INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS

WPM 1104

MUTERO T

[email protected]
 INTRODUCTION.....................................................3
USES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY................................................................4

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.....6

INPUT................................................................................................................................6
PROCESSING AND CONTROL.............................................................................................7
OUTPUT............................................................................................................................7
STORAGE..........................................................................................................................8
CACHE MEMORY...............................................................................................................9
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT...................................................................................10
Main memory.............................................................................................................10
The Arithmetic Logic Unit.........................................................................................10
The Control Unit........................................................................................................11
SOFTWARE..................................................................................................................11
SYSTEM SOFTWARE........................................................................................................11
APPLICATION SOFTWARE................................................................................................13
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE BUYING A SOFTWARE..................................................15

DATA PROCESSING.............................................16
TYPES OF PROCESSING...................................................................................................17
TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS......................................................................................19
DATABASES....................................................................................................................19
Advantages of Databases...........................................................................................21

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET22

DEFINITION OF TERMS....................................................................................................22
REASONS FOR NETWORKING COMPUTERS......................................................................22
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND WIDE AREA NETWORKS...............................................23
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES..................................................................................................24
Ring Network.............................................................................................................24
Star network...............................................................................................................25
Bus network...............................................................................................................26
THE INTERNET................................................................................................................26
Information browsing................................................................................................26
Electronic mail (e-mail).............................................................................................27
Newsgroups................................................................................................................28
File transfer Protocol................................................................................................28
REQUIREMENTS FOR ONE TO CONNECT TO THE INTERNET............................................28
USES OF THE INTERNET..........................................................................................29

WORD-PROCESSORS AND SPREADSHEETS..30

WORD-PROCESSING........................................................................................................30
SPREADSHEETS...............................................................................................................32

3. COUNTIF............................................................35
Drawing Charts and graphs from given data............................................................35
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 INFORMATION SYSTEMS..................................37
INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN BUSINESS............................................................................37
Marketing Information Systems.................................................................................37
Manufacturing Information systems..........................................................................38
Accounting Information Systems...............................................................................38
Financial Information Systems..................................................................................38

SECURITY AND ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY.........................39
SECURITY IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS...........................................................................39
Administrative controls..............................................................................................40
Input Controls............................................................................................................40
Storage controls.........................................................................................................40
Physical protection....................................................................................................40
Disaster recovery plans.............................................................................................41
ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY...............................................41
Viruses.......................................................................................................................41
SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY...........................................42

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Introduction

Information technology refers to hardware, software, databases,

telecommunication technologies and other information processing
technologies that manipulate data resources into useful information
products like reports, financial statements. Consider the example of a
person who goes into a banking hall to inquire his balance. That
technology they would use to create, store, manipulate and
communicate information is what is referred to as INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY.

Closely related to information technology is an Information system, which refers to the set totality of
requirements for handling information within an organization. It can also be considered as an organized
combination of people, hardware, software, communication networks and data resource that collects, transforms
and disseminates information in an osorganization. An
information system can be manual (i.e. paper work) or informal (word of mouth), however the aspect of the
module is specifically computer based information systems that use information technology.

These are some of the common terms in Information Technology:

 Hardware – the name given to all physical components of a computer system. These are mechanical,
optical, electronic or magnetic devices or components of a computer or generally the physical makeup of
a computer
 Software are the various non-tangible computer programs, procedures and their associated
documentation concerned with the operation of an information system. Example Microsoft Word is
software for typing. The are software for games, for accounting and many other disciplines.
 Data – are raw facts, figures or observation about a transaction or physical phenomena. E.g. Sam, 12, St
Johns. Hence data objective measure of attributes, of entities.
 Information - is processed data that is put into a meaningful context for the intended recipient e.g. a
report, receipt. We feed data into an information system and it provides information.
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  A program is a set of instructions written in the language of a computer. When a person is using a
computer, say when playing chess with a computer, the computer will only be responding to
programmed instructions that assist it in making the most appropriate move.
 Enduser – any one who uses an information system or its products. Consider the person who designed a
computer game; the enduser would be anyone who then plays the game. In an Accounting Information
System endusers include people like data capture clerks, bookkeepers, and even managers who would
need financial statements.

USES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

However inexhaustive, the applications are tailor-made to increase effectiveness at work, increase customer
satisfaction, make work easier, and increase productivity, to communicate and in general think of every sector
of the country’s economy and imagine the magnitude of contribution provided by Information Technology.

Information Technology comes as:

 A major source of information and support needed to promote effective decision making by managers.
 An important ingredient in developing competitive products and services that give an organization a
competitive advantage on a large scale.
 A functional area of a business in accounting, recordkeeping, human resource management, marketing,
research etc. Consider the example of banks that use information technology to store information about
the account holders and their various banking transaction requirements accurately, conveniently and
safely.
 A vital, dynamic and challenging career opportunity for millions of men and women.
 A substitute or a compliment for human effort and in the end automating production, or business
processes.
 A tool to gain competitive advantage. Most of the companies that store data or process transactions
using information technology are generally favoured by the widest web of clientele since they provide
security of data, convenience to customers, and tend to be faster.
Information Technology has become a vital component of successful businesses and organization in terms of
data processing, communication, office management, commerce e.g. banking, data security and report
generation.
IT guarantees security of confidential information through passwords, accuracy of reports (which are not
subjective and biased) and faster retrieval of information.
Examples

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 1. One can apply for a job, college placement or make quotations and orders via email and the mail will
reach the recipient instantly
2. Student can research on a wide range of topics by accessing information in websites across the world.
3. IT is also used to market organizations and their services
4. Managers use computer systems that are able to integrate various functions of an organization and then
assist managers in decision-making and trend forecasting.

