and CPM is the cost in time and effort required to maintain the network. Since resource management is dynamic, the network must be kept current in order to be effective. This requires constant feedback.
Planning should also address work flow for current work and proposed new bids to serve as a guide for yard capabilities in the face of actual and projected contracts Figure7-7, indicating a period of interrupted work flow, should be avoided. Figure 7-8 shows a better planned, smooth work flow, resulting from the blending of new contracts with existing contracts Such a plan provides guidance in terms of the need for bidding on new contracts.
Design Scheduling
Scheduling objectives for design and material definition, as shown in Figure 7-9, [6] are: drawing issue timing commensurate with material lead times and production schedules design man-hour control commensurate with a man-hour budget material quantity control commensurate with a material budget A shipbuilding master schedule provides dates for fabrication start, keel laying, launching, and delivery for all ships contracted and/or expected to be built during some reasonable period (see Figure 7-10).
Design Department Master Schedule

All ships in the order book are addressed plus those for which orders are expected. The format is a combination of: a Gantt chart (bar chart) representation of the shipbuilding master schedule showing keel laying, launching, and delivery dates for each ship. S-curves, each of which shows the accumulated design man-hours estimated for each ship (see Chapter II for discussion of shipbuilding S-curves) a plot of the total estimated design man-hours required by month Figure 2-2 is an example of a ship production progress curve In this example, the actual time is t' At this time, planned progress is about 40 percent. Actual progress is about 35 percent, while actual man-hour expenditures are nearly 60 percent of the total manhour budget. The variance indicates that some work packages are requiring more manhours than were estimated and budgeted.
Once man-hour budgets are assigned, each group manager is responsible for controlling the man-hour expenditure rate, in addition to progress. Before design work starts, each group manager plans expenditures relative to time in accordance with an S-curve . If a significant departure or trend away from
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the S-curve is noted during monthly entries of actual expenditures, as in Figure 7-17, the cause is identified and manpower shifts are made accordingly.
Fig 7.17 Man-hour control S- curve
Planning and schedule charts

Planning and control are essential parts of project management. Three things occur in the planning and control process: (1) During the conception and definition phases (before project work actually begins) a plan is prepared specifying the project requirements, work tasks, responsibilities, schedules, and budgets; (2) during the execution phase the plan is compared to actual project performance, time, and cost; if there are discrepancies, (3) corrective actions are taken and the requirements, schedules, and budgets updated.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Complex projects consist of numerous smaller, interrelated tasks and work elements. The procedure for dividing the overall project into subelements is called the work breakdown structure or WBS. The purpose of a WBS is to divide the total project into small pieces, sometimes called work packages. Dividing the project into work packages makes it possible to prepare project schedules and cost estimates and to assign management and task responsibility. Atypical WBS might consist of the following five levels (in actuality the number of levels varies; the name of the element description at each level is arbitrary): Level 1 represents the total project. At Level 2 the project is broken down into several major categories of work.
Table 6-1 gives partial descriptions of time, cost, and labor requirements for all the work packages in the LOGON project.
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Scheduling
The scheduling of work elements is the most important step in planning because it is the basis for allocating resources, estimating costs, and tracking project performance. Schedules show the timing for work elements and denote when specific events and milestones take place. Kind of schedules At least two kinds of planning schedules are commonly used: Project schedules and task schedules. One kind of project schedule is the project master schedule. It is used by project managers and upper management for planning and reviewing the entire project. It shows the major project activities without too much detail. Task schedules show the specific activities necessary to complete a task. Task schedules are prepared by functional managers and incorporate interface and milestone events.
Gantt Charts (or Bar Chart)

The simplest and most commonly used scheduling technique is the Gantt chart (or bar chart), named after the famous management consultant Henry L. Gantt (18611919). The chart consists of a horizontal scale divided into time unitsdays, weeks, or monthsand a vertical scale showing project work elements tasks, activities, work packages, and so forth. Figure 6-10 is an example of a Gantt chart for the LOGON project using the work times given in Table 6-1. Work packages are listed on the left-hand side and work weeks are listed along the bottom. The starting and completion times of jobs are indicated by the beginning and ending of each bar.
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After the project is underway the Gantt chart becomes a means for assessing the status of individual work elements and the project as a whole. Figure 6-12 shows progress as of week 20, the posted status date. Work that has been completed is indicated by the heavy portion of the bars. The thinner part of the bars represents the amount of work unfinished, or the time still needed to complete the tasks. The delay in work package L, the project in Figure 6-12 is about 4 weeks behind schedule.
Disadvantages of Gantt Charts

One disadvantage of the Gantt chart is that it does not explicitly show interrelationships among work elements, meaning that it does not reveal the effect of one work element falling behind schedule on other elements. In most projects, certain work elements must be completed by a specific date to ensure that the project is completed on target; however, others can fall behind without delaying the project. Gantt charts alone provide no way of distinguishing elements that can be delayed from those that cannot. Computerized project systems eliminate this problem as long as the input data is frequently and periodically revised. The computer-generated Gantt chart in Figure 6-16 is an example; notice the display of work completed by the darkened portion of the bars.
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Expense Charts Gantt charts can be used for labor planning, resource allocation, and budgeting. Graphs can be constructed based upon information from the Gantt chart to show period-by-period and cumulative figures such as expenditures, labor, and resource requirements. As an example, in Table 6-2 the activities during the week column (column 2) was derived from the Gantt chart in Figure 6-10.
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Summing across activities in a given week gives the weekly labor requirements (column 3), weekly direct expense (column 4), and cumulative expense (column 5). The information in the last two columns is shown graphically in Figure 6-13. Graphs such as this clearly reveal capital funds, labor, and other requirements and are useful for planning the allocation of resources and for monitoring work progress. Hierarchy of Charts As the size of the project increases, it becomes difficult to present, on one chart, sufficient information about all of the project work elements. The summary schedule in Figure 6-15. Figure 6-15 is a multilevel schedule. It shows both the higher-level phases of the project (denoted by summary bars) and the detailed tasks within each phase (denoted by task bars).
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Basic Hull Construction Production Plans and Schedules

They based on the formally released contract plans, the hull construction planning group prepares basic hull construction plans and schedules, including: hull erection layout plan block predefinition plan hull construction processes plan hull erection master schedule budget control work volume shipbuilding activity timing schedule The hull erection layout plan is prepared in bar chart form 1t is based on the shipbuilding master schedule, which provides dates for start fabrication, keel laying, shifting, launching, and delivery for each ship under construction. The chart enables the hull construction planning group to check for adequate shipyard space, such as for the storage of completed blocks and for the assembly of grand blocks, to fix the positions of temporary cranes for on-unit, on-block, and on-board outfitting, and to anticipate other problems caused by building ships simultaneously Block predefinition is performed by production engineers using a midship section, a general arrangement, and sometimes a machinery arrangement. The objective is to achieve high productivity in the integration of hull construction, outfitting, and painting Major considerations are special hull structure and other features, special owner requirements, and master plans for outfitting and painting processes, such as for holds, engine rooms, etc The block predefinition plan is produced in two parts, a midship section block predefinition plan and a general arrangement block predefinition plan. A production engineer uses the block predefinition plan to develop a hull construction processes plan This plan must be developed to the satisfaction of the hull construction department, shop, and section managers and the senior production engineer It includes the following sections: block definition on a midship section
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size, weight, and quantity of blocks by each category (bottom, side, longitudinal bulkhead, upper deck, etc) joining blocks to create grand blocks erection sequence, including sequences by block categories specific application of nesting, marking, and cutting methods, and a scrap ratio target block assembly processes and different aspects of the processes for each category of blocks represented in a midship section which shows main and internal structure specific application of scaffolding methods and special work units for erection specific application of automatic welding processes for erection The hull erection master schedule network is the responsibility of a production engineer assigned to the erection shop It must coordinate with counterparts in the outfitting shops, the on-board outfitting schedules. The block predefinition plan provides the principal guidance for this schedule Particular attention is given to large machinery items, such as diesel generators, which are separately landed before additional blocks enclose the machinery space. This process requires each such outfit item to be scheduled for erection just as if it were a block The budget control work volume is prepared using the midship section and the block predefinition plan. A hull construction production engineer allocates manhours by using parameters based on normal past performances that relate man-hours to factors such as: hull weight by mild and high-tensile steel, block weight, and sub-block weight welding length for subassembly and block assembly parametric welding length for erection (by each weld size and position) quantities of blocks by hull region (hold and engine room) quantities of scaffold planks by hull region (aft body, fore body, and engine room) The shipbuilding activity timing schedule is developed using the block predefinition plan, the erection master schedule, the basic outfitting and painting plans, and the outfitting master schedule prepared by production engineers in the outfitting department This schedule is produced in bar chart form by a hull department production engineer It shows the timing required for each process, including outfitting and painting processes tram yard plan issue to erection for each block. Further, the shipbuilding activity timing schedule is sectionalized to separately address each hull region Dates are incorporated for: erection start and completion for block assembly issue 01hull construction and outfitting drawings requisitioning of steel material issue of drawings required for material requisitioning erection of major outfit components (landing large items on-board during blue sky outfitting) The shipbuilding activity timing schedule becomes a master from which all subsequent schedules are derived It is a control mechanism for rapid startup and continuing coordination of the build strategy for which there is general agreement This schedule is approved by the general manager only alter assuring that department and shop managers are in agreement
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Quality control and management system

