CHAPTER

07

Alternating Current
We have already studied in our previous chapters about electric and magnetic
fields and how energy can be stored in capacitors and inductors. In this chapter,
we will study how energy stored in one location can be transferred to another
location, so that it can be put to use. Most of the electric power generated and
used in the world is in the form of alternating current. Here, we will study about
some alternating current system that transfers energy efficiently and we will also
discuss some of the devices that make use of that energy.

TYPES OF CURRENT
There are two types of current which flows in any of the electrical appliances.
These are as follow

Direct current (DC)

Current whose direction does not change with time through a load, is known as
direct current (DC) and this voltage is known as direct voltage (DC voltage). The Inside
graph given below shows that the direction of direct current (I) or voltage (V) does
not change with time (t). 1 Types of current
Mean or average value of an
V or I alternating current
Root mean square value of an
alternating current
Form factor
Peak factor
O t
2 Representation of / of V as
Fig. 7.1 Voltage or current versus time graph for a DC
rotating vectors
Different types of alternating
Alternating current (AC) current circuits
Current whose direction changes periodically through a load, is known as Inductor as low pass filter
alternating current (AC) and the voltage is known as alternating voltage (AC AC voltage applied to a series
L-C-R circuit
voltage)
Parallel circuit (Rejector circuit)
I or V I or V
3 Power in an AC circuit
V0, I 0 Half power points in series
+ L-C-R circuit
+ +
t t Wattless current
– – L-C oscillations
–I 0
–V0 4 Choke coil
I = I 0 sin ω t I = I 0 cos ω t
Transformer
or V = V 0 sin ω t or V = V 0 cos ω t
Electric generator or dynamo
Fig. 7.2 Voltage or current versus time graph of an AC
464 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Here, the magnitude of current or voltage increases from If I = I 0 sin (ωt + φ ), then the argument of sin (ωt + φ )
zero to a maximum value, then decreases to zero and is called its phase.
reverses in direction, increases to a maximum value in this (v) Phase difference The difference between the
direction and then decreases to zero. The complete set of phases of current and voltage is called phase
variations is known as a cycle. Thus, during one-half of difference. If alternating voltage and current is given
the cycle the current or voltage flows in one direction, by the relation,
whereas in the next half-cycle, it flows in the opposite
V = V0 sin (ωt + φ 1 )
direction.
and I = I 0 sin (ωt + φ 2 )
The instantaneous value of AC is given by
I = I 0 sinωt Then, phase difference, φ = φ 2 − φ 1
where, I = current at any instant t, (relative to voltage)
I 0 = maximum or peak value of AC and φ = φ1 − φ 2 (relative to current)
and ω = angular frequency.
Some important points related to
Alternating emf or voltage
The instantaneous value of alternating emf or voltage is
alternating current
given by (i) An AC is produced by AC generator or AC dynamo
and is represented by the symbol .
V = V0 sinω t
(ii) The AC is converted into DC with the help of
where, V = voltage at any time t, rectifier while DC is converted into AC with the
V0 = maximum or peak value of alternating voltage help of invertor.
and ω = angular frequency. (iii) It cannot produce electroplating or electrolysis.
Note Alternating current, alternating voltage or emf, flux, etc., all are (iv) It is measured with the help of ‘hot wire ammeter’.
sinusoidal waves.
(v) An AC can be transmitted over long distances
without much power loss.
Some definitions related to alternating
(vi) In an AC (sinusoidal) current or voltage can have
current or voltage following four values
(i) Time period The time taken to complete one cycle (a) Instantaneous value
of variations is called time period or periodic time. It (b) Peak value (I 0 orV0 )
is given by the formula, (c) rms value (I rms orVrms )
2π
T = (d) Average value
ω
where, 2 π = angular displacement in a complete cycle Mean or average value of an
and ω = angular frequency.
alternating current
(ii) Frequency The number of cycles completed per
Average or mean value of AC is defined as the value of
second by an alternating current is called its direct current which sends the same amount of charge in
frequency and is denoted by f or ν. a circuit in the same time as is sent by the given
1 ω alternating current in its half-cycle (i.e., T/2). It is denoted
f = =
T 2π by I av or I m .
The frequency of AC in India is 50 Hz, i.e. Let an alternating current be represented by I = I 0 sin ωt,
f = 50 Hz = 50 cps where I 0 is the peak value. Clearly, the mean value of
or ω = 2πf ≈ 314 rads −1 the current over a complete cycle is zero. It has no
significance. Hence, the mean value of alternating current
(iii) Peak value or amplitude The maximum value of is defined as its average over half a cycle. For positive half
alternating current or alternating voltage is defined cycle,
as peak value or amplitude. It is denoted by I 0 orV0 . 1 T/ 2
T /2 ∫0
(iv) Phase Phase is a physical quantity representing I mean = I dt
both the instantaneous value and direction of
alternating current at any instant. It is a Putting I = I 0 sin ωt and T = (2π /ω ), we get
dimensionless quantity and its unit is radian.
Alternating Current 465