In the end, Information Technology increases an organization’s competitive advantage, increases revenue,
reduces costs, improves quality and creates new opportunities.
Assignment
Why has your institution invested a lot in information technology? [answer should be in clear point form]

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Computer Hardware and software
A computer is basically responsible for carrying out the tasks of accepting input, storing, and processing,
controlling and producing output. In deed a computer exists as a system not a unit with input, processing,
storage and output being the subsystems. These subsystems are not complete in their own right, in the sense that
they are thinly connected through software.

Input.
Is a means of entering data into the computer through input devices such as keyboards, joystick, touch screen,
mouse, bar code readers etc. Computers can not accept data in forms customary to human communication hence
input device convert/ or present data to the computer in a machine readable electronic or digital form (using a
series of 1s and 0s to represent numbers, letters and even voice and pictures). Hence the input unit is an
interface between the user and the computer. Input devices are often called peripheral devices
Other common forms of input are:
a) Optical character recognition translates code or marks on source documents into digital forms that are
understandable by the computer. OCR is used mostly in some supermarkets which have a hand held
reader that scans a commodity’s barcode and can then be able to deduce that type of commodity and its
price.
b) Light pen, uses photoelectric circuitry to enter data through the video screen
c) Pointing devices are among others – mouse and touch screens. The mouse uses point and click options
to select and run commands on Graphical User Interface screens. Moving a mouse corresponds to the
movement of the mouse pointer on the screen and clicking an icon runs the program that is represented
by that icon. Using a touch screen a user point on a sensitized monitor to select commands or options
other than pressing buttons on a keyboard.
d) Other input devices include scanners for reading pictures and sensors for reading analogue data like
temperature

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Processing and Control
A computer’s control unit is responsible for fetching instructions from main storage, interprets them ant then
issues necessary signals to components making up the computer system ordering them to perform required
operations (fetch and execute cyc4les)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer is responsible for making calculations required in computer
processing. It makes comparison on data (logical calculations like >, <, >= etc) at very high speeds as part of
processing. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit Combined with the Control Unit forms the processor.

Output
Data is processed to produce output. Computer output can be sent to a printer, seen on the screen or stored in
storage device. In most information systems output comes in the form of printed or onscreen reports or audio
etc. Examples of output devices are printer, speakers and the monitor.

Video display is the most common type of computer output. Broadly these are displayed on either monochrome
(black and white) or color monitors. These differ in their resolution, which is a measure of their clarity (in terms
of smoothness of the pictures), an expression of the number of pixels per inch.

Printers produce what is commonly referred to as a hardcopy (print out).Printers can be:
a) Character printers, which imitate the operations of a typewriter by printing one character at a time by
hitting a ribbon on top of a paper, thus they are often referred to as impact printers. These printers are
slower.
b) Line printers print one line at a time and are faster than page printers. These can print pictures and
examples are inkjet printers.
c) Page printers are heavy duty fast printers which are exploited for commercial purposes and the include
laser printers. They produce high quality printouts.

Output can also be in the form of voice or audio through speakers.

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Storage
A computer has the capability to store data that it is currently using, that will be referred to at a latter time (semi
permanent) or that starts a computer. Storage is divided into 2 namely:
 Secondary / Backing Storage – stores information on devices like CDs, diskettes, Hard disk and tapes.
When one saves his essay, letter or project, he would have stored it in any one such device such that he
can refer to it any time he prefers.

HARD DISKS
One or more hard disks are found in the hard drive which
is usually housed inside a computer. Each drive is built into a
sealed unit to prevent contamination by dust and moisture. A
hard disk pack consist of several platters with data encoded
on both sides of the platters (except for the top platter’s top
part and the bottom platter’s lower part.) accessed by the
read/write heads.

Advantages over floppy disks :

 Access to data is faster than from floppy disks.

 Hard discs store more data than floppy disks. (40 Gb
drives are now common).
 They are more reliable than floppy disks as they have
more protection from dirt.

The read-write head floats so

One disadvantage of a hard disc over floppy disk is that it is close to the disk that a small
not portable - you cannot carry it round and use it on speck of dust would ruin the
different computers. disk. This is why the drives are
sealed.

FLOPPY DISKS
Are flat, rotating, 3.5” polyester film disks covered with a magnetic coating on which data is recorded. Most
common floppy disks have a capacity of 1.44Megabytes. As with hard disks, data is stored on tracks and sector
and they use direct access to locate and read a certain block of data.

 Main storage stores the bootstrap loader (i.e. those programs that start running when a computer is
switched on) and active documents or programs (i.e. a running program or open document). It also
stores the operating system programs that manage the operation of a computer and the data that is being
used by the programs. The following are types of main storage
Random Access Memory (RAM), which holds instructions and data between processing, stages and
supplies them to the ALU and CU during processing. RAM looses its contents if power is switched of i.e. it
is volatile. RAM stores data and instructions requiring processing, being processed and awaiting output
hence the name working area of the computer.
Read Only Memory (ROM) stores programs that start running when a computer is switched on and holds
character patterns. ROM stores permanently and its contents are set permanently during manufacture. We
have the ROM inside the circuit board below. ROM forms part of hardware, hence the name firmware.