Quality:
We all have needs, wants, requirements and expectations. Needs are essential for life, to maintain certain standards, or essential for products and services, to fulfil the purpose for which they have been acquired. According to Maslow (Maslow, Abraham H., 1954)1, man is a wanting being; there is always some need he wants to satisfy. Once this is accomplished, that particular need no longer motivates him and he turns to another, again seeking satisfaction. Everyone has basic physiological needs that are necessary to sustain life. (Food, water, clothing, shelter). Maslow's research showed that once the physiological needs are fulfilled, the need for safety emerges. After safety come social needs followed by the need for esteem and finally the need for self-actualization or the need to realize ones full potential. Satisfaction of physiological needs is usually associated with money - not money itself but what it can buy. The hierarchy of needs is shown in Figure 2.1. These needs are fulfilled by the individual purchasing, renting or leasing products or services. Corporate needs are not too dissimilar. The physiological needs of organizations are those necessary to sustain survival. Often profit
Figure 2.1
Hierarchy of needs
comes first because no organization can sustain a loss for too long but functionality is paramount - the product or service must do the job for which it is intended regardless of it being obtained cheaply. Corporate safety comes next in terms of the safety of employees and the safety and security of assets followed by social needs in the form of a concern for the environment and the community as well as forming links with other organizations and developing contacts. Esteem is represented in the corporate context by organizations purchasing luxury cars, winning awards, badges such as ISO 9000, superior offices and infrastructures and possessing those things that give it power in the market place and government. Self-actualization is represented by an organization's preoccupation with growth,
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becoming bigger rather than better, seeking challenges and taking risks. However, it is not the specific product or service that is needed but the benefits that possession brings that is important. This concept of benefits is most important and key to the achievement of quality. Requirements are what we request of others and may encompass our needs but often we don't fully realize what we need until after we have made our request. For example, now that we own a mobile phone we discover we really need hands-free operation when using the phone while driving a vehicle. Our requirements at the moment of sale may or may not therefore express all our needs. By focusing on benefits resulting from products and services, needs can be converted into wants such that a need for food may be converted into a want for a particular brand of chocolate. Sometimes the want is not essential but the higher up the hierarchy of needs we go, the more a want becomes essential to maintain our social standing, esteem or to realize our personal goals. Our requirements may therefore include such wants - what we would like to have but are not essential for survival. Expectations are implied needs or requirements. They have not been requested because we take them for granted - we regard them to be understood within our particular society as the accepted norm. They may be things to which we are accustomed, based on fashion, style, trends or previous experience. One therefore expects sales staff to be polite and courteous, electronic products to be safe and reliable, policemen to be honest, coffee to be hot etc. One would like politicians to be honest but in some countries we have come to expect them to be corrupt, dishonest or at least, economical with the truth! In supplying products or services there are three fundamental parameters that determine their saleability. They are price, quality and delivery. Customers require products and services of a given quality to be delivered by or be available by a given time and to be of a price that reflects value for money. These are the requirements of customers. An organization will survive only if it creates and retains satisfied customers and this will only be achieved if it offers for sale products or services that respond to customer needs and expectations as well as requirements. While price is a function of cost, profit margin and market forces, and delivery is a function of the organization's efficiency and effectiveness, quality is determined by the extent to which a product or service successfully serves the purposes of the user during usage (not just at the point of sale). Price and delivery are both transient features, whereas the impact of quality is sustained long after the attraction or the pain of price and delivery has subsided.
The word quality has many meanings:

A degree of excellence Conformance with requirements The totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs Fitness for use Fitness for purpose Freedom from defects imperfections or contamination Delighting customers
Quality The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils a need or expectation that is stated, general implied or obligatory.
These are just a few meanings; however, the meaning used in the context of ISO 9000 was concerned with the totality of characteristics that satisfy needs but in the
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2000 version this has changed. Quality in ISO 9000:2000 is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements. The former definition focused on an entity that was described as a product or service but with this new definition, the implication is that quality is relative to what something should be and what it is. The something maybe a product, service, decision, document, piece of information or any output from a process. In describing an output, we express it in terms of its characteristics. To comment on the quality of anything we need a measure of its characteristics and a basis for comparison. By combining the definition of the terms quality and requirement in ISO 9000:2000, quality can be expressed as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils a need or expectation that is stated, generally implied or obligatory.
Quality System Documentations
Having made the comparison we can still assess whether the output is 'fitness for use'. In this sense the output may be of poor quality but remain fit for use. The specification is often an imperfect definition of what a customer needs; because some needs can be difficult to express clearly and it doesn't mean that by not conforming, the product or service is unfit for use. It is also possible that a product that conforms to requirements may be totally useless. It all depends on whose requirements are being met. For example, if a company sets its own standards and these do not meet customer needs, its claim to producing quality products is bogus. On the other hand, if the standards are well in excess of what the customer requires, the price tag may well be too high for what customers are prepared to pay - there probably isn't a market for a gold-plated mousetrap, for instance, except as an ornament perhaps! The interested parties The customer
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A product that possesses features that satisfy customer needs is a quality product. Likewise, one that possesses features that dissatisfy customers is not a quality product. So the final arbiter on quality is the customer. The customer is the only one who can decide whether the quality of the Customer products and services you supply is satisfactory and you Organization that will be conscious of this either by direct feedback or by receives a product loss of sales, reduction in market share and, ultimately, or service loss of business. This brings us back to benefits. The includes: customer acquires a product for the benefits that possession will bring. Therefore if the product fails to Purchaser, deliver the expected benefits it will be considered by the consumer, client, customer to be of poor quality. So when making judgements about quality, the requirement should be expressed in terms of benefits not a set of derived characteristics. In the foregoing it was convenient to use the term customer but the definition of quality does not only relate to customers. Employees Employees may not be interested in the products and services, but are interested in the conditions in which they are required to work. Employees are stakeholders because they can withdraw their labour. Suppliers Suppliers are interested in the success of the organization because it may in turn lead to their success. However, suppliers are also stakeholders because they can withdraw their patronage. They can choose their customers. If you treat your suppliers badly such as delaying payment of invoices for trivial mistakes, you may find they terminate the supply at the first opportunity putting your organization into a difficult position relative to its customer commitments.
Investors
Often the most common type of stakeholder, owners, investors including banks and shareholders are interested in protecting their stake in the business. They will withdraw their stake if the organization fails to perform. Poorly conceived products and poorly managed processes and resources will not yield the expected return and the action of investors can directly affect the supply chain - although they are not customers, they are feeding the supply chain with much needed resources. In the event that this supply of resource is terminated, the organization ceases to have the capability to serve its customers. The success of any organization therefore depends upon understanding the needs and expectations of all the interested parties, not just its customers and upon managing the organization in a manner that leads to the continued satisfaction of all parties.
Quality and price

Most of us are attracted to certain products and services by their price. If the price is outside our reach we don't even consider the product or service, whatever its quality, except perhaps to form an opinion about it. We also rely on price as a comparison, hoping that we can obtain the same characteristics at a lower price.
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In the luxury goods market, a high price is often a mark of quality but occasionally it is a confidence trick aimed at making more profit for the supplier. When certain products and services are rare, the price tends to be high and when plentiful the price is low, regardless of their quality. One can purchase the same item in different stores at different prices, some as much as 50% less, many at 10% less than the highest price. You can also receive a discount for buying in bulk, buying on customer credit card and being a trade customer rather than a retail customer. Travellers know that goods are more expensive at the airport than from the country craft shop. However, in the country craft shop, defective goods or 'seconds' may well be on sale, whereas at the airport the supplier will as a rule, want to display only the best examples. Often an increase in the price of a product may indicate a better after-sales service, such as free on-site maintenance, free delivery, free telephone support line. The discount shops may not offer such benefits.
Quality and cost