2 π/ω ω I0 Example 7.2 Find the average value in the following cases
I mean = ∫
T 0
I 0 sin ωt dt =
π ω
[− cos ωt] π0 / ω
(i) i = 4 + 3 cos ωt
I I (ii) V = 5 sin ωt + 3 cos ωt
= − 0 [cos π − cos 0] = − 0 [−1 − 1] (iii) i = sin ωt + 2 sin 2ωt + 3 sin 3ωt
π π (iv) V = cos ωt + 3 cos 2ωt + 3 cos 3ωt + 2
2 Sol. (i) Average value of current, I av = I 0 = 4 unit
Thus, I mean = I 0 = 0.637I 0 = 63.7% of I 0
π (ii) Average value of voltage,Vav = 0
(iii) Average value of current, I av = 0
…[Mean current over positive half cycle]
(iv) Average value of voltage,Vav = 2 unit
In the same way, mean value of alternating emf,

E mean =
2E 0
= 0.637E 0 = 63.7% of E 0
Root mean square value of an
π alternating current
Similarly, for negative half cycle the mean value of It is defined as that value of a direct current which
alternating current is −2I 0 /π and the average value of emf produces the same amount of heating effect in a given
for negative half cycle is −2E 0 / π . resistor as is produced by the given alternating current
when passed for the same time during a complete cycle. It
Average values of some important is denoted by I rms , IV or I eff .
expressions of current and voltage It is also called virtual value or effective value of AC.
Let instantaneous value of alternating current,
(i) When I = I 1 sinωt + I 2 cos ωt
and V = V1 sinωt + V2 cosωt I = I 0 sin ωt
where I 1, I 2 ,V1 andV2 are constants, If dH is small amount of heat produced in time dt in
then I av = 0 andVav = 0 resistor R, then dH = I 2R dt. In complete cycle, the total
heat produced is
(ii) Similarly, when I = I 0 + I 1 sinωt +I 2 cosωt T
andV = V0 +V1sinωt +V2 cosωt ∫ dH = ∫0 I 2R dt
then I av = I 0 andVav = V0 T