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Cache memory
Cache memory is a high speed memory mainly used to complement the RAM. Cache memory is faster than
RAM and it stores frequently used pages. The cache memory is between the RAM and the CPU and the CPU
searches for data or programs in the cache first, if its not found, the CPU then searches in the RAM. The
CPU uses certain algorithms to determine which data should be stored in the cache, which will help the CPU
to predict the next instruction to be executed and hence making processing faster.

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Logical Structure of a computer

QWERTYUIO Central Processing Unit

Output
ASDFGHJKL;
Control Unit Arithmetic and devices –
Input Devices e.g. are an
Keyboard, mouse, - Interprets Logic unit For
instructions arithmetic interface
Scanner, audio present the
and directs operations and
processing comparisons required
information

Main memory e.g. printer, monitor

Stores active programs and
documents

Secondary
Storage

e.g. hard disks,

floppy disks,
CDs etc

The Central processing Unit

As depicted by the diagram above, the Central Processing Unit is made up of the Control Unit, the Arithmetic
Logic unit and the main memory. It is the unit that controls the interpretation, storage and execution of program
instructions. It contains most of the circuitry of the machine.

Main memory
Main memory is a high-speed storage unit that determines (to some extent) the speed of a computer. It includes
registers (which store one unit of data) for high-speed temporary data storage.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit

The ALU handles all the calculations that must be done as a way of processing. Consider the example of a
computer calculating an employee’s salary on the basis that if he works up to 40 hrs he will be paid at the
normal rate otherwise he is paid at the overtime rate. The ALU will make a logic calculation to determine if the
hours worked are greater than 40 and go on to carry out the appropriate arithmetic calculation depending on the
results of logic comparisons. Basically the ALU carries out calculations of addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication etc and logic calculations of >, <, <=, = which will direct the control unit to operate or issue a
certain instruction to the other parts of a computer. The logic operations give a computer some decision-making
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capability. It should be noted that the data processed by the ALU comes from the main storage as directed by
the control unit and stored in the ALU’s registers.

The Control Unit

The control Unit manages the CPU by initiating instruction fetch and execute
It control and co-ordinates the operation of all hardware operation and allocates them duties. It fetches
instructions from the main memory interprets them and then issues instructions to respective parts of the
computer system to perform the required operations. It enables the whole computer system to work as one unit.

SOFTWARE
Software refers to various programs and their associated documentation that bring life into computer hardware
by directing its use. Software can be subdivided into system software and application software

System Software
System Software is usually supplied by the manufacturer of a given computer component. When one buys a
printer it comes with CD software that enables it to work with other system components of a computer. System
software contributes to control and performance of a computer system. System software acts behind the scenes
to manage resources and operations of a computer system. System software interfaces between computer
hardware and the application software.

An operating system is software which controls the general operation of a

computer.

An operating system

 controls the loading and running of programs

 controls the use of peripherals such as disc drives and printers
 organises the use of the computer’s memory.
 handles interrupts (signals from devices)
 maintains security (passwords etc)

Part of the operating system is stored on a ROM chip. When the computer is
switched on, the first thing that happens is that part of the operating system
is loaded into memory. This process is called booting up. A computer cannot work
without an operating
system.

Examples of Operating Systems :

 UNIX
 Linux
 Windows
 MS-DOS

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 The greatest part of system software is the operating system (e.g. Windows) which is responsible for user
interface (i.e. the ease of communication with the computer user), resource management (i.e. ensuring proper
sharing of memory, proper use of the printer etc), file management (that controls, the creation, opening and
deleting of files) and task management in such a way that such programs allow sharing of processor time and to
allow for the running of many computing tasks at the same time.

The user interface is the way the user interacts with the computer.

The three main types are :

Command The user types in commands.

Programs use less memory.

Example : The MS-DOS interface.

Type DIR /W to get a list of all the files in a directory.

Quick to operate and very flexible, but the user needs to learn Detail of a GUI interface
all the commands and type them in correctly.

Menu Drop-down menus have options for selection. There may be

sub-menus...

The user selects an option with either a key or a click of the

mouse.

No need to learn the commands but it can be difficult to locate

a particular option.

GUI Graphical User Interface

Also known as a WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)

interface.

Icons (small pictures) represent options. Colour and sound may

also be used to make the interface more 'user-friendly'.

Identical icons may be used in a number of different programs.

Eg a picture of a disk to save a file.

Example : Windows

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 Low-level IT skills needed by the user. Easy to use intuitive
interface.

Sound Speech driven interfaces are also now available. The user talks
a command into a microphone.

Useful for...handicapped, fighter pilots, surgeons..

Application software
Are programs that carry out specific tasks for the computer user for example Microsoft Access is for databases,
Microsoft Word is for Typing or Word-processing while Microsoft Excel is for Spreadsheets
Examples of Application
i) Word-processing packages that are responsible for creating, editing and printing of documents. The
extend their capabilities to include checking spelling and grammar, drawing tables, mail merge, print
many copies of one document, typing in various font styles, colors, underlining, inserting pictures,
plus looking for words with a similar meaning to the one typed (thesaurus)
ii) Spreadsheet packages which are specifically for analysis, planning and modeling. They are designed
for working with numbers in terms of arithmetic (addition, multiplication, subtraction, division),
sorting from the highest to the lowest or vice-versa, drawing tables, using mathematical functions
such as sine, cosine, average, randomize, to perform complex calculations such as regression.
Managers use spreadsheets in carrying what-if computations to determine the impact a certain move
or decision might have on the profitability or future of the business.
iii) Database Management Packages (e.g. Microsoft Access) are designed for handling and manipulation
of large volumes of data. Consider the example of a university that keeps each and every detail about
every student and should the data be required (i.e. in terms of fees due, results or residential status,
level, department etc) it is instantly retrieved.
iv) Finally, it should be noted that the number and variety of application packages is inexhaustible.
Some examples are accounting packages (for ledgers, trail balances), marketing packages (for sales
analysis), operations management (for inventory control), and a whole host of mathematical,
statistical and engineering packages. One such example is Eviews used by economists in regression.