Philip Crosby published his book Quality Is Free in 1979 and caused a lot of raised eyebrows among executives because they always believed the removal of defects was an in-built cost in running any business. To get quality you had to pay for inspectors to detect the errors! What Crosby told us was that if we could eliminate all the errors and reach zero defects, we would not only reduce our costs but also increase the level of customer satisfaction by several orders of magnitude. In fact there is the cost of doing the right things right first time and the cost of not doing the right things right first time. The latter are often referred to as quality costs or the cost incurred because failure is possible. Using this definition, if failure of a product, a process or a service is not possible, there would be no quality costs. It is rather misleading to refer to the cost incurred because failure is possible as quality costs because we could classify the costs as avoidable costs and unavoidable costs. We have to pay for labour, materials, facilities, machines, transport etc. These costs are unavoidable but we are also paying in addition some cost to cover the prevention, detection and removal of errors.
Quality characteristics
Any feature or characteristic of a product or service that is needed to satisfy customer needs or achieve fitness for use is a quality characteristic. When dealing with products the characteristics are almost always technical characteristics, whereas service quality characteristics have a human dimension. Some typical quality characteristics are given below. Product characteristics Accessibility Functionality Availability Interchangeability Appearance Maintainability Adaptability Odour Cleanliness Operability Consumption Portability Durability Producibility Disposability Reliability Emittance Reparability Flammability Safety Size Susceptibility Storability Strength Taste Testability Traceability Toxicity Transportability Vulnerability
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Dr.Mostafa M. Elafandy Flexibility
Security
Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding Weight Honesty Promptness Responsiveness Reliability Security
Service quality characteristics Accessibility Credibility Accuracy Dependability Courtesy Efficiency Comfort Effectiveness Competence Flexibility
Quality, reliability and safety

There is a school of thought that distinguishes between quality and reliability and quality and safety. Quality is thought to be a non-time-dependent characteristic and reliability a time-dependent characteristic. Quality is thought of as conformance to specification regardless of whether the specification actually meets the needs of the customer or society. If a product or service is unreliable, it is clearly unfit for use and therefore of poor quality. If a product is reliable but emits toxic fumes, is too heavy or not transportable when required to be, it is of poor quality. Similarly, if a product is unsafe it is of poor quality even though it may meet its specification in other ways. In such a case the specification is not a true reflection of customer needs. Figure 2.2 shows some of the characteristics of product quality - others have been identified previously.
Quality management Eight management principles 1- Customer focus 2- Leadership 3- Process approach 4- Involvement of people 5- System approach to management 6- Continual improvement 7- Factual approach to decision making 8- Mutually beneficial supplier relationship There are two schools of thought on quality management. One views quality management as the management of success and the other the elimination of failure. They are both valid. Each approaches the subject from a different angle. The 'success' school is characterized by five questions (Hoyle, David and Thompson, John, 2001)3: 1 What are you trying to do? 2 How do you make it happen? 3 How do you know it's right? 4 How do you know it's the best way of doing it? 5 How do you know it's the right thing to do?
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The 'failure elimination' school is characterized by five different questions 1 How do you know what is needed? 2 What could affect your ability to do it right? 3 What checks are made to verify achievement? 4 How do you ensure the integrity of these checks? 5 What action is taken to prevent a recurrence of failure? In an ideal world, if we could design products, services and processes that could not fail we would have achieved the ultimate goal. Success means not only that products, services and processes fulfil their function but also that the function is what customers' desire. Failure means not only that products, services and processes would fail to fulfil their function but also that their function was not what customers desired. A gold-plated mousetrap that does not fail is not a success if no one needs a gold-plated mousetrap! The introductory clause of ISO 9001:1994 contained a statement that the aim of the requirements is to achieve customer satisfaction by prevention of nonconformities. (This was indicative of the failure school of thought.) The introductory clause of ISO 9001:2000 contains a statement that the aim is to enhance customer satisfaction through the effective application of the quality management system and the assurance of conformity to customer and applicable regulatory requirements. (This is indicative of the success school of thought.) In reality you cannot be successful unless you know of the risks you are taking and plan to eliminate, reduce or control them. A unification of these approaches is what is therefore needed for organizations to achieve, sustain and improve quality. You therefore need to approach the achievement of quality from two different angles and answer two questions. What do we need to do to succeed and what do we need to do to prevent failure?
Quality parameters
Quality is a composite of three parameters: quality of design, quality of conformance and quality of use: Quality of design is the extent to which the design reflects a product or service that satisfies customer needs and expectations. All the necessary characteristics should be designed into the product or service at the outset. Quality of conformance is the extent to which the product or service conforms to the design standard. The design has to be faithfully reproduced in the product or service. Quality of use is the extent by which the user is able to secure continuity of use from the product or service. Products need to have a low cost of ownership, be safe and reliable, maintainable in use and easy to use.
Quality management principles

As explained at the beginning of this chapter, we need principles to help us determine the right things to do and understand why we do what we do. The more prescription we have the more we get immersed in the detail and lose sight of our objectives - our purpose - our reason for doing what we do. Once we have lost sight of our purpose, our actions and decisions follow the mood of the moment.
Did you know? Neither the definition of a quality management principle nor the eight principles themselves contain the word QUALITY
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LEADERS HIP
CUSTOMER FOCUS
CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
PROCESS APPROACH
MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL SUPPLIER RELATIONSHIPS SYSTEM APPROACH INVOLVEME NT OF PEOPLE
Customer focus
FACTUAL
Figure 2.3 The eight quality management Customer focus means putting your energy into satisfying customers and principles understanding that profitability or avoidance of loss comes from satisfying customers. Profit is not the reason for an organization's existence. Profit is needed in order to grow the organization so that it may satisfy more customers. A profit focus is an inward seeking focus, a customer focus is an outward seeking focus. Customer focus means organizing work as a process that converts customers needs into satisfied customers. It means that all processes possess a customer focus. The customer focus principle is reflected in ISO 9001 through the requirements addressing: Communication with the customer Care for customer property The determination of customer needs and expectations Appointment of a management representative Management commitment
Leadership
This principle is expressed as follows: Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction for the organization. They should create and maintain the internal environment in which people can become fully involved in achieving the organization's objectives. Leaders exist at all levels in an organization - they are not simply the ones at the top. Within every team there needs to be a leader - one who provides a role-model consistent with the values of the organization. It is the behaviour of leaders (our role models) that influence our lives - not just in the business world but also in our family and leisure activities. The leadership principle is reflected in ISO 9001 through the requirements addressing: The setting of objectives and policies Planning Internal communication Creating an effective work environment
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Audit classification
1- Internal Audit: Conducted by the organization for the benefits of the organizations management. 2- External Audit : a- 2nd Party Audit: Conducted by the organization on its suppliers. b- 3rd Party Audit : Conducted by independent external party for the purpose of certification only.
Internal audits
Auditing for conformance with planned arrangements The standard requires the organization to conduct internal audits at planned intervals to determine whether the quality management system conforms to the planned arrangements. Why is this necessary? The purpose of quality audits is to establish, by an unbiased means, factual information on quality performance. Quality audits are the measurement component of the quality system. Having established a quality system it is necessary to install measures that will inform management whether the system is being effective. Installing any system without some means of being able to verify whether it is doing its intended job is a waste of time and effort. Audits gather facts, they should not change the performance of what is being measured and should always be performed by someone who has no influence over what is being measured. Strategic audit The strategic audit should establish that: there is a defined process for establishing the organizations goals and objectives an analysis of current and future needs of customers and other interested parties has been carried out the requirements which the organization needs to meet to fulfil its mission have been determined objectives have been established for achieving these requirements priorities for action have been set the products, services and projects that need to be developed or abandoned to achieve these objectives have been identified the risks to success have been quantified the processes for achieving the objectives have been designed and constructed the information, resources, criteria and methods for effective operation of these processes have been identified, developed and provided the necessary monitoring, measurement, analysis and improvement processes have been designed and installed Project or product audit The project audit should be conducted for each new project (i.e. an undertaking that requires the development of new or modified products, processes, services). The project audit should establish that: any changes to the management system processes that are needed to achieve specific product requirements have been identified the processes have been modified or new processes designed
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the information, resources, criteria and methods for effective operation and control of these processes have been identified, developed and provided the necessary monitoring, measurement, analysis and improvement processes have been designed and installed
Quality control (QC)