(iii) When I = I 0 + I 1 sinωt + I 2 cos 2ωt

H= ∫0 (I 0 sin ωt ) 2 R dt

andV = V0 +V1 sinωt +V2 cos 2ωt On solving, we get

then I av = I 0 andVav = V0 I 02RT
H= …(i)
(iv) When I = I 1 sin ωt + I 2 sin 2ωt +I 3 sin 3ωt +I 0 2
andV = V1 sin ωt +V2 sin 2ωt +V3 sin 3ωt +V0
If I rms is rms value of alternating current and H is the heat
then I av = I 0 andVav = V0 produced by rms current, then
2
Example 7.1 If the peak value of a current in 50Hz AC H = I rms RT …(ii)
circuit is 7.07 A. What is the mean value of current over From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
half a cycle and the value of current 1/300 s after it was
I
zero? I rms = 0
2 I0 2
Sol. As, I m = , where I 0 = peak value of current = 7.07A
π
or I rms = 0.707I 0
∴ I m = 0.637 × 7.07
= 4.5 A or I rms = 70.7% of I 0
1
Also, at t = s In the same way, rms value of alternating emf
300
E
I = I 0 sin ωt = I 0 sin 2πft (Q ω = 2πf) E rms = 0 = 0.707 E 0 = 70.7% of E 0
2
 1  π
∴ I = 7.07 sin 2π × 50 ×  = 7.07 sin AC ammeter and AC voltmeter always measure the virtual
 300 3
value of AC or alternating voltage. Also, the power supply
3 which we are getting in our homes as 220 V AC is the rms
= 7.07 × = 6.12 A
2 voltage and its voltage amplitude isV0 = 2Vrms = 311 V.
466 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

This is the reason why AC is more dangerous than DC as Sol. (i) Here, peak value of AC supply,V0 = 300 V
311 V will cause more harm to the human body than V
∴ Using the relation,Vrms = 0
220 V DC. The different values I 0 , I av and I rms are shown 2
in figure below, 300
We get,Vrms = = 212.1 V
2
I
(ii) Let I 0 be the peak value of the current.
I0
I rms = 0.707 I 0 Here, I rms = rms value of current = 10 A
Iav = 0.637 I 0 I
Then, I rms = 0
t 2
∴ I 0 = 2 I rms
= 1.414 × 10 = 14.14 A
Fig. 7.3 Peak, rms and average value on the same graph Example 7.4 IfV = 220 2 sin (314t − φ), calculate (i) peak
and rms value of the voltage, (ii) average voltage for half
time-period and (iii) frequency of AC.
rms values for some important
Sol. Given,V = 220 2 sin(314t − φ ) ...(i)
expressions of current and voltage Comparing with general equation, we get
(i) When I = I 1 sinωt + I 2 cosωt, where I 1 and I 2 are
(i) Peak voltage,V0 = 220 2 V
constant currents, then
V0 220 2
I2 I2 rms voltage,Vrms = == 220 V
I rms = 1 + 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 440 2
(ii) Average voltage,V = V0 = × 220 2 = V
Similarly, whenV = V1 sinωt +V2 cosωt, whereV1 π π π
andV2 are constant voltages, then (iii) As, ω = 314 rad s−1
V12 V22 ⇒ ω = 2πf = 314
Vrms = + ⇒ f = 50 Hz
2 2
(ii) When I = I 0 + I 1 sin ωt + I 2 cos ωt Example 7.5 If the current in an AC circuit is represented by
the equation, I = 5 sin (300 t − π/4)
and V = V0 +V1 sinωt +V2 cosωt Here, t is in second and I is in ampere. Calculate,
(i) peak and rms value of current,
I 12 I 22
I rms = I 02 + + (ii) frequency of AC,
2 2 (iii) and average current.
Sol. (i) Comparing the given equation with general equation,
V12 V22 we have
andVrms = V02 + +
2 2 I = I 0 sin (ωt ± φ )
(iii) When V = V1 sin ωt +V2 sin 2ωt + V3 sin 3 ωt +V0 ∴ The peak value of current, I0 = 5 A
I 5
and I = I 1 sin ωt + I 2 sin 2ωt + I 3 sin 3ωt + I 0 , then and Irms = 0 = = 3.535 A
2 2
V12 V22 V32 (ii) Angular frequency,
Vrms = + + +V02 ω = 300 rads −1
2 2 2
ω 300
∴ ν= = ≈ 47.75 Hz
I2 I2 I2 2π 2π
and I rms = 1 + 2 + 3 + I 02
2 2 2  2  2
(iii) Average current, I av =   I 0 =   (5)
 π  π
Example 7.3
(i) The peak voltage of an AC supply is 300V. What is the rms = 3.18 A
voltage? Example 7.6 The voltage supplied to a circuit is given by
(ii) The rms value of current in an AC circuit is 10 A. What is the V = V0 t 3/ 2 , where t is time in second. Find the rms value of
peak current? voltage for the period, t = 0 to t = 1s.
Alternating Current 467