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 A

Identify the parts A-D

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Factors to consider before buying a software
There are many considerations to be made before one settles for a certain type of software. Generally, the
software has to be appropriate to the task; it should justify the cost as well as being affordable.

Other factors are that the software must be compatible with your hardware. Some software cannot run on IBM
machines, while running modern windows based programs without a mouse is underutilizing it. If you are
buying application software, it must work well with the system software, for example you can’t install
Microsoft Word 2000 on a machine with Windows 3.1. The software must have continued support from the
supplier for it to suit changing user requirements for example if a software was to be used to calculate tax on
goods sold, it should be changeable from sales tax to value added tax. Also software like Microsoft products has
many versions indicating responsive approach to user requirements and modernization. A simple example is
that of employees’ salaries in Zimbabwe, up to date software would allow for salaries pay slips to accommodate
even millions as a salary figure. If it was made without such a vision then maybe salaries would only be up to
say $10 000.

On the other hand, software must be easy to learn and use, it must offer help. Specifically, its advantageous to
buy software with Graphical User Interface (GUI), which is a program screen interface based on icons, menus,
windows for ease of use. It must be robust, accurate and free from errors. Software also differs in the storage
space they need. So when buying software, one has to consider the storage capacity of his machine, the size of
the RAM and the speed of the processor, so that the machine’s speed is not compromised.

Assignment
What do you understand by the terms caching and bus.
Explain the following storage devices: diskette, hard disk, Compact disk and magnetic tape.

Data Processing
All the hardware, software and telecommunications in which organizations invest a lot of money are there for
the sake of data processing to produce information.

For any system to be an efficient data processing tool it must address the following critical concerns:
 Proper data entry. It should validate and verify the data for correctness and relevance. It should offer
audible error signals thus why users prefer user friendly systems in most cases those that offer Graphical
User Interface.
 Data security – data should be secured so that no unauthorized person or hackers can temper with it.
This entails the use of passwords, anti- virus software, etc.
 Speed – the system must be able to cope with the timely demand for results other than offering out dated
information
 The system must at the same time be reliable

File organization
A system user must have a way of organizing his data so that it’s instantly available to the user as per request.
In creating a file, the user must use a name that aids remembering what the document is all about other than
using ambiguous names.

Operating systems are able to divide the storage drives into sections they can store related files (folders). Below
is a window that shows the drive C divided into folders.

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 
 As you can see, the folder called My Music is itself made up of subfolder Unknown and Various
ArtistsB

Types of processing
Units of data for processing such as individual customer orders are called transactions. Transactions can either
be processed either singly or in batches.

Batch Processing.
Consider the Electricity billing procedure or payroll calculation procedures. First of al, the data is gathered and
stored on some source documents. The source documents are then transferred to the central computer for
processing after some time e.g. monthly or weekly. A batch processing system is one where programs and
data are collected together in a batch before processing starts.

Batch processing is most suitable where the data needs to be captured over a certain period and processing will
then have to be done once. Batch processing is suitable for repetitive processes that needs minimum to no user
intervention when processing resumes.

Each piece of work for a batch processing system is called a job. A job usually consists of a program and the
data to be run.

Jobs are stored in job queues until the computer is ready to process them.

Computers that do batch processing often operate at night.

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Real-time systems
Once transaction data is recorded or input, it is processed instantly and the relevant updates of file are done.
Hence the system provides up-to-date and current data. Consider the example of an airline seat reservation
system networked across Zimbabwe. Should one person book seat number 34, the system automatically updates
so that no any other person will be able to book that seat also. This is the system that most banks have which
upon making a deposit or a withdrawal, that very moment your account is updated throughout all the
banks/ATMs that can access your account.

Types of computer systems

a) Stand alone systems. – accept and processes data independently and does not communicate with other
computers
b) Centralised or Multi-access system a number of users have terminals (workstations) which are
directly linked to a central computer. The terminals are there to send and receive only, they don not
process any data.

Each user can use the computer interactively.

Often called a multi-user system.

c) Distributed systems occurs where each network computer can process data received as well as
communicate with others on an equal basis, often referred to as PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS. All
computers are of equal importance. Software and data are stored on each computer

Databases
What is a Database?
It is an organized collection of data with minimum duplication to service many applications at the same time by
storing and managing data so that they appear to be in one location.

When a transaction occurs, e.g. a withdrawal in a bank, some data would be stored. All the data that completely
describe a transaction is called a record. E.g.

Withdrawal record
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Account# Date Amount Cash/cheque remaining balance

A record is made up of fields. A field is a single descriptive item of a record or a transaction. All the related
records are stored in a file. The various related files and the interfaces that query or manipulate their stored data
form the database.

Rather than storing data in separate files for each application, data is stored physically to appear to users as
being stored in only one location.
A single data-base services multiple applications, for example, instead of a corporation storing employee data in
separate information systems and separate files for personnel, payroll and benefits, the corporation could create
a single common human resource database like the one in the figure below:

Integrated Human

Resource
Personnel
Database Personnel Department
Application
EMPLOYE Programmes

ES
-Names
-Address
-Social security
Database Payroll Payroll
Management Application Department
PAYROLL System Programmes
-Hours worked
-pay rate
-Gross pay
-P.A.Y.E
Benefits Benefits
BENEFITS Application Department
-Life assurance
Programmes
-Subsidise meals
-Pension plan
-Health care plan
-Retirement
benefit
-Company car

A single human database serves multiple applications and also allows a corporation to easy draw together all the
information on various applications.
The database management system acts as the interface between the application programmers’ and the data.

