Unit 7: Work and Energy

Energy and physical state

• The energy possessed by a body characterizes its physical
state.

• Energy is classified into different forms, depending on the The state of a body is a
general term that
body’s state. encompasses any physical
• For example, bodies in a high velocity state have high
characteristics used to
describe it, such as its
kinetic energy, and bodies in a high temperature state have position, its velocity, its
high thermal energy. temperature, etc.
Work done by a force
• So how does a body gain energy in the first place?

• A body gains energy if work, W, is done on it.

• Work is done on a body by a force acting on and

displacing it.

• The work done W, by a force F is

W ≡ F ∆r cosθ
Work done by a constant force
W ≡ F ∆r cos θ
for θ = 0 ⇒ W = F ∆r
Units:

• Newton x meter = Joule

• N . m = J = kg m2/ss

• Work is a scalar

• Although the force and displacement are both

vectors

• Work can be positive or negative

Work, cont.

• W = F ∆r cos θ
• The displacement is that of the point
of application of the force
• A force does no work on the object if
the force does not move through a
displacement
• The work done by a force on a
moving object is zero when the force
applied is perpendicular to the
displacement of its point of
application
 Work and Directions
• The term F cos θ is equal to the component of the
force along the direction of the displacement.

• When the component of the force is parallel to the

displacement, the work is positive (A).

• When the component of the force is antiparallel to

the displacement, the work is negative (B).

• When the component of the force is perpendicular to

the displacement, the work is zero (C) .
Work is an energy transfer
• When an agent applies a force to an object and does an amount of work W on that object,
the object will do an amount of work equal to –W back on the agent.

• The forces form a Newton’s Third Law action-reaction pair.

• If W = work done on system and W positive → energy transferred to system

• If W negative → energy transferred from system

• If system interacts with environment → interaction described as transfer of energy across

system boundary
 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

• The scalar product of two

 
vectors is written as A ⋅ B.

• It is also called the dot

product.  
A ⋅ B ≡ A B cos θ
•

• θ is the angle between A

and B

• Applied to work, this means

 
(for constant F)
W = F ∆r cos θ = F ⋅ ∆ r
Scalar Product, cont.
• The scalar product is commutative.
   
•
A ⋅B = B ⋅ A
• The scalar product obeys the distributive law of multiplication.

      
( )
•
A ⋅ B + C = A ⋅B + A ⋅ C
 Dot Products of Unit Vectors
ˆi ⋅ ˆi = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1
ˆi ⋅ ˆj =ˆi ⋅ kˆ =ˆj ⋅ kˆ =0
Using component form with vectors:

A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Azkˆ

B = Bx ˆi + By ˆj + Bzkˆ
 
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
 
In the special case where A = B;
 
A ⋅ A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 = A2
Example
 
The vectors A and B are given by
 
A =2ˆi + 3ˆj and B =−ˆi + 2ˆj
 
( A ) Determine the scalar product A ⋅ B.
 
A ⋅ B= ( )(
2ˆi + 3ˆj ⋅ −ˆi + 2ˆj )
=−2ˆi ⋅ ˆi + 2ˆi ⋅ 2ˆj − 3ˆj ⋅ ˆi + 3ˆj ⋅ 2ˆj
=2 (1) + 4 ( 0 ) − 3 ( 0 ) + 6 (1) =−2 + 6 = 4
 
A ⋅ B= Ax Bx + Ay By= ( 2 )( −1) + ( 3)( 2 )= 4
Example (cont.)
 
( B ) Find the angle θ between A and B.

A= Ax + Ay = ( 2) + ( 3) =
2 2 2 2
13

B = Bx + By = ( −1) + ( 2) = 5
2 2 2 2

 
A⋅B 4 4
=
cos θ = =
AB 13 5 65
4
θ cos
= −1
= 60.3°
65
Example
A force F = 3i + 2j – 4k acts on an object moving it from a
position i + 5j – 4k to a position 3i – 2j + 8k. The work done
by F is
a. 2
b. -24
c. -56
d. 56
e. 48

13
Example

A force F = 3i + 2j – 4k acts on an object moving it from a

position i + 5j – 4k to a position 3i – 2j + 8k. The work done by
F is
a. 2 SOLUTION:
b. -24 Δr = r2 – r1 = (3i – 2j + 8k) – (i + 5j – 4k)

c. - 56 = 2i - 7j +12k

d. 56 W = F  Δr = (3i + 2j – 4k)  (2i - 7j + 12k)

e. 48
= 6 – 14 – 48 = - 56

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Example -
A constant force of 12 N in the +x-direction acts on a 4.0 kg
object as it moves from the origin to the point 6𝐢𝐢 − 8𝐣𝐣 m. How
much work is done by the given force during this displacement?

