Computer introduction

A computer is a system composed of two major components: hardware and software. Computer
hardware is the physical equipment. Software is the collection of programs that allows the hardware to do
its job. Computer software is divided into two broad categories: the operating system and application
programs. Application programs use the computer hardware to solve users’ problems. The operating
system, on the other hand, controls the access to hardware by users.

An operating system is complex, so it is difficult to give a simple universal definition. Instead, here are
some common definitions:

 An operating system is an interface between the hardware

of a computer and the user (programs or humans).

 An operating system is a program (or a set of programs)

that facilitates the execution of other programs.

 An operating system acts as a general manager supervising

the activity of each component in the computer system.

An operating system is an interface between the hardware of a computer and the user
(programs or humans)
that facilitates the execution of other programs
and the access to hardware and software resources.

Two major design goals of an operating system are:

Efficient use of hardware.

❑ Ease of use of resources.

Bootstrap program

The operating system, based on the above definitions, provides supports for other programs. For
example, it is responsible for loading other programs into memory for execution. However, the operating
system itself is a program that needs to be loaded into the memory and be run. How is this dilemma
solved?

The solution is a two-stage process. A very small section of memory is made of ROM and holds a
small program called the bootstrap program. When the computer is turned on, the CPU counter is set to
the first instruction of this bootstrap program and executes the instructions in this program. When loading
is done, the program counter is set to the first instruction of the operating system in RAM.

Operating system

Today’s operating systems are very complex. An operating system needs to manage different resources
in a computer system. It resembles an organization with several managers at the top level. Each manager
is responsible for managing their department, but also needs to cooperate with others and coordinate
activities. A modern operating system has at least four duties: memory manager, process manager,
device manager and file manager.

User interface

Each operating system has a user interface, a program that accepts requests from users (processes)
and interprets them for the rest of the operating system. A user interface in some operating systems, such
as UNIX, is called a shell. In others, it is called a window to denote that it is menu driven and has a GUI
(graphical user interface) component.

Memory manager

One of the responsibilities of a modern computer system is memory management. Although the memory
size of computers has increased tremendously in recent years, so has the size of the programs and data
to be processed. Memory allocation must be managed to prevent applications from running out of
memory. Operating systems can be divided into two broad categories of memory management:
monoprogramming and multiprogramming.

In monoprogramming, most of the memory capacity is dedicated to a single program; only a small part
is needed to hold the operating system. In this configuration, the whole program is in memory for
execution. When the program finishes running, the program area is occupied by another program.
In multiprogramming, more than one program is in memory at the same time, and they are executed
concurrently, with the CPU switching rapidly between the programs.

Process manager

• In charge of allocating Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Tracks process status

Device manager

The device manager, or input/output manager, is responsible for access to input/ output devices. There
are limitations on the number and speed of input/output devices in a computer system.

 The device manager monitors every input/output device

constantly to ensure that the device is functioning properly.

 The device manager maintains a queue for each input/output

device or one or more queues for similar input/output devices.

 The device manager controls the different policies for accessing

input/output devices.

File manager

Operating systems today use a file manager to control access to files. A detailed discussion of the file
manager also requires advanced knowledge of operating system principles and file access concepts that
are beyond the scope of this book. The file manager:

 controls access to files.

 supervises the creation, deletion, and modification of files.

 controls the naming of files.

 supervises the storage of files.

 is responsible for archiving and backups.

What is the internet?

The Internet is the largest network in existence. In fact, the term Internet means a ‘network of networks’.
The Internet is literally a collection of interconnected private and public networks, such as the ones
described above. Businesses, small office networks, and even home networks usually provide a shared
connection to the Internet.

What is an internet service provider?

Internet is changing the way we communicate

The globalization of the Internet has ushered in new forms of communication that empower individuals to
create information that can be accessed by a global audience.

Some forms of communication include:

  Instant Messaging (IM) / Texting – IM and texting both enable instant real-time communication
between two or more people. Many IM and texting applications incorporate features such as file
transfer. IM applications can offer additional features such as voice and video communication.

 Social Media – Social media consists of interactive websites where people and communities create
and share user-generated content with friends, family, peers, and the world.

 Collaboration Tools - Collaboration tools give people the opportunity to work together on shared
documents. Without the constraints of location or time zone, individuals connected to a shared
system can speak to each other, often across real-time interactive video. Across the network they
can share text and graphics, and edit documents together. With collaboration tools always available,
organizations can move quickly to share information and pursue goals. The broad distribution of
data networks means that people in remote locations can contribute on an equal basis with people
at the heart of large population centers.