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Database management system is a special software used to create and maintain a database and enable individual
business applications to extract the data they need without having to create separate files or data definitions in
their computer programmes.

Advantages of Databases
 Data redundancy is reduced considerably thereby solving problems of excessive memory requirements
and inconsistencies.
 Response time is faster since the can directly interact with the Database Management System
 Databases offer a wide variety f security and privacy feature for organizational confidential data.

 Computer Networks and The Internet

Definition of terms
1. Computer Network: is a group of connected computers that work as a single unit sharing resources like
printers or a common program, a common internet connection. For example, if 20 computers ate to be
connected in such a way as to use one printer.
2. Internet: a global network of networked computers that offer services of websites, e-mail, search
engines and file transfer protocol etc, covering millions of business, educational, and research
organizations.

Reasons for networking computers

Computers are networked for various reasons depending on the nature of an organization. The most important
of these being the need to communicate and share limited resources. Consider a university setting, where one
department allocates residences to students, another one admit students, the other one handles finances but all
this information is kept in one pool but accessible to all. At the same time, a department may just need one
printer since all department staff can print from their offices to one printer.
Networks also allow for even distribution of work and maximizing human resources. As an employee you may
not waste business time to go to other offices to print, or notify members of a meeting.

Distributed systems are also used to speed up the processing of data and share work load.

Data in a network can be transmitted using :

Cable Each computer has a network card installed with

appropriate network software, and is linked to another
computer using a network cable.

Cable can be twisted-pair, coaxial, or optical fibre.

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Wireless Data is transmitted using radio, infra-red or
(Microwave, microwaves.
Infra-red,
Radio) A wireless hub receives and transmits data to each
computer. Each computer needs a special wireless
network card.

No cabling involved.

Satellite There are now hundreds of satellites orbiting the Earth

which can be used to 'bounce' signals off.

Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks

Local area network (LAN) refers to a group of computers connected within one building or site. They transmit
data using coaxial cables or twisted pair cables or fibre optics.

A WAN can cover a

A WAN (Wide Area Network) - the computers are on different sites whole country (or
and are linked by telephone links. even the world!).

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 Explain the nature of fibre optics and coaxial cable.
What is the difference between a modem and a multiplexer?
What are distributed systems?

Network Communication can be –

Peer-to-peer All computers are of equal importance.
networks Software and data are stored on each
computer.

Client/Server Software and data are held on a file server and

network may be used by other computers on the
network.

Security is controlled centrally.

Network Topologies
Refer to the layout or structure of a network in terms direction of flow of data and the the controls that manage
data transmission.

Ring Network

Ring

Token Ring Network

'Tokens' of data are passed round the ring (in one

direction only) and collected by the receiving computer.
A faster system and it is easier to add more computers.

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Communication in a ring network occurs by a method called token passing. A ring network would have one
token, which has the ability to transmit data. Each computer is given a chance to grab the token and receive or
send a message. When a token has a message, each computer checks to see if the token is addressed to it so that
it can grab it otherwise it passes it on along the ring.

Advantages of a ring network

It requires fewer cables than a star network and high speeds of data transmission are attainable.

Disadvantages
If the cable develops a problem, the whole network is disrupted and is difficult to troubleshoot. It’s difficult to
implement central network security since there is no controlling computer. Some messages may go unpicked
forever thereby unnecessarily overloading the network.

Star network
All computers are connected to the hub or central computer. The hub uses a method called polling when
computers are communicating. In polling, the central computer asks each network computer if it has a message
to send. Communication is in both directions but passes through the hub.

Star

Star Network

All computers are connected to a central computer (file server).

The disadvantage is that if this file server breaks down then all the
computers are affected.

Advantages of a Star network

Network security and control is easy to implement through the central computer or hub. If one of the cables
fails, this does not disrupt the whole network. Communication is generally faster than both the bus and star
networks

Disadvantage
It uses too many cables so its expensive to set up. Failure of the hub disrupts all communication

Bus network
All computers are connected to one cable called the bus. When a computer wants to send a message it
first checks to see if the bus is not busy then sends. If the bus is busy, it waits for a random time and then
rechecks. The method is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
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Bus

Each computer is linked to a bus (cable) and there are terminators at each end of the
bus. Less cabling but can be slow if there are a large number of users.

Advantages
The network use fewer cables than star and ring so it’s cheap.

Disadvantages
If the bus fails, the whole network is disrupted. Any problem on the bus is very difficult to find and fix.

The Internet
The Internet is often referred to as the information super highway. The internet is used for information
browsing, e-mail, newsgroups, file transfer and running programs on another computer.

Information browsing
If one will go onto the internet and type the herald’s website address www.herald.co.zw he will be able to read
the latest version of the paper on the internet. It would allow one to open any one edition of the herald.
www.herald.co.zw is referred to as the URL (Uniform Resource Location), which helps the Internet browser to
locate a user’s requested page. Information browsing also includes the use of search engines e.g.
www.google.com, on which a user type some keywords specifying a search criteria and click search for the
browser to search the whole internet for the occurrence of the keyword.

An example of a search window

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 Search the Internet

What are you looking for?

Help on searching is available.