Sol. The mean square voltage, Calculation of mean and rms value for
t 1
1 1
V 2 = ∫ V 2dt = ∫ V02 t 3dt some specific cases of alternating current
t 0 t 0
1 1 Sinusoidal waveform
V2t 4  V02 t 3  V02
= 0  =  = I0
t 4 0  4 0 4 (i) I rms =
2
V
∴ Vrms = V2 = 0 I or V
2 I0,V0

Example 7.7 Calculate rms value of current and voltage for +

π 2π
the following cases 0 ωt
(i) I = 4 + 3 sin ωt –
(ii) V = 5 + 2 cos ωt
(iii) I = 2 + 3 sin ωt + 2 cos 2ωt
(iv) V = cos ωt + 2 cos 2ωt + 3 cos 3ωt Fig. 7.4 Sinusoidal waveform
Sol. (i) rms value of current, 2I 0
(ii) I av = , for half-cycle
I12 3 2
π
I rms = I 02 + = 42 + = 4.52 unit
2 2 I av = 0, for one complete cycle
(ii) rms value of voltage, π
(iii) R f = = 1.11
V12 22 2 2
Vrms = V02 + = 52 +
2 2 (iv) R p = 2 = 1.41
= 519
. unit
(iii) rms value of current, Square or rectangular waveform
I2 I2 (i) I rms = I 0 , for one complete cycle
I rms = I 02 + 1 + 2
2 2 I or V
2 2
3 2 I0,V0
= 22 + + = 3.24 unit
2 2 +
ωt
(iv) rms value of voltage, –
V12 V22 V32
Vrms = + +
2 2 2 Fig. 7.5 Square or rectangular waveform
2 2 2
1 2 3
= + + = 2 .64 unit (ii) I av = I 0 , for half-cycle
2 2 2
I av = 0, for one complete cycle
Form factor I
(iii) R f = 0 = 1
Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of AC to I0
its average value during half-cycle, i.e. I0
(iv) R p = =1
rms value I0
Rf =
average value
Half-wave rectified
V / 2 π
= 0 = = 1.11 (i) I rms =
I0
, for one complete cycle
2V0 /π 2 2 2

Peak factor I or V

The ratio of peak value and rms value is called peak I0,V0
factor. It is given by + +
0 ωt
peak value V0 π 2π 3π
Rp = = = 2 = 1.41
rms value V0 / 2 Fig. 7.6 Half-wave rectified waveform
468 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

I0 For a current varying wave as shown in the graph

(ii) I av = , for one complete cycle
π T 2 
1/ 2

2I  ∫ I dt 
I av = 0 , for half-cycle
=  0T  I0
π (i) I rms =
  3
I /2 π  ∫ dt 
(iii) R f = 0 = = 1.57
I 0 /π 2  0 
I0 I
(iv) R p = =2 I0
I 0 /2

Full wave rectified t

T T 3T
I0 2 2T
2
(i) I rms = , for one complete cycle
2 I0

I or V Fig. 7.8

 T Idt 
∫
I0,V0
+ + (ii) I av =  0T 
ωt  
π 2π  ∫0 dt 
Fig. 7.7 Full wave rectified waveform
Area of I-t graph for t = 0 to t = T I 0
2I 0 = =
(ii) I av = T 2
π
I0 / 3 2
I / 2 π (iii) R f = = = 1.15
(iii) R f = 0 = = 1.11 I 0 /2 3
2 I 0 /π 2 2
I0
I0 (iv) R p = = 3
(iv) R p = = 2 I0 / 3
I0 / 2