The ISO definition states that quality control is part of quality management focused on fulfilling requirements. Control is sometimes perceived as undesirable as it removes freedom, but if everyone were free to do just as they liked there would be chaos. Controls prevent change and when applied to quality they regulate quality performance and prevent undesirable changes being present in the quality of the product or service being supplied. When operations are under control they are predictable and predictability is a factor that is vital for any organization to be successful. If you cannot predict what might happen when a process is initiated, you are relying on chance. The quality of products and services cannot be left to chance. The simplest form of quality control is illustrated in Figure 2.4. Quality control can be applied to particular products, to processes that produce the products or to the output of the whole organization by measuring the overall quality performance of the organization. Control before the event Some failures cannot be allowed to occur and so must be prevented from happening through rigorous planning and design. Control during the event Some failures must be corrected immediately using automatic controls or mistake proofing. Figure 2.4 Generic By continuous monitoring of parameters in a processing plant the temperature, pressure, quantities etc, are adjusted to maintain output within control model specified limits. Control after the event Where the consequences of failure are less severe or where other types of sensors are not practical or possible, output verification can be used as a means of detecting failure. Product inspection and test is control after the event because it occurs after the product is produced. Quality control as a label 'Quality control' is also the term used as the name of a department. In most cases Quality Control Departments perform inspection and test activities and the name derives from the authority that such departments have been given. They sort good products from bad products and authorize the release of the good products. It is also common to find that Quality Control Departments perform supplier control activities, which are called Supplier Quality Assurance or Vendor Control. Universal sequence of steps The following steps can accomplish control of quality, or anything else for that matter: 1 Determine what parameter is to be controlled. 2 Establish its criticality and whether you need to control before, during or after results are produced. 3 Establish a specification for the parameter to be controlled which provides limits of acceptability and units of measure.
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4 Produce plans for controls that specify the means by which the characteristics will be achieved and variation detected and removed. 5 Organize resources to implement the plans for quality control. 6 Install a sensor at an appropriate point in the process to sense variance from specification. 7 Collect and transmit data to a place for analysis. 8 Verify the results and establish whether the variance is within the range expected for a stable process (the status quo). 9 Diagnose the cause of any variance beyond the expected range. 10 Propose remedies and decide on the action needed to restore the status quo. 11 Take the agreed action and check that process stability has been restored.
Variation
Variation is present in all systems. Nothing is absolutely stable. If you monitor the difference between the measured value and the required value of a characteristic and plot it on a horizontal timescale in the order the products were produced, you would notice that there is variation over time. There does not have to be a required value to spot variation. If you monitor any parameter over time (duration, resource consumption, strength, weight etc) you will see a pattern of variation that with an appropriate scale will show up significant deviations from the average. Common cause variation is random and therefore adjusting a process on detection of a common cause will destabilize the process. The cause has to be removed, not the process adjusted. When dealing with either common cause or special cause problems the search for the root cause will indicate whether the cause is random and likely to occur again or a one-off event. If it is random, only action on the system will eliminate it. If it is a one-off event, no action on the system will prevent its recurrence - it just has to be fixed. Imposing rules will not prevent a nonconformity caused by a worn out tool that someone forgot to replace. A good treatment of common cause and special cause variation is given in (Deming, W. Edwards, 1982)5. With a stable process the spread of common cause variation will be within certain limits. These limits are not the specification limits but are limits of natural variability of the process. These limits can be calculated and are referred to as the Upper and Lower Control Limits (UCL & LCL). The control limits may be outside the upper and lower specification limits to start with but as common causes are eliminated, they close in and eventually the spread of variation is all within the specification limits. Any variation outside the control limits will be rare and will signal the need for corrective action. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7
Control limits and specification limits
Keeping the process under control is process control. Keeping the process within the limits of the customer specification is quality control. The action needed to
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make the transition from process control to quality control is an improvement action and this is dealt with next. Example the sales data now plotted with control limits in Figure 4.4. We can see that this process was stable and it is unwise to ask, 'Why were sales so low in Yr 5 Month 1?' or 'Why were sales so high in Yr 5 Month 4?' Trying to find the answers to these questions could waste much time and effort, but would not change or improve the process. It would be useful, however, to ask, 'Why was the sales average so low and how can we increase it?'
Consider now a different set of sales data (Figure 4.5). This process was unstable and it is wise to ask, 'Why did the average sales increase after week 18?' Trying to find an answer to this question may
help to identify a special cause of variation. This in turn may lead to action which ensures that the sales do not fall back to the previous average. If the cause of this beneficial change is not identified, the managers may be powerless to act if the process changes back to its previous state. The use of run charts and control limits can help managers and process operators to ask useful questions which lead to better process management and improvements. They also discourage the asking of questions which lead to wasted effort and increased cost. Control charts (in this case a simple run chart with control limits) help managers generally to distinguish between common causes of variation and real change, whether that be for the worse or for the better. People in all walks of working life would be well advised to accept the inherent common cause variation in their processes and act on the special causes. If the latter are undesirable and can be We prevented from recurring, the process will be left only with common cause variation and it will be stable. Figure total variation will be reduced and the outputs more predictable. 4.5 ek Moreover, the Monthly sales data Accuracy and precision In the examination of process data, confusion often exists between the accuracy and precision of a process. An analogy may help to clarify the meaning of these terms.
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Two men with rifles each shoot one bullet at a target, both having aimed at the bull's eye. By a highly improbable coincidence, each marksman hits exactly the same spot on the target, away from the bull's eye (Figure 4.6). What instructions should be given to the men in order to improve their performance? Some
Figure 4.6
may feel that each man
The first coincidental shot from each of two marksmen
should be told to alter his gun-sights to adjust the aim: ' down a little and to the right' . Those who have done some shooting, however, will realize that this is premature, and that a more sensible instruction is to ask the men to fire again - perhaps using four more bullets, without altering the aim, to establish the nature of each man's shooting process. If this were to be done, we might observe two different types of pattern (Figure 4.7). Clearly, marksman 1 (Fred) is precise because all the bullet holes are clustered together - there is little spread, but he is not accurate since on average his shots have missed the bull's eye. It should be a simple job to make the adjustment for accuracy - perhaps to the gun-sight - and improve his performance to that shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.7 The results of five shots each for Fred and Jim their first identical shots are ringed
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Marksman 1 (Fred) Figure 4.8 Shooting process, after adjustment of the gun-sight Marksman 2 (Jim) has a completely different problem. We now see that the reason for his first wayward shot was completely different to the reason for Fred's. If we had adjusted Jim's gun-sights after just one shot, ' down a little and to the right' , Jim's whole process would have shifted, and things would have been worse (Figure 4.9). Table 4.3 then have been even Jim's next shot would Lengths of 100 further away from the bull's eye, as the adjustment affects only the accuracy and not the precision. Jim's problem of spread or lack of precision is likely to be a much more complex problem than Fred s lack of accuracy. The latter can usually be amended by a simple adjustment, whereas problems of wide scatter require a deeper investigation into the causes of the variation. 1 14414615414615115013415314 1 Several points are worth making from1571 simple analogy: 5 5139143152154146152148 this 1 5 53155157157150145147149144 1 There is a difference between the accuracy and the precision of a process; 1 137155of a process relates to its ability to hit the target value; 1 14114714915515815014 The accuracy 9 1 9156145148152154relates to the The precision of a process 1511501541 degree of spread of the values (variation); 5 1 531551451521481accuracy and The distinction between152146152142 precision may be assessed only by looking at a number of 1 values, not by looking at individual ones; 1 results 14416015014915014614815714 or 7 decisions about adjustments to 71441481491551501531481571 be made to a process, on the basis of one individual result, 1 Making 4 48149153153155149151155142 1 may give an undesirable outcome, owing to lack of information about process accuracy and 1 15015014615614816015214715 1 precision; 8 1 81541431561511511511521571 The adjustment to correct lack of process accuracy is likely to be Marksma 'simpler' than the larger 4 1 49154140157151 investigation usually required to understand or correct 4.9 Marskman n 2 (Jim) problems of spread or (Jim)variation. Figure 2 large after incorrect adjustment of gun-sight
Figure 4.10 Histogram of 100 steel rod lengths The shooting analogy is useful when we look at the performance of a manufacturing process producing goods with a variable property. Consider a steel rod cutting process which has as its target a length of 150 mm. The overall variability of such a process may be determined by measuring a large sample - say 100
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rods - from the process (Table 4.3), and shown graphically as a histogram (Figure 4.10). Another method of illustration is a frequency polygon which is obtained by connecting the mid-points of the tops of each column (Figure 4.11). When the number of rods measured is very large and the class intervals small, the polygon approximates to a curve, called the frequency curve (Figure 4.12). In many cases, the pattern would take the symmetrical form shown - the bell-shaped curve typical of the ' normal distribution . The greatest number of rods would have the target value, but there would be appreciable numbers either larger or smaller than the target length. Rods with dimensions further from the central value would occur progressively less frequently.
Figure 4.11 Frequency polygon of 100 Figure 4.12 The normal distributionsteel rod variable of a continuous lengths It is possible to imagine four different types of process frequency curve, which correspond to the four different performances of the two marksmen -see Figure 4.13. Hence, process 4 is accurate and relatively precise, as the average of the lengths of steel rod produced is on target, and all the lengths are reasonably close to the mean. If only common causes of variation are present, the output from a process forms a distribution that is stable over time and is, therefore, predictable (Figure 4.14a). Conversely, if special causes of variation are present, the process output is not stable over time and is not predictable (Figure 4.14b). For a detailed interpretation of the data, and before the design of a process control system can take place, this intuitive analysis must be replaced by more objective and quantitative methods of summarizing the histogram or frequency curve. In particular, some measure of both the location of the central value and of the spread must be found. Variation and management So how should John, David and Sheila, whom we met at the beginning of this chapter, manage their respective processes? First of all, basing each decision on just one result is dangerous. They all need to get the 'big picture', and see the context of their data/information. This is best achieved by plotting a run chart, which will show whether or not the process has or is changing over time. The run chart becomes a control chart if decision lines are added and this will help the managers to distinguish between: common cause variation - inherent in the process special cause variation - due to real changes. These managers must stop blaming people and start examining processes and the causes of variation.
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Fig. 4.14 common and special causes of variation
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The purpose of a control chart is to detect change in the performance of a process. A control chart illustrates the dynamic performance of the process, whereas a histogram gives a static picture of variations around a mean or average. Ideally these should be used together to detect: changes in absolute level (centring/accuracy) changes in variability (spread/precision). Generally pictures are more meaningful than tables of results. It is easier to detect relatively large changes, with respect to the underlying variation, than small changes and control limits help the detection of change.
Measures of accuracy or centering