Electronic mail (e-mail)

An e-mail is an Internet facility that allow individuals to write each other mail and send them through the
internet to the recipient. Typically for one to send or receive e-mail, you must be logged on to your account.
One’s messages are stored in his mailbox (which is itself made up of the inbox, bulk box and the sent box). E-
mail has added features of being able to forward, save, delete and compose message. Format of e-mail is like

[email protected] indicate the service provide

Account holder

This means that Susan has an e-mail account with a company called Yahoo.

Newsgroups
When one has one an e-mail, he may specify his areas of interest e.g. recreational, sport, food, science and
technology such that should anyone have any news he will convey it to the news group.

File transfer Protocol

Allows one to download and upload files (e.g. games, software) from and to the internet

Requirements for one to connect to the Internet

You have to subscribe to the Internet Service Provider like mweb, zarnet, ecoweb. These give one a username
and a password he can use to derive Internet benefits. When accessing the Internet, your computer will dial the
Internet Service provider’s number. The ISP will also have a server that hosts and screens (against viruses) your
e-mail messages.

When you call “a” to sign up for an Internet account, make sure you get the following information:

 User name
 Password
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  Access phone number
 Your host name and domain name
 Domain Name System (DNS) server address

The service provider may also supply the following information:

 IP address and subnet mask

 DNS search order (if required)
 Gateway address
 Authentication procedure (whether or not the service provider requires a terminal window to log on)

One also needs to have a modern Internet browser like Opera, Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape loaded
on the computer. Above all, the computer must be at least a Pentium I machine with a speed from 166MHz
2. The telephone line and a modem are other requirements. The modem converts a computer’s electronic
digital data into analog signals that can be transported through a telephone line when information is being sent
into the Internet and vice versa when receiving. The telephone line is the transmission media, which links the
computer to the Internet service provider. Your operating system should compatible with the Internet browser
and modern GUI operating systems support Internet

For large organizations, its ideal that they network their computers, hence more requirements. One would need
a server-based network to effect networks security and to use one connection as a gateway to the Internet.
 Discuss the need of gateways, routers and in networking an organization like Midlands State
University

USES OF THE INTERNET

The most basic use of the Internet is convenience of worldwide communication, collaboration through e-mail
and newsgroups; and for accessing a wide range of information for example academic research findings, news,
commodities etc.

Students use the Internet for carrying out academic research. They mostly employ search engines like
www.google.com on which they type some keywords on the information they require and the browser searches
for websites that contain the keywords.

E-commerce is an application of the Internet that is widely gaining momentum. Businesses can now use the
Internet to make orders, market their products, request for quotations, carryout business transactions (e.g. e-
banking) from the comfort of their offices or homes.
The Internet is also being used to conduct market researches as a company talks remotely with its customers and
prospective customers.

WORD-PROCESSORS and SPREADSHEETS

Word-processing
Is the use of computers to type, store, edit, revise and print text data. However, with the advances in technology,
word-processing now covers aspects of checking spelling and grammar on some text, drawing tables, and mail
merge; and Dictaphone typing. Word-processing is an important application in office automation.
Modern word-processors can:
o Have a line of text adjusted to fit the margin when typing reaches the end of the line (text wrap)
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 o Copy or move a block of text from one lace to another
o Check and correct spelling and grammar on typed text
o Draw tables
o Merge documents e.g. when one wants to write one letter to 100 companies which only differ in their
addresses.
o Insert a table of contents when one has typed a long document.
Microsoft Word comes with an office assistant, which gives help and tips on how to make best use of the
package.

COMMON ICONS IN MICROSOFT WORD icons AND THEIR USES

A. For making text bold
B. For making text italics
C. For underlining text
D. For left, center, right and justified text alignment
E. For numbering points either as 1,2,3, etc or a, b, c, d, e or i, ii, iii, iv
F. For bulleting points other than using numbers
G. Undo reverses the most recent change made to a document
H. Opens a new document
I. Open an existing document
J. Save a documents and allows one to type the name if the document had not been saved previously or
saves changes made to a document
K. Print a document
L. Print preview – allows one to see what the printed document would look like
M. Checks grammar and spelling on typed text
N. Moves highlighted text from one place to another
O. Pastes copied or moved text to another
P. Copies highlighted text from one place to another
Q. Changes text color
R. Office assistance – gives help and tips on how to carry out certain task in Ms Word

S. Changes text size

T. Changes text style
A Microsoft Word window. D E F
C
A B

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 T S P

O Q

N R
M

L
H J
I K
G

These notes were prepared using a Word-processor. Make sure you can produce such a document.

Users are also expected to

a) Change the case of typed text
a) Insert page or text borders
b) Insert a page break
c) Draw things like organizational charts
d) Adjust the print layouts
e) Write text in columns as in newspapers

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 f)

Spreadsheets
Are computer packages are computer packages for carrying out calculations on data. They are mostly used by
managers for analysis (i.e. conducting what-if analysis in which a manager changes input signals , noting their
effect on output like profit, customer reaction using mathematical and statistical models), planning, and
modeling .