a. 60 J
b. 84 J
c. 72 J
d. 48 J
e. 57 J

15
Example -
A constant force of 12 N in the +x-direction acts on a 4.0 kg object as
it moves from the origin to the point 6𝐢𝐢 − 8𝐣𝐣 m. How much work is
done by the given force during this displacement?

a. 60 J
b. 84 J
SOLUTION:
c. 72 J W = F  Δr = (12i)  (6i – 8j)
d. 48 J
= 72 J
e. 57 J

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Graphical Analysis of Work

• So far, have assumed the force is constant

• Look at a plot of force as a function of the

displacement

• When the force is constant, the graph is a

straight line

• The work is equal to the area under the plot

Graphical Analysis of Work, cont.

• The force doesn’t have to be constant.

• For each small displacement, Δx, you can

calculate the work and then add those
results to find the total work.
• The area can be estimated by dividing the

area in a series of rectangles

xf
W ≈ ∑ Fx ∆x
For all of the intervals,

xi
Work Done by a Varying Force, cont.

Let the size of the small displacements approach zero .

Since
xf

∑ F ∆x =∫
xf
lim
∆x →0 x Fx dx
xi
xi

Therefore,
xf
W = ∫ Fx dx
xi

The work done is equal to the area under the

curve between xi and xf.
Example: Calculating Total Work Done from a Graph
A force acting on a particle varies with x as shown in the figure. Calculate the
work done by the force on the particle as it moves from x = 0 to x = 6.0 m.
Example: Calculating Total Work Done from a Graph

WA to B (=
5.0 N )( 4.0 m ) 20 J

1
WB to C = ( 5.0 N )( 2.0 m ) 5.0 J
2

W=
A to C WA to B + WB to C
=20 J + 5.0 J = 25 J
Work done by a spring

Force required to stretch or compress

spring ∝ amount of stretch or compression

x → Hooke’s law
Fs = −kx
k = measure of stiffness of spring
• Stiff springs have large k values
• Soft springs have small k values
• Units: N/m
Vector form:

Fs = Fs ˆi = −kxˆi
 Work done by a spring
Figure is plot of Fs versus x
• Fs ∝ x → graph of Fs versus x straight line
• Work = area of shaded triangle,
corresponding to displacement from –xmax
to 0
• Triangle has base xmax and height k xmax:
its area = ½ k xmax2

If block undergoes arbitrary displacement 1 2 1

Ws =∫ ( −kx ) dx = kxi − kx f
xf
2
from x = xi to x = xf → Work done by spring
force on block is:
xi 2 2
Kinetic energy
• Kinetic energy K is the energy associated with the state of motion of an
object.

• For an object of mass m whose speed is v

K = ½ mv2
• The SI unit of kinetic energy (and every other type of energy) is joule (J).

1 joule = 1 J = 1 kg∙m2/s2
Work-kinetic energy theorem

∑ Fdx
xf
Wext = ∫
xi

xf dv xf xf dx dv vf
Wext ∫=
= ma dx ∫ = m dx ∫ m= dx ∫ mv dv
xi xi dt xi dt dx vi

1 1
=
Wext mv f − mvi 2
2

2 2

1 2
K ≡ mv
2
Wext =
K f − Ki =
∆K
 Work-kinetic energy theorem

Wext =
K f − Ki =
∆K
• This theorem states that when an external force acts on a body, the kinetic
energy of the body changes by an amount equal to the work done on it.
• Therefore, although work is a scalar quantity measured in Joules, like
energy, it is not a form of energy per se: it is a form of energy transfer to
or from a body.
Work done on versus work done by a body

Work is done on a body if W>0. This results in an increase of the body’s total
energy.
• Therefore, the total energy of a body is an measure of the amount of work
that was done on it by an external force.
Conversely, if a body moves in a direction that has a net component in the
opposite direction to an external force F, then the dot product F · dr is negative,
and hence W<0.
• In this case, we say work is done by the body, and results in a decrease of
the body’s total energy.
Example
A force of 6.0 N is used to accelerate a mass of 1.0 kg from rest for a distance
of 12 m. The force is applied along the direction of travel in the x direction.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.30. What is the work done (a) by the
applied force? (b) by friction? (c) What is the kinetic energy at the 12-m mark?

Solution: (a) The work done by the applied force is

WF = F d = (6.0 N)(12 m) = 72 J
(b) The work by friction is
Wfr = FN d cos 180° = μk mg d (-1)
= - (0.30)(1.0 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(12 m) = -35 J
(c) The normal force and weight do no work. The net work increases the kinetic
energy of the mass: Wnet = WF + Wfr = ΔK
72 J – 35 J = Kf – 0 which gives Kf = 37 J.
28
Example
At an accident scene on a level road, investigators measured a car’s skid mark
to be 78 m long. It was a rainy day and the coefficient of kinetic friction was
estimated to be 0.38. Use these data to determine the speed of the car when
the driver slammed on (and locked) the brakes?