CHECK POINT 7.1

1. The frequency of a sinusoidal wave 6. 220 V, 50 Hz, AC is applied to a resistor. The instantaneous
E = 0.40 cos [2000 t + 0.80 ] would be value of voltage is
(a) 1000 π Hz (b) 2000 Hz (a) 220 2sin100 πt (b) 220sin100 πt
(c) 20 Hz (d) 1000/π Hz (c) 220 2sin 50 πt (d) 220sin 50 πt
2. Frequency of AC mains in India is
7. The instantaneous current in an AC circuit is
(a) 30 cps (b) 50 cps (c) 60 cps (d) 120 cps
I = 2 sin (50t + π /4). The rms value of current is
3. A 220 V AC is more dangerous than 220 V DC because (a) 2A (b) 50 A (c) 90 A (d) 1 A
(a) the AC attracts
(b) the DC repels 8. The peak value of an alternating current is 5 A and its
(c) the body offers less resistance to AC frequency is 60 Hz. Find its rms value and time taken to
(d) peak voltage for AC is much larger than 220 V reach the peak value of current starting from zero.
(a) 3.536 A, 4.167 ms (b) 3.536 A, 15 ms
4. Alternating current is transmitted to take places
(c) 6.07 A, 10 ms (d) 2.536 A, 4.167 ms
(a) at high voltage and low current
(b) at high voltage and high current 9. If an alternating voltage is represented as E = 141 sin(628 t),
(c) at low voltage and low current then the rms value of the voltage and the frequency are
(d) at low voltage and high current respectively
(a) 141V, 628 Hz (b) 100 V, 50 Hz
2πt
5. An AC voltage is given by E = E0 sin (c) 100 V, 100 Hz (d) 141 V, 100 Hz
T
10. An alternating current in a circuit is given by
Then, the mean value of voltage calculated over any time
interval of T/2 second I = 20 sin (100πt + 0.05π) A. The rms value and the
frequency of current respectively, are
(a) is always zero (b) is never zero
(a) 10 A and 100 Hz (b) 10 A and 50 Hz
(c) is always (2E 0 / π) (d) may be zero
(c) 10 2 A and 50 Hz (d) 10 2 A and 100 Hz
Alternating Current 469

REPRESENTATION OF I OR V
AS ROTATING VECTORS
To simplify the study of AC circuit, alternating quantities Suppose E is the potential drop across resistance (R ), then
(i.e. I orV) are represented as rotating vectors, with the E = IR …(ii)
angle between the vectors equal to the phase difference R
between the current and emf or voltage. These rotating
vectors representing current and alternating voltage are
called phasors.
Some important points regarding phasors are as follows
E
● The length of the vector represents the maximum or peak
Fig. 7.10 AC voltage applied to a resistor
value, i.e. I 0 andV0 .
● The projection of the vector on fixed axis gives the Instantaneous emf = Instantaneous value of potential drop
instantaneous value of alternating current and alternating emf. ∴ From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
If I = I 0 sin ω t and V = V0 sin ω t, projection is taken on IR = E = E 0 sinωt
Y-axis. If I = I 0 cos ωt and V = V0 cos ωt, projection is
E E sinωt
taken on X-axis. or I = = 0
● A phasor is a geometric entity and not a real physical R R
quantity that helps us to describe and analyse physical  E0 
I = I 0 sinωt Q I 0 =  …(iii)
quantities that vary sinusoidally with time.  R 
● A diagram representing alternating current and alternating
Comparing I 0 = E 0 / R with Ohm’s law, we find that
emf (of same frequency) as rotating vectors (phasors) with
resistors work equally well for both AC and DC voltages.
the phase angle between them is called phasor diagram.
From Eqs. (i) and (iii), we get that there is zero phase
ω ω
difference between instantaneous alternating current and
I0 instantaneous alternating emf (i.e. they are in same phase).
I0
I 0 sin ω t
or
E and I E
I
I0
ωt ωt
0 π E0 2π
O O I 0 cos ωt

Fig. 7.9 Phasor diagram ωt

Fig. 7.11 E and I versus ωt graph of a resistive circuit
Different types of alternating Phasor Diagram
current circuits E E0
In this section, we will derive voltage-current relations for
I
individual as well as combined circuit elements carrying a I0
sinusoidal current. We will consider resistors, inductors ωt
and capacitors.