A spreadsheet is made up of a grid of numbered rows and letters columns, which intersect at a cell e.g. the first
cell in the cutting below is named A1. Moving to a cell is done by clicking the cell or moving with the arrow
keys.
When calculating in Excel,
1. a formula starts with an = sign
2. one can use the cell address where a value is stored or a number or both, in a formula or function e.g.
=B2+B3+B4+B5 or =sum(B2:B5) gives the total for Maths
3. To see the result you press ENTER or move or of the current cell

On the Excel cutting below, the active cell is F2 as you can see F2 written on the name box. You can change
the name of a cell or cell by highlighting them and then typing a name on the name box. [this approach was
used in the IF function below]

Pass/fail

Excel Diagram 1

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A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet below is used to draw a chart tat diagrammatically represent students marks,
uses a countif function to get the number of subjects passed, a sum function to get the total marks and a average
function to get each student’s average marks. Note also, that the totals are sorted in descending order.
Common spreadsheet functions

1. COUNT
Count the number of cells that contain numbers and numbers within the list of arguments.

Syntax

COUNT(value1,value2, ...)

Value1, value2, ... are 1 to 30 arguments that can contain or refer to a variety of different types of data, but
only numbers are counted.

Examples

In the following example,

A B
1 Name maths
2 Peter 34
3 Sam absent
4 Anna 23
5 Angie 22
6 Susanna sick
7 No OF SUBJECTS =COUNT(B2:B6)
attempted

Excel Diagram 2

=COUNT(B2:B6) will, give the answer 3 in cell B7

=COUNT(B2:B6, 2) equals 4

2. SUM
Adds all the numbers in a range of cells.

Syntax

SUM(number1,number2, ...)

Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want the total value or sum

If cells A2:E2 contain 5, 15, 30, 40, and 50:

SUM(A2:C2) equals 50
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SUM(B2:E2, 15) equals 150

IF

Returns one value if a condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another value if it evaluates to FALSE.

Use IF to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas.

Syntax

IF(logical_test,value_if_true,value_if_false)

Take for example, on Excel Diagram 1, if we add a column on pass or fail, basing on the average and on that the
test was out of 50, in cell I2 we will write

=if(H2>=50,”Pass”, “Fail”)

Suppose you want to assign letter grades to numbers referenced by the name AverageScore. See the following
table.

If AverageScore is Then return

Greater than 89 A
From 80 to 89 B
From 70 to 79 C
From 60 to 69 D
Less than 60 F

You can use the following nested IF function:

IF(AverageScore>89,"A",IF(AverageScore>79,"B",
IF(AverageScore>69,"C",IF(AverageScore>59,"D","F"))))

In the preceding example, the second IF statement is also the value_if_false argument to the first IF statement.
Similarly, the third IF statement is the value_if_false argument to the second IF statement. For example, if the
first logical_test (Average>89) is TRUE, "A" is returned. If the first logical_test is FALSE, the second IF
statement is evaluated, and so on.

3. COUNTIF
Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given criteria.

Syntax

COUNTIF(range,criteria)

Range is the range of cells from which you want to count cells.
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Criteria is the criteria in the form of a number, expression, or text that defines which cells will be counted. For
example, criteria can be expressed as 32, "32", ">32", "apples".

Examples

Suppose A3:A6 contain "apples", "oranges", "peaches", "apples", respectively:

COUNTIF(A3:A6,"apples") equals 2

Suppose B3:B6 contain 32, 54, 75, 86, respectively:

COUNTIF(B3:B6,">55") equals 2

Drawing Charts and graphs from given data

a) First highlight all the relevant data

b) Click the chart wizard icon or click Insert  then Chart.

c) The dialog box below appears where you select the type of chart you want and then follow Click next
for some four steps then you Click Finish

SORTING DATA
Refers to, arranging data in either ascending or descending order. Most of the time, should you data have a
heading the data in a row or column format, you will just click the heading and then click the sort ascending

31
icon or the sort descending icon and all the data will be arranged in the preferred
order.

Other abilities expected of a spreadsheet user are

Merging cells Inserting borders
Working with currency and percentage symbols Hiding and Unhiding data
Formatting Protecting a spreadsheet
And working with a variety of mathematical, financial, and statistical functions

Assignment
Using the office assistant, explain the use and format of the following Excel functions, giving examples of
where it can be applied
Counta, count, countif, average, sum, sumif, chitest, binomdist, fv, if, power, poisson, pmt, stdev, and var

Give a situation where you can use conditional formatting and autofill

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Is an organized combination of people, hardware, software, data communication systems and networks that
transform data into information and disseminate information within an organization.

Information Technology complements proper and efficient operations of a business though accurate, fast,
efficient and reliable customer service. It offers a strong platform of management reporting, planning,
coordinating and controlling.

Broadly, information systems can be categorized into

o Operations support systems
o Management support systems
o
Operations Support systems support the day-to-day business activities. They aim to efficiently input/ accept
transaction data, validate and verify it for integrity and finally process it. They also support office management,
database updating, control industrial processes. Examples of operations support systems are
o Transaction processing systems e.g. point-of-sale terminal which are used in retail outlets to sell
inventory items. They process data resulting from business transactions.
o Process control systems monitor and control industrial processes. They make real time responses to
changes in input signals and correctly mixing industrial reactants, stopping and resuming processes as
per status of production.
o Office automation systems entail office personnel to have up-to-date information that would be specific
to their clients and for communication’s sake through the use of technologies such as facsimile, word-
processors, spreadsheets, databases and internet technologies.

Management Support Systems are information systems tailor made for decision making needs of managers. For
example a manager can use a spreadsheet to do what-if analysis when evaluating the pros and cons introducing
a new product brand basing on a certain probability distribution.

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Information Systems In Business
T should be noted that, in business, information systems cut across the boundaries of operations support systems
and management support systems; and integrate them. Thus information system, can be useful to operational
staff and management staff but still screening the information basing on user privileges

Marketing Information Systems.