 Weblogs (blogs) - Weblogs are web pages that are easy to update and edit. Unlike commercial
websites, which are created by professional communications experts, blogs give anyone a means to
communicate their thoughts to a global audience without technical knowledge of web design. There
are blogs on nearly every topic one can think of, and communities of people often form around
popular blog authors.

 Wikis - Wikis are web pages that groups of people can edit and view together. Whereas a blog is
more of an individual, personal journal, a wiki is a group creation. As such, it may be subject to more
extensive review and editing. Like blogs, wikis can be created in stages, and by anyone, without the
sponsorship of a major commercial enterprise. Wikipedia has become a comprehensive resource -
an online encyclopedia - of publicly-contributed topics. Private organizations and individuals can
also build their own wikis to capture collected knowledge on a particular subject. Many businesses
use wikis as their internal collaboration tool. With the global Internet, people of all walks of life can
participate in wikis and add their own perspectives and knowledge to a shared resource.

 Podcasting - Podcasting is an audio-based medium that originally enabled people to record audio
and convert it for use. Podcasting allows people to deliver their recordings to a wide audience. The
audio file is placed on a website (or blog or wiki) where others can download it and play the
recording on their computers, laptops, and other mobile devices.

 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) File Sharing – Peer-to-Peer file sharing allows people to share files with each
other without having to store and download them from a central server. The user joins the P2P
network by simply installing the P2P software. This lets them locate and share files with others in the
P2P network. The widespread digitization of media files, such as music and video files has
increased the interest in P2P file sharing. P2P file sharing has not been embraced by everyone.
Many people are concerned about violating the laws of copyrighted materials.

Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)

The concept of any device, to any content, in anyway is a major global trend that requires significant
changes to the way devices are used. This trend is known as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD).
BYOD is about end users having the freedom to use personal tools to access information and
communicate across a business or campus network. With the growth of consumer devices, and the
related drop in cost, employees and students can be expected to have some of the most advanced
computing and networking tools for personal use. These personal tools include laptops, netbooks, tablets,
smartphones, and e-readers. These can be devices purchased by the company or school, purchased by
the individual, or both.

BYOD means any device, with any ownership, used anywhere. For example, in the past, a student who
needed to access the campus network or the Internet had to use one of the school’s computers. These
devices were typically limited and seen as tools only for work done in the classroom or in the library.
Extended connectivity through mobile and remote access to the campus network gives students
tremendous flexibility and more learning opportunities for the student.

BYOD is an influential trend that has or will touch every IT organization.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is the use of computing resources (hardware and software) that are delivered as a
service over a network. A company uses the hardware and software in the cloud and a service fee is
charged.

Local computers no longer have to do all the “heavy lifting” when it comes to running network
applications. The network of computers that make up the cloud handles them instead. The hardware and
software requirements of the user are decreased. The user’s computer must interface with the cloud
using software, which may be a web browser, and the cloud's network takes care of the rest.

Cloud computing is another global trend changing the way we access and store data. Cloud computing
encompasses any subscription-based or pay-per-use service, in real time over the Internet. Cloud
computing allows us to store personal files, even backup our entire hard disk drive on servers over the
Internet. Applications such as word processing and photo editing can be accessed using the cloud.

For businesses, cloud computing extends IT's capabilities without requiring investment in new
infrastructure, training new personnel, or licensing new software. These services are available on demand
and delivered economically to any device anywhere in the world without compromising security or
function.

The term “cloud computing” really refers to web-based computing. Online banking, online retail stores,
and online music downloading are all examples of cloud computing. Cloud applications are usually
delivered to the user through a web browser. Users do not need to have any software installed on their
end device. This allows many different kinds of devices to connect to the cloud.

Cloud computing offers the following potential benefits:

 Organizational flexibility - Users can access the information anytime and anyplace using a web
browser.
  Agility and rapid deployment - IT department can focus on delivering the tools to mine, analyze,
and share the information and knowledge from databases, files, and people.

 Reduced cost of infrastructure - Technology is moved from on-site to a cloud provider, eliminating
the cost of hardware and applications.

 Refocus of IT resources - Cost savings of hardware and applications can be applied elsewhere.

 Creation of new business models - Applications and resources are easily accessible, so
companies can react quickly to customer needs. This helps them set strategies to promote
innovation while potentially entering new markets.