1. Pure resistor in an AC circuit Fig. 7.12 Phasor diagram for a purely resistive circuit
(Resistive circuit or R-circuit) Here, peak values E 0 and I 0 are represented by vectors
Suppose a resistor of resistance R is connected to an AC rotating with angular velocity ω with respect to horizontal
source of emf with instantaneous value (E ) is given by reference. Their projections on vertical axis give their
E = E 0 sinωt …(i) instantaneous values.
470 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Variation of resistance with frequency of source E0

= cos ωt
Figure given below shows the graph of R as a function of 1/ωC
angular frequency ω. The resistance R, does not depend E0
upon angular frequency of the source. ⇒ I = sin(ωt + π /2)
1/ωC
R
[Q cos ωt = sin(π /2 + ωt )]…(ii)
R
I will be maximum when sin(ωt + π /2) = 1, so that I = I 0
E0
where, peak value of current, I 0 =
1/ ω C
ω
∴ I = I 0 sin(ωt + π / 2) ...(iii)
Fig. 7.13 R remains constant with ω or f
From Eqs. (i) and (iii), it is clear that in a perfect capacitor,
Example 7.8 A 200 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of π/2 (90°)
Hz AC supply. Calculate rms value of current in the circuit. or the voltage lags behind the current by a phase angle of
Also, find phase difference between voltage and the current. π/2 (90°).
Sol. Given, Vrms = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 200 Ω E
E0 I
V I0
Current in the purely resistive AC circuit, I =
R ωt
∴ rms value of current, 0 ωt1 π 2π
V 220
I rms = rms = = 1.1 A
R 200
In purely resistive AC circuit, current and voltage are in Fig. 7.15 E and I versus ωt graph of a capacitive circuit
phase. Therefore, phase difference is zero.
Phasor Diagram
2. Pure capacitor in an AC circuit The phase representing peak emf E 0 makes an angle ωt in
(Capacitive circuit or C-circuit) anti-clockwise direction with respect to horizontal axis. As
Let us consider a capacitor with capacitance C be connected current leads the voltage by 90°, the phasor representing
to an AC source with emf having instantaneous value. I 0 is turned 90° anti-clockwise with the phasor
representing E 0 . The projections of these phasors on the
E = E 0 sinω t …(i) vertical axis give instantaneous values of E and I.
C
E E0
I0
I0 sin (ωt+ π/2)

I
π/2
E0 sin ωt
ωt

E = E0 sin ω t t

Fig. 7.14 An AC source connected to a capacitor

Fig. 7.16 Phasor diagram for purely capacitive circuit
Due to this emf, charge will be produced and it will charge
the plates of capacitor with positive and negative charge.
If potential difference across the plates of capacitor isV, Capacitive Reactance ( XC )
then Instantaneous value of alternating current through a
q capacitor is given by
V= or q = CV E  π
C I = 0 sin (ω t + π / 2) = I 0 sin  ωt + 
The instantaneous value of current in the circuit, 1/ωC  2
dq d E0
I = = (CE ) (QV = E ) Comparing with Ohm’s law, we get I 0 =
dt dt 1 / ωC
d 1
= (CE 0 sin ωt ) (Q E = E 0 sin ωt ) XC =
dt ωC
= CE 0 cosωt × ω where, XC is called capacitive reactance.
Alternating Current 471