In particular a measure of the central value is necessary, so that the accuracy or centring of a process may be estimated. There are various ways of doing this:
Mean (or arithmetic average)

This is simply the average of the observations, the sum of all the measurements divided by the number of the observations. For example, the mean of the first row of four measurements of rod lengths in Table 4.3: 144 mm, 146 mm, 154 mm, and 146 mm is obtained:
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1-Median
If the measurements are arranged in order of magnitude, the median is simply the value of the middle item. This applies directly if the number in the series is odd. When the number in the series is even, as in our example of the first four rod lengths in Table 4.1, the median lies between the two middle numbers. Thus, the four measurements arranged in order of magnitude are: 144, 146, 146, 154. The median is the middle item; in this case 146. In general, about half the values will be less than the median value, and half will be more than it. An advantage of using the median is the simplicity with which it may be determined, particularly when the number of items is odd.
2- Mode
A third method of obtaining a measure of central tendency is the most commonly occurring value, or mode. In our example of four, the value 146 occurs twice and is the modal value. It is possible for the mode to be nonexistent in a series of numbers or to have more than one value. When data are grouped
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into a frequency distribution, the mid-point of the cell with the highest frequency is the modal value. During many operations of recording data, the mode is often not easily recognized or assessed.
3-Relationship between mean, median and mode

Some distributions, as we have seen, are symmetrical about their central value. In these cases, the values for the mean, median and mode are identical. Other distributions have marked asymmetry and are said to be skewed. Skewed distributions are divided into two types. If the tail of the distribution stretches to the right the higher values, the distribution is said to be positively skewed; conversely in negatively skewed distributions the tail extends towards the left the smaller values. Figure 5.1 illustrates the relationship between the mean, median and mode of moderately skew distributions. An approximate relationship is: Mean Mode = 3 (Mean Median). Thus, knowing two of the parameters enables the third to be estimated
Measures of precision or spread

Measures of the extent of variation in process data are also needed. Again there are a number of methods: 1- Range The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest observations and is the simplest possible measure of scatter. For example, the range of the first four rod lengths is the difference between the longest (154 mm) and the
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The range offers a measure of scatter which can be used widely, owing to its simplicity. There are, however, two major problems in its use: (i) The value of the range depends on the number of observations in the sample. The range will tend to increase as the sample size increases. This can be shown by considering again the data on steel rod lengths in Table 4.3: The range of the first two observations is 2 mm. The range of the first four observations is 10 mm. The range of the first six observations is also 10 mm. The range of the first eight observations is 20 mm.
(ii) Calculation of the range uses only a portion of the data obtained. The range remains the same despite changes in the values lying between the lowest and the highest values. It would seem desirable to obtain a measure of spread which is free from these two disadvantages. 2 - Standard deviation The standard deviation takes all the data into account and is a measure of the deviation of the values from the mean. It is best illustrated by an example. Consider the deviations of the first four steel rod lengths from the mean:
Measurements above the mean have a positive deviation and measurements below the mean have a negative deviation. Hence, the total deviation from the mean is zero, which is obviously a useless measure of spread. If, however, each deviation is multiplied by itself, or squared, since a negative number multiplied by a negative number is positive, the squared deviations will always be positive:
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The standard deviation, normally denoted by the Greek letter sigma is the square root of the variance, which then measures the spread in the same units as the variable, i.e., in the case of the steel rods, in millimetres.
The true standard deviation like , can never be known, but for simplicity, the conventional symbol will be used throughout this book to represent the process standard deviation. If a sample is being used to estimate the spread of the process, then the sample standard deviation will tend to under-estimate the standard deviation of the whole process. This bias is particularly marked in small samples. To correct for the bias, the sum of the squared deviations is divided by the sample size minus one. In the above example, the estimated process standard deviation s is
The normal distribution The meaning of the standard deviation is perhaps most easily explained in terms of the normal distribution. If a continuous variable is monitored, such as the lengths of rod from the cutting process, the volume of paint in tins from a filling process, the weights of tablets from a pelletizing process, or the monthly sales of a product, that variable will usually be distributed normally about a mean . The spread of values may be measured in terms of the population standard deviation, which defines the width of the bell-shaped curve. Figure 5.2 shows the proportion of the output expected to be found between the values of , 2 and 3 .
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Suppose the process mean of the steel rod cutting process is 150 mm and that the standard deviation is 5 mm, then from a knowledge of the shape of the curve and the properties of the normal distribution, the following facts would emerge:
We may be confident then that almost all the steel rods produced will have lengths between 135 mm and 165 mm. The approximate distance between the two extremes of the distribution, therefore, is 30 mm, which is equivalent to 6 standard deviations or 6 . The mathematical equation and further theories behind the normal distribution are given in Appendix A. This appendix includes a table on page 368 which gives the probability that any item chosen at random from a normal distribution will fall outside a given number of standard deviations from the mean. The table shows that, at the value + 1.96 , only 0.025 or 2.5 per cent of the population will exceed this length. The same proportion will be less than 1.96 . Hence 95 per cent of the population will lie within 1.96 . In the case of the steel rods with mean length 150 mm and standard deviation 5 mm, 95 per cent of the rods will have lengths between: 150 (1.96 _ 5) mm
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i.e. between 140.2 mm and 159.8 mm. Similarly, 99.8 per cent of the rod lengths should be inside the range: 3.09 , i.e. 150 (3.09 _ 5) or 134.55 mm to 165.45 mm. Quality improvement (QI) Firstly we need to put quality improvement in context because it is minefield of terms and concepts that overlap one another. There are three things that are certain in this life, death, taxes and change! We cannot improve anything unless we know its present condition and this requires measurement and analysis to tell us whether improvement is both desirable and feasible. Improvement is always relative. This leads us to ask four key questions: 1 Are we doing it right? 2 Can we keep on doing it right? 3 Are we doing it in the best way? 4 Is it the right thing to do?
Are we doing it right?