Are used by managers in planning , promoting and sale of existing and new products to existing and potential
customers. They target to establish key areas for harnessing competitive advantage. They assist marketers in
coming up with pricing decisions, forecasting potential and new products trend, at the same time providing
analytical reporting on the firm ‘s performance against set objectives. They assist managers in analyzing
research data.

Manufacturing Information systems

They simplify, automate and integrate production processes They enable the planning of prodction
requirements to be done effectively. Using Computer Aided Design (CAD) designer can easily design structures
like buildings, planned circuitry or a plane and test it using some models.

Accounting Information Systems.

They integrate the tasks of processing customers orders, invoicing, inventory control, amounts owed by and
amounts owed to customers into a consolidated pool of accounting data. When required, they produce
accounting information products like trial balance financial statement and balance sheets

Financial Information Systems

Are used financial managers to make informed decisions in allocation and control of a company’s financial
resources and selecting viable business financing options?

Security and Ethical challenges in Information Technology

Information Technology resources (hardware, software, and data) form a vital strategic resource of any
establishment which must be jealously guarded to ensure its safety, reliability, accuracy and integrity. Ethics
refer to the expected code of conduct within an organization both on the use of computer resources and human
resources. Hence, ethics direct an employee‘s mind towards profit through sanctioned means, ensure that
managers do not engage in fraud and abuse of funds nor convert the company’s clients for personal motive. At
the same time, data in the organization must be used for its intended purpose which itself should be legitimate.

Security in Information Systems

Managers should see to it that the Information System ensures
 proper data entry,
 accurate processing,
 reliable data recovery in case of disaster,
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  that computers are not used for fraudulent purposes,
 and in general, that the system lives up to expectation.

Information Systems have been victims of abuse in terms of

 Fraud – which managers should counter ensuring that each person who uses the computer has a
password which makes him liable to any transaction after he logs on to the computer, the computer
keeps a log of events that happened, and that the computer system is safe and secure from hackers who
might want to access computer resources remotely and fraudulently
 Abuse by inaction- when the responsible person does not execute his duties may be to fix management.
 Piracy- if one installs or makes copies of software against copyright laws or merely when the wrong
person accesses confidential data. Acts against copyright laws have tended to be an unnecessary cost to
businesses.

Many other risks have befallen computers, which include computer rooms catching fire or being flooded,
computer catching getting viruses, data being incorrectly entered, data storage devices failing, and many more.

To this end, managers should put in place some controls that prevent the afore-mentioned risks or eliminate
them at all.

Administrative controls
They cover company code of practice/conduct and can be implemented through written policies and procedures;
division of functions and supervision

A Code of Practice is a set of standards that a business

would expect its employees to conform to.

It is not legally binding but the business would ask an

employee to agree to it before being employed and would be
grounds for dismissal if they were not obeyed.

It is always in the best interest of a business to treat its

customers fairly and with due consideration - or they will go
elsewhere.

It ensures consistency of practice. All employees would

conduct their business in a similar way.

Through division of functions can be whereby where the Information system designers are not part of the
endusers that operate a computer system.

Input Controls
They aim to ensure proper data entry by the intended personnel, through the use of passwords so that only the
holder can benefit from the computer resources, formatted input screens and audible error signals so that data is
entered correctly. Computers should have software that verifies correctness of the data typed (validation).

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Storage controls
There should be a control mechanism so that no everyone can access stored data. Thus documents can be access
through passwords.
Stored data may need to be stored in a separate backup copy so that, in case of that storage device failing data
can be recovered from the backup copy. Stored data can also be encrypted so that, should the wrong person
accesses it, he won’t make sense out of it. Firewall are computers that protect networked computers from
intrusion, hence they also ensure safe storage of data.

Physical protection
Security guards, buglar bars on windows video surveillance cameras, alarms, and building computer centers
above flood levels are some of the many moves to ensure physical safety of computers.

Disaster recovery plans

Companies should have in place a responsibility roster that explain each and every individual’s duty in case of a
disaster e.g. fire outbreak, so as to minimize the effects of the disaster. They should also have a tentative
document that explain how customers would be served and who should disseminate the information.

Ethical Challenges of Information Technology

Confines organizational members to strike a balance professional conduct and personal gain, within the
execution of their duties. In the end the benefits of Information Technology must outweigh its negative impacts
while reducing risks.

It’s totally unethical for a designated officer to divulge confidential information and distort the integrity and
accuracy of data.

When using computers at a business establishment, all members must be informed of the purpose of the
computers so that they do not speculate on their roles. Employees should be informed of the effect Information
Technology might have on their social life including making work easier as well as unemployment.

Viruses
Are programs designed to cause harm or to disturb the normal operations of a computer. To guard against
viruses a computer should be loaded with updated antiviral software, avoid using external disks and not being
on the network including the Internet.

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Societal Implications of Information Technology
The rise of Information technology puts pressure on society members to learn and cope with the complexity of
information-based employment. At the onset Information Technology many problems as it takes considerable
effort to be comfortable with the software, network and diagnosing related problems.

The managers are very much concerned with the reliability of the computers as the software may be of
international standard but failing to address the nitty-gritties of one’s business. Managers need more
information on Information Technology use for them to confidently conduct cost-benefit analysis for the
appropriate hardware, software and network technology.

If Information technology is used to monitor employees, that must be done with their concert so that they do not
feel harassed and insecure at the workplace. This may tend to distort any motivation that a manager would offer
to the employees

Other implications of computers are many employees tend to loose their jobs due to the insurgence of
information technology based production.

Other implications are positive in that, Information technology increases customer satisfaction through a
customer having confidence in the system and being served faster.

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