Solution:
On a level road, the normal force equals mg, so the kinetic friction force is μkmg.
We have

W = ΔK → μkmg d cos 180° = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2

(0.38) m (9.8) (78) (-1) = - ½ mvi2

v0 = 24 m/s (87 km/h) 29

Potential energy
• Potential energy is the energy associated with a body’s position or configuration.

• PE is stored in a system, and it “has the potential” to be converted to another

form of energy, such as kinetic energy or thermal energy, via work done by the
system.

• For example, a body stores gravitational PE as a result of its height, and elastic
bodies store elastic PE as a result of being stretched or compressed.
 Potential energy
Work done by external agent on system (object and Earth) as object
undergoes upward displacement is:

=
Wext ( ) 
Fapp ⋅ ∆r

( )
mgˆj ⋅ ( y f − yi ) ˆj
=
= mgy f − mgyi
• Here: work represents transfer of energy into system and system energy appears
as potential energy
• mgy = gravitational potential energy Ug of system of object of mass m and Earth:

U g ≡ mgy
• Valid only for objects near surface of Earth, where g ≈ constant
 Potential energy

Gravitational potential energy: depends only on vertical height of object above surface of Earth

• In solving problems: choose reference configuration. Set gravitational potential energy of system
equal to some reference value, normally zero .
• Choice of reference configuration completely arbitrary
• Important quantity is difference in potential energy
• This difference independent of choice of reference configuration
Elastic Potential Energy
• Another type of potential energy.
• Force spring exerts on block is: Fs = −kx.
• External work done by applied force on block–spring system as block moves from xi
to xf is:
1 1 2
=
Wext kx f − kxi
2

2 2
• Work done on system = difference between initial and final values of expression
related to system’s configuration
• Elastic potential energy function associated with block–spring system is:
1 2
U s ≡ kx
2
• Work is
Wext = ∆U s
Elastic Potential
Energy
Potential Energy and Conservative Forces

• Forces can be associated with a potential energy function

• The work done is independent of the path taken

• These forces are called conservative forces

• Some forces are non-conservative forces

• Examples: air drag and friction

• Cannot be used to store energy

• Work depends on the path taken by the object of interest

 Friction Example

• The work done by friction in moving the

block along path B is larger than if it
moved along path A

• Other non-conservative forces have the

same property
Adding Potential Energy to the Work-Energy Theorem
• In the work-energy theorem (W = ΔK), W is the work done by all the forces acting
on the object of interest

• Some of those forces can be associated with a PE.

• Assume all the work is done by conservative forces

• Gravity would be an example

W = - ΔU = ΔK

Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf

• Applies to all situations in which all the forces are conservative forces
Mechanical Energy
• The sum of the potential and kinetic energies is called the mechanical energy.

• Conservation of Mechanical Energy:

KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf

• The results apply when many forces are involved as long as they are all conservative forces

• A very powerful tool for understanding, analyzing, and predicting motion.

Potential Energy with Multiple Forces
• Conservation of Energy states KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf

• Several different forces can contribute to the potential energy term

• For example, there might be gravity and a spring acting on an object:

PEtotal = PEgrav + PEspring

Utotal = m g h + ½ k x2
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The rock’s potential energy
changes to kinetic energy as
it falls.

The total mechanical energy

at any point is:

40
 Example - Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Example - Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Two water slides at a pool are shaped differently,
but start at the same height h. Two riders, Paul and
Kathleen, start from rest at the same time on
different slides.

(a) Which rider, Paul or Kathleen, is traveling faster

at the bottom?

(b) Which rider makes it to the bottom first?

Ignore friction and assume both slides have the

same path length.

41
Example - Conservation of Mechanical Energy

RESPONSE:

(a) Each rider’s PE gets transformed to KE, so the speed v at the bottom is obtained
from mgh = ½ mv2 and v = √(2gh)

Since they descend from the same height, they will finish with the same
speed.

(b) Note that Kathleen is consistently at a lower elevation than Paul at any instant,
until the end. This means she has converted her PE to KE earlier. Consequently she is
travelling faster than Paul for the whole trip, and because the distance is the same,

Kathleen gets to the bottom first.

42
The Law of Conservation of Energy

The total energy is neither increased nor decreased in any

process. Energy can be transformed from one form to
another, and transferred from one object to another, but
the total amount remains constant.