The opposing nature of capacitor to the flow of alternating Example 7.9 A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V,
current is called capacitive reactance. 60 Hz AC supply. Determine the rms value of the current
If f is the frequency of the alternating current, then in the circuit.
Vrms
Sol. As, I rms =
1 XC
XC =
2πf C 1 1
where, X C = =
ωC 2πfC
The dimensions of capacitive reactance are same as that of
resistance and its SI unit is ohm (Ω ). The capacitive Here, C = 60 µF = 60 × 10−6F,Vrms = 110 V, f = 60 Hz
reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely 1
So, XC = Ω
capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits 2 × π × 60 × 60 × 10−6
the current in a purely resistive circuit.
∴ I rms = 110 × 2 × 3.14 × 3600 × 10−6 = 2.49 A
It is inversely proportional to the capacitance and
frequency of the current. Thus, if frequency of AC Example 7.10 An alternating voltageV = 200 2 sin (100 t )V
increases, then its capacitive reactance decreases. is connected to a 1 µF capacitor through an AC ammeter.
When capacitor is connected to DC source, What will be the reading of the ammeter?
1 1 Sol. Consider the purely capacitive circuit as shown below.
XC = = =∞ C =1µF
ωC 0
(Q For DC, ω = 2πf = 0, as f = 0)
Thus, capacitor blocks DC and acts as open circuit while
passing AC of high frequency.
C
Given, V = 200 2 sin (100 t )
Comparing it with general equation,V = V0 sin (ωt )
+ – we get, V0 = 200 2 V, ω = 100 rad s−1
DC source 1 1
∴ Reactance, X C = = = 104 Ω
Fig. 7.17 Capacitor connected to a DC source ωC 100 × 10−6
Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency V0 200 2
Peak value of current, I 0 = = = 2 2 × 10−2 A
The graph of XC as function of angular frequency ω can be XC 104
drawn as I0 2 2 × 10−2
rms value of current, I rms = =
XC 2 2
−3
= 20 × 10 A = 20 mA
Reading of the ammeter will be same as, I rms = 20 mA.

ω
3. Pure inductor in an AC circuit
Fig. 7.18 Capacitive reactance X C decreases with frequency (Inductive circuit or L-circuit)
Suppose an inductor with self-inductance (L ) is connected to
Capacitor as high pass filter AC source with instantaneous emf (E ) is given by
The capacitive reactance of a capacitor is inversely E = E 0 sinωt …(i)
proportional to the capacitance C and to angular frequency L
ω . The greater the capacitance and higher the frequency,
e
smaller is the capacitive reactance XC . I
Capacitors tend to pass high frequency current and block K
low frequency current, just the opposite of inductors. The
device that passes signals of high frequency is called a E = E0 sin ω t
high pass filter. Fig. 7.19 An AC source connected to an inductor
472 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

When key is closed, then current begins to grow because Phasor Diagram
magnetic flux linked with it changes and an emf is The phasor representing peak emf E 0 makes an angle ωt
induced which opposes the applied emf. in anti-clockwise direction from horizontal axis. As
According to Lenz’s law, current lags behind the voltage by 90°, so the phasor
dI representing I 0 is turned 90° clockwise with the direction
e = −L of E 0 .
dt
E E0
dI
where, e is induced emf and is the rate of change of
dt E 0 sin ωt
current. ωt
To maintain the flow of current in the circuit, applied 90°
voltage must be equal and opposite to the induced emf. I 0 sin ωt–π/2
E = −e I I0
 LdI  LdI E
∴ E = − −  = or dI = dt
 dt  dt L Fig. 7.21 Phasor diagram for purely inductive circuit

Integrating the above equation on both sides, we get

E
Inductive Reactance ( X L )
∫ dI = ∫ L dt The opposing nature of inductor to the flow of current is
called inductive reactance.
E sinωt
I =∫ 0 dt [Q E = E 0 sin ωt] E
As, I = 0 sin(ωt − π /2) or I 0 = E 0 /ωL
L ωL
E 0  − cosωt  E0 E
⇒ I =   =− cos ωt Comparing with Ohm’s law, I 0 = 0 . The quantity ωL is
L  ω  ωL R
analogous to the resistance and is denoted by XL .
E
⇒ I = − 0 sin(π /2 − ωt ) So, X L = ωL
ωL
 π   XL is called inductive reactance.
Q sin  − ω t  = cos ω t  If f is the frequency of AC source, then
 2  
E  2π 
⇒ I = 0 sin(ωt − π /2) …(ii) XL = ωL = 2πf L Q ω = = 2πf 
ωL  T 