Would the answer be this? No we are not because every time we do it we get it wrong and have to do it again. Or would it be this? Yes we are because every time we do it we get it right - we never have to do it over again. Quality improvement in this context is for better control and is about improving the rate at which an agreed standard is achieved. It is therefore a process for reducing the spread of common cause variation so that all products meet agreed standards. This is illustrated in Figure 2.9. It is not about removing special cause variation - this requires the corrective action process.
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A typical quality improvement of this type might be to reduce the spread of variation in a parameter so that the average value coincides with the nominal value. Another example might be to reduce the defect rate from three sigma to six sigma. The changes that might be needed to meet this objective can be simple changes in working practices or complex changes that demand a redesign of the process or a change in working conditions. These might be achieved using existing methods or technology but it may require innovation in management or technology to accomplish.
Six sigma In a perfect world, we would like the range of variation to be well within the upper and lower specification limits for the characteristics being measured but invariably we produce defectives. If there were an 80% yield from each stage in a 10-stage process, the resultant output would be less than 11% and as indicated in Table 2.3. we would obtain only 4 good products from an initial batch of 1 million. Even if the process stage yield was 99% we would still only obtain half of the products we started with. It is therefore essential that multiple stage processes have a process stage yield well in excess of 99% and it is from this perspective that the concept of six sigma emerges. Table 2.3 10 Step process yield
StageYield/stageTotal % yieldInitial population 1 million10.8080800000.0020.8064512000.0030.8051.2262144.0 040.8041107374.1850.8032.835184.3760.8026.29223.3770.80 211934.2880.8016.8324.5290.8013.443.56100.8010.74.68
Can we keep on doing it right? Would the answer be this? No we can't because the supply of resource is
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unpredictable, the equipment is wearing out and we can't afford to replace it. Or would it be this? Yes we can because we have secured a continual supply of resources and have in place measures that will provide early warning of impending changes. Are we doing it in the best way? Would the answer be this? We have always done it this way and if it isn't broke why fix it? Or would it be this? Yes we think so because we have compared our performance with the best in class and we are as good as they are. One might argue that any target can be met providing we remove the constraints and throw lots of money at it. Although the targets may be achieved, the achievement may consume too much resource; time and materials may be wasted there may be a better way of doing it. By finding a better way you release resources to be used more productively. Is it the right thing to do? Would the answer be this? I don't know - we always measure customer satisfaction by the number of complaints Or would it be this? Yes I believe it is because these targets relate very well to the organizations objectives. Quality improvement in this context is accomplished by raising standards and is about setting a new level of performance, a new target that brings additional benefits for the interested parties. These targets are performance targets for products, processes and the system. They are not targets established for the level of errors such as nonconformities, scrap, and customer complaints. Improving quality by better control or raising standards can be accomplished by the following steps. 1 Determine the objective to be achieved, e.g. new markets, products or technologies, or new levels of organizational efficiency or managerial effectiveness, new national standards or government legislation. These provide the reasons for needing change. 2 Determine the policies needed for improvement, i.e. the broad guidelines to enable management to cause or stimulate the improvement. 3 Conduct a feasibility study. This should discover whether accomplishment of the objective is feasible and propose several strategies or conceptual solutions for consideration. If feasible, approval to proceed should be secured. 4 Produce plans for the improvement that specifies the means by which the objective will be achieved. 5 Organize the resources to implement the plan. 6 Carry out research, analysis and design to define a possible solution and credible alternatives. 7 Model and develop the best solution and carry out tests to prove it fulfils the objective. 8 Identify and overcome any resistance to the change in standards.
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9 Implement the change, i.e. put new products into production and new services into operation. 10 Put in place the controls to hold the new level of performance. This improvement process will require controls to keep improvement projects on course towards their objectives. The controls applied should be designed in the manner described previously.
Quality assurance (QA) The ISO definition states that quality assurance is part of quality management focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled. Both customers and managers have a need for quality assurance because they are not in a position to oversee operations for themselves. They need to place trust in the producing operations, thus avoiding constant intervention. Customers and managers need: 1 Knowledge of what is to be supplied. (This may be gained from the sales literature, contract or agreement.) 2 Knowledge of how the product or service is intended to be supplied (This may be gained from the supplier's proposal or offer.) 3 Knowledge that the declared intentions will satisfy customer requirements if met. (This may be gained from personal assessment or reliance on independent certifications.) 4 Knowledge that the declared intentions are actually being followed. (This may be gained by personal assessment or reliance on independent audits.) 5 Knowledge that the products and services meet the specified requirements. (This may be gained by personal assessment or reliance on independent audits.) The following steps can obtain an assurance of quality: 1 Acquire the documents that declare the organization's plans for achieving quality. 2 Produce a plan that defines how an assurance of quality will be obtained, i.e. a quality assurance plan. 3 Organize the resources to implement the plans for quality assurance. 4 Establish whether the organization's proposed product or service possesses characteristics that will satisfy customer needs. 5 Assess operations, products and services of the organization and determine where and what the quality risks are. 6 Establish whether the organization's plans make adequate provision for the control, elimination or reduction of the identified risks. 7 Determine the extent to which the organization's plans are being implemented and risks contained. 8 Establish whether the product or service being supplied has the prescribed characteristics. Quality management systems Philosophy
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Quality management systems are like air conditioning systems - they need to be designed. All the components need to fit together, the inputs and outputs need to be connected, sensors need to feed information to processes which cause changes in performance and all parts need to work together to achieve a common purpose. The quality management system must exist to achieve the organization's quality objectives. This concept was unclear in the 1994 version with the result that many quality systems were focused on procedures for their own sake rather than on serving objectives. It would appear therefore that other parts of the management system are intended to serve the achievement of specific objectives. For example we could establish: Safety systems to serve safety objectives Environmental systems to serve environmental objectives Security systems to serve security objectives Human resource systems to serve human resource objectives Marketing systems to serve marketing objectives Innovation systems to serve innovation objectives Financial systems to serve financial objectives
Process results The outputs are things, they do result from a process - of that there is no doubt but the measurable results of the process are the outcomes: Is the process delivering outputs that meet the input requirements? Is the process operating efficiently? Is the process effective? These questions are not answered by a single process output but by monitoring and measurement taken of the outcomes - not the output.
Relationship of business process Scope Business process Relationship to Unrelated organization hierarchy Ownership of No natural owner process Level of Executive level attention Relationship to Directly related business goals Responsibility Customers Suppliers Measures
to work processes Work process Closely related
Departmental head or supervisor Supervisory or operator level Indirectly related and sometimes (incorrectly) unrelated Multifunctional Single function Generally external or Other departments other business or personnel in processes same department Generally external or Other departments other business or personnel in processes same department Quality, cost delivery Errors, quantities,
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Dr.Mostafa M. Elafandy Units of measure
Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding response time % Defective, % Sales cancelled, % value, Throughput
Customer satisfaction, shareholder cycle time
Summary :
ISO 9001:2008 requirements as per ANSI/ISO/ASQ(E)Q9001-2008
4. Quality Management System 4.1.General Requirements. 4.2.Documentation Requirements. 4.2.1. General 4.2.2. Quality Manual 4.2.3. Control of Documents 4.2.4. Control of Records 5. Management Responsibility. 5.1.Management Commitment. 5.2.Customer Focus. 5.3.Quality Policy. 5.4.Planning. 5.4.1. Quality Objectives. 5.4.2. QMS Planning. 5.5.Responsibility, Authority & Communication. 5.5.1. Responsibility and Authority. 5.5.2. Management Representative. 5.5.3. Internal Communication. 5.6.Management Review. 5.6.1. General. 5.6.2. Review Inputs. 5.6.3. Review Outputs. 6. Recourse Managements. 6.1.Provision of Recourses.
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6.2.Human Recourses. 6.2.1. General
6.2.2. Competence, Awareness and Training. 6.3.Infrastructure. 6.4.Work environment. 7. Product Realization. 7.1.Planning of Product Realization 7.2.Customer Related Process. 7.2.1. Determination of Requirements Related to the Product. 7.2.2. Review of Requirements Related to the Product. 7.2.3. Customer Communication. 7.3.Designing & Developments. 7.3.1. Designing & Developments Planning. 7.3.2. Designing & Developments Inputs. 7.3.3. Designing & Developments Outputs. 7.3.4. Designing & Developments Review. 7.3.5. Designing & Developments Verification. 7.3.6. Designing & Developments Validation. 7.3.7. Control of Designing & Developments Changes. 7.4.Purchasing 7.4.1. Purchasing Process. 7.4.2. Purchasing Information. 7.4.3. Verification of Purchased Product. 7.5.Production and Services Provision. 7.5.1. Control Production and Services Provision. 7.5.2. Validation of Process. 7.5.3. Identification & Traceability. 7.5.4. Customer Property. 7.5.5. Preservation of Product. 7.6.Control of Monitoring and Measuring Devises. 8. Measurement, Analysis and Improvement. 8.1.General. 8.2.Monitoring & Measurements.
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8.2.1. Customer Satisfaction. 8.2.2. Internal Audit. 8.2.3. Monitoring & Measurements of the Processes. 8.2.4. Monitoring & Measurements of the Product. 8.3.Control of Non-Conforming Product. 8.4.Analysis of Data. 8.5.Improvement. 8.5.1. Continual Improvement. 8.5.2. Corrective Action. 8.5.3. Preventive Action.
Production Control
Production control is responsible for monitoring cost and schedule adherence while work is in progress. The production control organization is generally responsible for issuing man-hour budgets to be used to control the shipbuilding process and upon which progress will be judged Progress relates actual work completed and actual man-hours spent. Consequently, there is need for evaluation which involves sorting, analyzing, and reorganizing performance data. These data are collected by control groups in order to monitor expended man-hours, production progress, and productivity, and to feed back system-oriented data for estimating future shipbuilding projects.
Accuracy Control
A shipbuilding system based on group technology, using a product-oriented work breakdown structure and integrated hull construction, outfitting, and painting, requires that accuracy be controlled. Otherwise, work in succeeding stages of production is adversely affected by inaccurate interim products. Consequently, a system is needed to control the accuracy of interim products Accuracy control is defined as "the use of statistical techniques to monitor, control and continuously improve shipbuilding design details planning, and work methods so as to maximize productivity" For example, fabricated flat bars will exhibit variations from design dimensions. These variations, when plotted by the number of times they occur, approximate a normal distribution (see Figure 8-1) Two parameters describe the relative shape of a normal distribution (N) They are: mean, , the arithmetical average of variations in a sample, which describes the central tendency of the distribution standard deviation, which classes the sizes of variations from the mean value by their frequencies of occurrence, and thus is a measure of the relative scatter of points around the mean. For a normal distribution, 67 percent of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean, 95 percent fall within two standard deviations, 99. 7 percent fall within three standard deviations, and so on. Both parameters are obtainable from mathematical formulas Note that in the remainder of this chapter, discussion centers on sampling from normal distributions. The normal distribution of samples from a normally distributed population is described by the sample mean, , and the sample standard deviation, as described above Similar considerations can be
46
applied to each work process Thus, spacings between longitudinals will vary, and another normal distribution having its own mean value and standard deviation applies (see Figure 8-2) Whether the variations in both flat bar lengths and longitudinal spacings impose requirements for rework depends upon their merger during a later assembly process.
Fig.8.1 Normal distribution of variation from design dimension of cut flat bars
Control Charts
The most common tool used in statistical quality control is the Shewhart control chart Control charts apply the concept of expected and measurable variation in work processes and are used to distinguish between common cause variations and special cause errors The control charts, a related set of one and one R chart, are plots of the mean and range (R) of random samples of measurements from a specific work process over time (see Figure 8-3)[3] Like the standard deviation, the range of a random sample is a measure of scatter R is the difference between the largest and smallest value in the sample, and although it is a less rigorous measure of variability than the standard deviation, its simplicity has led to its widespread use in control charts. Control chart theory is based on the statistical central limit theorem The central limit theorem states that the distribution of he means of random samples taken from a normal distribution is another normal distribution with the same mean as the original distribution and a standard deviation equal to the standard deviation of the original distribution divided by the square root of the random sample size (see Figure 84) It also states that the distribution of means of random samples will follow a normal distribution, even if the samples are taken from a non-normal population. This result can be used to detect changes in the original distribution, which would indicate the presence of special causes of variation.
The control charts provide information about a particular work process. Since some dimensional variation is a regular result of any work process, it is important to be able to distinguish between expected chance
47
or random variations, and other variations Thus the control charts are a tool to monitor work processes to assure that action need not be taken to maintain the usually achieved accuracy of the process.
Example: Study the Tail-shaft works in dry docking and calculate :