ΔK + ΔU + [change in all other forms of energy] = 0

43
Dissipated energy
• In many mechanical systems, there is usually some loss of mechanical energy as heat. This energy is
irrecoverably lost from the system to its surroundings.

• Heat is not a form of energy per se, but (like work) is a form of energy transfer from one body to
another, or from a system to its surroundings.

• Heat loss from a mechanical system results in an increase in thermal energy of the surroundings.

• Forces that cause mechanical energy to be lost from a system are

called dissipative forces.
• Common dissipative forces are friction, and air or fluid resistance.
Conservative forces
• The action of a dissipative force on a system results in an irreversible loss of
mechanical energy from the system via heat loss.

• In contract, the action of a conservative force is to conserve mechanical

energy.
Example

Spiderman uses his spider

webs to save a runaway
train, moving at 20 m/s. His
web stretches 800 m before
the 104 kg train comes to a
stop. Assuming the web acts
like a spring, estimate the
spring constant.

46
Example, cont.

First find the kinetic energy of the train, and then find out how much work the
web must do to stop the train.
Note that the web does negative work, since the force is in the opposite direction
of the displacement.

Wto stop =∆K = mv − mv =0 −

train
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2 (10 kg ) ( 20 m s )
4 2
=−2 × 10 J
6

Wweb =− kx =−2 × 10 J → k =
1 2
2 2 × 10 J
6 (
=6 N m
6
)
2
800 m 2
( )
47
Example –

A block of mass 10 kg moves on a frictionless table at 2 m/s

and strikes a spring attached to a wall. After the collision the
spring is compressed to a maximum distance of 0.9 m. The
spring constant of the spring is
a. 24 N/m
b. 49 N/m
c. 74 N/m
d. 100 N/m
e. need more information

48
 Example –
A block of mass 10 kg moves on a frictionless table at 2 m/s and strikes a
spring attached to a wall. After the collision the spring is compressed to a
maximum distance of 0.9 m. The spring constant of the spring is
a. 24 N/m
SOLUTION:
b. 49 N/m
½ mv2 = ½ kx2
c. 74 N/m
½ (10 kg)(2 m/s)2 = ½ k (0.9 m)2
d. 100 N/m
e. need more information k = (40/0.81) = 49.4 N/m

49
Example

A roller-coaster car is pulled up to point 1 where it is released from

rest. Assuming no friction, calculate the speeds at points 2, 3, and 4.

50
 Example, cont.
Solution: Since there are no dissipative forces present, the mechanical energy of the
roller coaster will be conserved. Subscript 1 represents the coaster at point 1, etc.
The height of point 2 is the zero location for gravitational potential energy. We have
v1 = 0 and y1 = 32 m.
1
2
mv12 + mgy1 =1
2
mv2
2
+ mgy 2
; y 2
=
0 → mgy1
=1
2
mv2
2
→
Point 2:
=v2 =
2 gy1 (
2 9.80 m s 2 ) ( 32
= m) 25 m s

1
2
mv12 + mgy1 = 1
2
mv32 + mgy3 ; y3 = 26 m → mgy1 = 1
2
mv32 + mgy3 →
Point 3:
=
v3 2 g ( y1 − y=
3) (
2 9.80 m s 2 ) ( 6 m=) 11m s

1
2
mv12 + mgy1 = 1
2
mv42 + mgy4 ; y4 = 14 m → mgy1 = 1
2
mv42 + mgy1 →
Point 4:
=
v4 2 g ( y1 − y=
4) ( )
2 9.80 m s 2 (18 m
= ) 19 m s
51
Power
• The average power is defined as the rate at which the work is being done

• Unit is watts (W)

• 1 W = 1 J/s
• Sometimes expressed as horsepower
• 1 hp = 745.7 W
• Also applies to chemical and electrical processes and devices
Power and Velocity
• Power can also be expressed in terms of the velocity at which an object is
moving

• This also applies for instantaneous power and velocity:

P=Fv
• For a given power,
• The motor can exert a large force while moving slowly
• The motor can exert a small force while moving quickly
Example –

You push a box accross the floor a distance of 5 m exerting a

steady force of 150 N. If it takes 10 s to move the box, your
power output is
a. 75 W
b. 90 W
c. 150 W
d. 300 W
e. 750 W

54
Example –

You push a box accross the floor a distance of 5 m exerting a

steady force of 150 N. If it takes 10 s to move the box, your power
output is

a. 75 W
b. 90 W SOLUTION:
c. 150 W
d. 300 W 𝑊𝑊 (150 𝑁𝑁)(5 𝑚𝑚)
𝑃𝑃 = = = 75 𝑊𝑊
e. 750 W 𝑡𝑡 10 𝑠𝑠

55