Cloud computing is possible because of data centers. A data center is a facility used to house computer
systems and associated components including:

 Redundant data communications connections

 High-speed virtual servers (sometimes referred to as server farms or server clusters)

 Redundant storage systems (typically uses SAN technology)

 Redundant or backup power supplies

 Environmental controls (e.g., air conditioning, fire suppression)

 Security devices

A data center can occupy one room of a building, one or more floors, or an entire building. Modern data
centers make use of cloud computing and virtualization to efficiently handle large data transactions.
Virtualization is the creation of a virtual version of something, such as a hardware platform, operating
system (OS), storage device, or network resources. While a physical computer is an actual discrete
device, a virtual machine consists of a set of files and programs running on an actual physical system.
Unlike multitasking, which involves running several programs on the same OS; virtualization runs several
different OSs in parallel on a single CPU. This drastically reduces administrative and cost overheads.

Data centers are typically very expensive to build and maintain. For this reason only large organizations
use privately built data centers to house their data and provide services to users. For example, a large
hospital may own a separate data center where patient records are maintained electronically. Smaller
organizations, that cannot afford to maintain their own private data center, can reduce the overall cost of
ownership by leasing server and storage services from a larger data center organization in the cloud.

Network security

Network security is an integral part of computer networking, regardless of whether the network is limited
to a home environment with a single connection to the Internet, or as large as a corporation with
thousands of users. The network security implemented must take into account the environment, as well
as the tools and requirements of the network. It must be able to secure data, while still allowing for the
quality of service that is expected of the network.

Securing a network involves protocols, technologies, devices, tools, and techniques to secure data and
mitigate threats. Many external network security threats today are spread over the Internet. The most
common external threats to networks include:

 Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses - malicious software and arbitrary code running on a user
device

 Spyware and adware - software installed on a user device that secretly collects information about
the user

 Zero-day attacks, also called zero-hour attacks - an attack that occurs on the first day that a
vulnerability becomes known

 Hacker attacks - an attack by a knowledgeable person to user devices or network resources

 Denial of service attacks - attacks designed to slow or crash applications and processes on a
network device

 Data interception and theft - an attack to capture private information from an organization’s
network

 Identity theft - an attack to steal the login credentials of a user in order to access private data

It is equally important to consider internal threats. There have been many studies that show that the most
common data breaches happen because of internal users of the network. This can be attributed to lost or
stolen devices, accidental misuse by employees, and in the business environment, even malicious
employees. With the evolving BYOD strategies, corporate data is much more vulnerable. Therefore, when
developing a security policy, it is important to address both external and internal security threats.

Internet connectivity Media

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. Data transfer is usually discussed
in terms of bandwidth and throughput.

Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that
can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits
per second (kb/s) or megabits per second (Mb/s).

The practical bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of factors:

 The properties of the physical media

 The technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals

There are three main types of copper media used in networking:

 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)

 Coaxial

Unshielded twisted pair

 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking media. UTP cabling,
terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting network hosts with intermediate
networking devices, such as switches and routers.
 In LANs, UTP cable consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together
and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath which protects from minor physical damage. The
twisting of wires helps protect against signal interference from other wires.

Shielded twisted pair

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection than UTP cabling. However, compared to
UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install. Like UTP cable, STP uses an
RJ-45 connector.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two conductors that share the
same axis. As shown in the figure, coaxial cable consists of:

 A copper conductor used to transmit the electronic signals.

 The copper conductor is surrounded by a layer of flexible plastic insulation.

 The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, also
reduces the amount of outside electromagnetic interference.

 The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to protect it from minor physical damage.
Optical fiber

Optical fiber cable has become very popular for interconnecting infrastructure network devices. It permits
the transmission of data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other
networking media.

Optical fiber is a flexible but extremely thin transparent strand of very pure glass (silica) not much bigger
than a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable acts as a
waveguide, or “light pipe,” to transmit light between the two ends with minimal loss of signal.

As an analogy, consider an empty paper towel roll with the inside coated like a mirror that is a thousand
meters in length and a small laser pointer is used to send Morse code signals at the speed of light.
Essentially that is how a fiber-optic cable operates, except that it is smaller in diameter and uses
sophisticated light emitting and receiving technologies.

Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and is completely immune
to EMI and RFI.

Wireless

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data communications
using radio or microwave frequencies.

As a networking medium, wireless is not restricted to conductors or pathways, as are copper and fiber
media. Wireless media provides the greatest mobility options of all media. As well, the number of wireless
enabled devices is continuously increasing. For these reasons, wireless has become the medium of
choice for home networks. As network bandwidth options increase, wireless is quickly gaining in
popularity in enterprise networks.

However, wireless does have some areas of concern including:

 Coverage area: Wireless data communication technologies work well in open environments.
However, certain construction materials used in buildings and structures, and the local terrain, will
limit the effective coverage.

 Interference: Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by such common devices
as household cordless phones, some types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other
wireless communications.

 Security: Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media.

Therefore, devices and users who are not authorized for access to the network can gain access to
the transmission. Consequently, network security is a major component of wireless network
administration.