48
Dr.Mostafa M. Elafandy ABCDE-
planning of Tail-shaft removal and return fixation Man hours needed Schedule time Put the quality standards for all steps Quality control management
Solution :
(a) Planning of tail shaft removal & return fixation & (B) Man-hours needed
Assumption: Tail shaft diameter is 200 mm with fixed pitch propeller & the tail shaft will be withdrawing outboard Referance : "Guide to ship repair estimate" Don Butler, 1st published 2000
I- Tailshaft/sterntube clearances (Table 2.7 page 17)

Removing rope-guard, measuring and recording wear-down of tailshaft and refitting rope-guard, including erection of staging for access, by:
Man Hours Job (MH) Code
(a) (b) (c)
Feeler gauge. Poker gauge coupled with jacking up shaft. Repacking internal sterngland using owner's supplied soft
15 MH 22 MH 11 MH
TS01 TS02 TS03
greasy packing.
II- Removal of Tail shaft for survey (Table 2.8 page 18)
Disconnecting and removing fixed-pitch propeller and landing in dock bottom (a) Disconnecting and removing tapered, keyed, inboard tailshaft coupling, drawing tailshaft outboard and landing in dock bottom for survey, cleaning, calibrating and refitting all on completion. Includes erection of staging for access. Includes repacking inboard gland using owner's supplied, conventional soft greasy packing. Excludes any repairs. Excludes any work on patent gland seals u s i n g o w n e r' s s u p p li 8 MH TS05 e d c o n v e TS06 n ti 49 o n a l s o f t g r e a s y p a c k i n g .
III-
Crack Detection
Magnaflux testing of tailshaft taper and key way. (a)Testing works, which is performed after all removals for access.
IV- Gland & Simplex type seal (Table 2.9 Page 19)
(a) Removing gland follower, removing existing packing from internal 12 MH
stern gland, cleaning out stuffing box and repacking gland
Excluding all machining works. Assuming previous withdrawing of tailshaft . 120 MH TS04
Total man-hours = 188 MH
8MH
TS05
12MH
TS06
50
Bar chart
(d)& (e) Quality Control & Standard allowance during tail shaft Removal.
1) Survey records Engine power Speed at which the engine is rated rpm Reduction ratio of the gearbox Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of shaft material N/mm2 Shaft material specification.
The following information should always be stated on the surveyors report 1. if the propeller shaft was removed or not, 2. if yes, was it subsequently renewed or reconditioned, 3. if not, the date of the last removal or partial withdrawal, and if renewed or reconditioned, and 4. if the propeller shaft has been accepted below rule size. 5. tail shaft and intermediate shaft clearances
2) Shaft removal considerations
Removal of a propeller shaft is to be anticipated whenever the vessel is dry-docked for renewal survey, in accordance with the survey schedule. However, where there is evidence available to indicate that the stern gear is in good working order, it may not be necessary to insist on removal. The following checks are designed to ensure that, when completed, the surveyor should be satisfied that the stern gear, including the propeller shaft, will continue in a serviceable condition for the period covered by his declaration. If there is any reasonable doubt, the propeller shaft should be removed, either partially or fully. In order to assist surveyors arrive at a decision the following points should be considered:-
(a) Evidence of recent maintenance work carried out on the stern gear, and
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(b) Any other relevant comments by the owner/skipper on the running

condition of the stern gear. In both of these cases the surveyor should make a judgment taking into account the following items:-
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h)
Date the propeller shaft was last withdrawn, Date the propeller shaft was last replaced or reconditioned, Any records of excessive noise/vibration, Indication that the propeller shaft is bent, Any evidence of the intermediate bearings (if any) between the engine (or gearbox) and the stern tube running hot, In an oil lubricated stern gear system any evidence of oil consumption over a known period of time, Any evidence of water in the oil reservoir Any evidence of oil leakage past an internal seal.
Table 1 indicates which checks are applicable. Wherever possible advice should be sought and taken, from competent repair technicians on how to proceed with examination of the stern gear. On larger vessels, the wear is measured using a wear down gauge. Note: Table 1 - Applicability of
checks Water lubricated propeller shaft bearings

This type of stern gear has many variations in operating conditions which can affect its serviceability, including whether the shaft material is corrosion resistant or not. The stern gear should be checked as detailed in Table 1.
C CHECK forBEARING TYPE WATER LUBRICATEDGREASE LUBRICATEDOIL LUBRICATED(a) WearYesYesYes(b) Bent shaftYesYesYes(c) L ( ( Corrosion/pittingYesYesYes(d) GroovingYesYesYes(e) Seal/cutlass C ( bearingYesYesYes(f) Grease supplyN/AYesN/A(g) Oil analysisN/AN/AYes b ( (
3) Corrodible tail shafts
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Sample 60 mm shaft corrodible
Some tail shafts are made from corrodible steel which are liable to corrosion anywhere, but especially prone to severe corrosion/wastage in the hidden section between the outer bearing and inner bearing (or gland). In some cases brass or similar protective liners are fitted in way of the bearing surfaces, but any unprotected surface will remain hidden from view. In such cases, the tail shaft will need be withdrawn to the extent necessary for the unprotected section to be examined. At this point the surveyor should make a decision based on evidence already available and that obtained from the above checks whether to remove, or partially remove the stern gear for examination. 4) Calculation of propeller shaft allowable wear The manufacturers' recommended allowable tolerances for wear between the stern tube and propeller shaft should be consulted. Where these are not available, the permissible clearance will vary depending on shaft diameter, but should not normally exceed 6 to 10mm in the case of lignum vitae. The following points should be considered when making a judgment on acceptability and period before re-survey or otherwise:
1) The rate of wear obtained between successive dockings in the past;

consideration being given for initial high rates of wear that can be experienced after re-wooding.
2) Past and prospective future service of the vessel. 3) Next probable occasion when renewal of the bearings could be carried out. 4) Any recent history of excessive stern-gland leakage which may make it necessary to
limit the wear to less than the general limits specified in the following table.
5) Whether the shaft exceeds the required diameter for its material strength. 6) As a rule of thumb, for on the spot decisions, shaft wear of 2%, with a
maximum of 5mm should be considered for replacement.
53
5) Shaft survey
Shafts should be carefully examined for cracks, particularly at keyways. The forward and aft ends of liners where corrosion may sometimes be found should be examined. Signs of fretting are occasionally evident on the shaft cone, owing possibly to unsatisfactory fit of the propeller or inadequate hardening up of the nut. Areas of corrosion, sometimes in the form of a circumferential band at the large end of the cone, should be viewed with suspicion. In extreme cases, circumferential stress corrosion cracking has developed from such areas. This defect is usually attributable to the presence of sea water.
Where screw shafts require examination at the forward part of the cone or the
fillet in flanged propeller attachments by an efficient crack detection method, this should be of the magnetic particle type (MPI) for shafts of ordinary steel. Facilities for MPI are available at most dry-docks but where they are not, the shaft can be readily magnetized by encircling it with a few turns of cable connected to a suitable low voltage, high amperage electric current.
Any cracks found will generally be the result of fatigue. The extent and depth
of any crack should be determined by grinding out the affected area until it has been confirmed by MPI that the crack has been entirely removed. Where defects are situated near the end of a liner, it must be verified that these do not continue under the liner. The liner should be machined back if necessary. The threaded end and nut should be carefully examined.
6) Replacement shafting
Only materials known to be suitable for the manufacture of shafts, shaft couplings and coupling bolts are to used for that purpose. A test certificate for the material must be produced, in order that strength calculations may be undertaken.
Where the diameter of a forged steel shaft is 250 mm or greater it should be
subjected to ultrasonic tests. Shaft couplings should be forged from the solid shaft or may be formed by
upsetting the ends by hydraulic pressure. Couplings, when separate from the shaft, may be steel castings or forged from ingot steel.
Shaft coupling bolts should be manufactured from ingot steel having an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 430 to 780 N/mm2 or equivalent UTS of the shaft material used. The makers' guarantee regarding the quality of the material may be accepted. If calculations are required for components dimensions, these can be obtained from class rules. 7) Repairs
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Localized corrosion damage or gland wear, up to a depth of 3mm, may be repaired by a class approved spray welding process. However, this repair would not be acceptable in way of bearing contact.
If the shaft was oversize, it may be machined down to that required for the
power rating. Where the shaft has been machined to remove surface cracks, and the shaft is to be refitted, the material around the depressions must be carefully blended into the adjacent surface of the shaft to avoid stress raisers. Machining in way of bearings would require that new bearings would be fitted.
Bronze liners worn in way of stern gland packing may be repaired by welding, in accordance with a class approved procedure.
References:
1- Don Butler "Guide to ship repair estimate", 1st published 2000. 2- David Hoyle, ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook, Fourth Edition, 2001. 3- Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard, (Rev.4, Aug. 2008). 4- Richard Lee Storch, Colinp. Hammon, Howard M. Bunch & Richard C. Moore,
Ship Production, Second edition, Book, 1995.
5- John S. Oakland, Statistical Process Control, Fifth Edition, book, 2003. 6- John M. Nicholas, Project Management for Business and Engineering, 2nd
Edition, book, Loyola University Chicago, 2004.
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The End
56
Dr.Mostafa.M. Elafandy - Planning and Production Control in Shipbuilding
2009
Sample 60 mm shaft corrodible
Some tail shafts are made from corrodible steel which are liable to corrosion anywhere, but especially prone to severe corrosion/wastage in the hidden section between the outer bearing and inner bearing (or gland). In some cases brass or similar protective liners are fitted in way of the bearing surfaces, but any unprotected surface will remain hidden from view. In such cases, the tail shaft will need be withdrawn to the extent necessary for the unprotected section to be examined. At this point the surveyor should make a decision based on evidence already available and that obtained from the above checks whether to remove, or partially remove the stern gear for examination. 4) Calculation of propeller shaft allowable wear The manufacturers' recommended allowable tolerances for wear between the stern tube and propeller shaft should be consulted. Where these are not available, the permissible clearance will vary depending on shaft diameter, but should not normally exceed 6 to 10mm in the case of lignum vitae. The following points should be considered when making a judgment on acceptability and period before re-survey or otherwise:
7) The rate of wear obtained between successive dockings in the past;

consideration being given for initial high rates of wear that can be experienced after re-wooding.
8) Past and prospective future service of the vessel. 9) Next probable occasion when renewal of the bearings could be carried out.
57 | P a g e
2009
10) Any recent history of excessive stern-gland leakage which may make it necessary to limit
the wear to less than the general limits specified in the following table.
11) Whether the shaft exceeds the required diameter for its material strength. 12) As a rule of thumb, for on the spot decisions, shaft wear of 2%, with a maximum
of 5mm should be considered for replacement. 5) Shaft survey
Shafts should be carefully examined for cracks, particularly at keyways. The forward and aft ends of liners where corrosion may sometimes be found should be examined. Signs of fretting are occasionally evident on the shaft cone, owing possibly to unsatisfactory fit of the propeller or inadequate hardening up of the nut. Areas of corrosion, sometimes in the form of a circumferential band at the large end of the cone, should be viewed with suspicion. In extreme cases, circumferential stress corrosion cracking has developed from such areas. This defect is usually attributable to the presence of sea water.
Where screw shafts require examination at the forward part of the cone or the
fillet in flanged propeller attachments by an efficient crack detection method, this should be of the magnetic particle type (MPI) for shafts of ordinary steel. Facilities for MPI are available at most dry-docks but where they are not, the shaft can be readily magnetized by encircling it with a few turns of cable connected to a suitable low voltage, high amperage electric current.
Any cracks found will generally be the result of fatigue. The extent and depth of any crack should be determined by grinding out the affected area until it has been confirmed by MPI that the crack has been entirely removed. Where defects are situated near the end of a liner, it must be verified that these do not continue under the liner. The liner should be machined back if necessary. The threaded end and nut should be carefully examined.
6) Replacement shafting
Only materials known to be suitable for the manufacture of shafts, shaft couplings and coupling bolts are to used for that purpose. A test certificate for the material must be produced, in order that strength calculations may be undertaken.
Where the diameter of a forged steel shaft is 250 mm or greater it should be
subjected to ultrasonic tests.
58 | P a g e
2009
Shaft couplings should be forged from the solid shaft or may be formed by
upsetting the ends by hydraulic pressure. Couplings, when separate from the shaft, may be steel castings or forged from ingot steel.
Shaft coupling bolts should be manufactured from ingot steel having an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 430 to 780 N/mm2 or equivalent UTS of the shaft material used. The makers' guarantee regarding the quality of the material may be accepted. If calculations are required for components dimensions, these can be obtained from class rules. 7) Repairs
Localized corrosion damage or gland wear, up to a depth of 3mm, may be repaired by a class approved spray welding process. However, this repair would not be acceptable in way of bearing contact.
If the shaft was oversize, it may be machined down to that required for the power
rating. Where the shaft has been machined to remove surface cracks, and the shaft is to be refitted, the material around the depressions must be carefully blended into the adjacent surface of the shaft to avoid stress raisers. Machining in way of bearings would require that new bearings would be fitted.
Bronze liners worn in way of stern gland packing may be repaired by welding, in accordance with a class approved procedure.
References:
7- Don Butler "Guide to ship repair estimate", 1st published 2000. 8- David Hoyle, ISO 9000 Quality Systems Handbook, Fourth Edition, 2001. 9- Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard, (Rev.4, Aug. 2008). 10- RICHARD LEE STORCH, COLIN P. HAMMON, HOWARD M. BUNCH, & RICHARD
C. MOORE, SHIP PRODUCTION, SECOND EDITION, Book, 1995.
11- John S. Oakland, Statistical Process Control, Fifth Edition, book, 2003. 12- John M. Nicholas, Project Management for Businessand Engineering, 2nd Edition,
book, Loyola University Chicago, 2004.
59 | P a g e
2009
60 | P a g e

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