If sin(ωt − π /2) = maximum = 1 , then I = I 0 The dimensions of inductive reactance are same as that of
resistance and its SI unit is ohm (Ω ). The inductive
E reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit in
where, peak value of current, I 0 = 0
ωL the same way as the resistance limits the current in a
purely resistive circuit.
⇒ I = I 0 sin(ωt − π /2) …(iii)
The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the
From Eqs. (i) and (iii), it is clear that in a pure inductor, inductance and to the frequency of the AC current.
the current lags behind the voltage by a phase angle of π/2 Thus, if the frequency of AC increases, its inductive
(90°) or the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of reactance also increases.
π / 2 (90°). If inductor is connected to DC source, then for DC,
 1
E f =0 Q f = 
E0 I  T
ωt L
0 ωt1 π 2π

I0
+ –

Fig. 7.20 E and I versus ωt graph of an inductive circuit DC source

Fig. 7.22 Inductor connected to a DC source
Alternating Current 473

Here, f is frequency. Vrms = 220V

∴ XL = 0 ∴ X L = 2π × 50 × 44 × 10−3 = 13.82 Ω
Therefore, inductor passes DC and blocks AC of very high 220
∴ rms value of current, I rms = = 15.9A
frequency. 13.82

Variation of inductive reactance with frequency

The graph of XL as function of angular frequency ω can
AC voltage applied to a series
be drawn as shown below. Clearly, X 2 linearly increases L-C-R circuit
with ω. Suppose that an inductor (L ), capacitor (C ) and resistor (R )
XL are connected in series to an AC source. I is the current
passed through this circuit. As R, L, C are in series,
therefore at any instant through the three elements, AC
has the same amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by
I = I 0 sinωt
ω However, voltage across each element bears a different
Fig. 7.23 X L versus ω phase relationship with the current.
VL VC VR
Inductor as low pass filter A B C D
L
If an oscillating voltage of a given amplitudeV0 is applied VL
C R

across an inductor, the resulting current will have a π/2

I
I
smaller amplitude I 0 for larger value of ω . Since, XL is I π/2
VC VR
I
proportional to frequency, a high frequency voltage
applied to the inductor gives only a small current while a
lower frequency voltage of the same amplitude gives rise AC source, E = E0 sin ω t

to a larger current. Fig. 7.24 An AC source connected to series L-C-R circuit

Inductors are used in some circuit applications, such as VL = I 0 XL (VL is maximum voltage across L)
power supplies and radio interference filters to block high
frequencies while permitting lower frequencies to pass VC = I 0 XC (VC is maximum voltage across C )
through. A circuit device that uses an inductor for this VR = I 0 R (VR is maximum voltage across R)
purpose is called a low pass filter. Inside phasor diagrams of each L, C and R are given. To
form phasor diagram for series L-C-R circuit, combine all
Example 7.11 An ideal inductor of inductance 50 µH is
these phasor diagrams.
connected to an AC source of 220V, 50 Hz. Find the
inductive reactance. VL
Sol. As inductive reactance, X L = ωL = 2πfL A B
E0
where, L is inductance = 50 µH = 50 × 10− 6 H VL − VC
π/2
and f = source frequency = 50 Hz φ I0
∴ X L = 2 × π × 50 × 50 × 10−6
O
C
π/2
= 2π × 25 × 10−4 Ω VR
−3
= 5π × 10 Ω VC
= 5π mΩ
Fig. 7.25 Phasor diagram of a series L-C-R circuit
Example 7.12 A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz
AC supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the Since, voltage (VL ) is in upward direction and voltage (VC ) in
circuit. downward direction, so net voltage upto point A is (VL − VC )
Vrms
(assumingVL > VC ) and net maximum voltage is E 0 .
Sol. As, I rms = From phasor diagram,
XL
where, X L = ωL = 2π fL is the reactance of the inductor. OB = (OC ) 2 + (CB ) 2 = VR2 + (VL −VC ) 2
Here, f = 50 Hz,
E 0 = (I 0 R ) 2 + (I 0 XL − I 0 XC ) 2 [Q OB = E 0 ]
−3
L = 44mH = 44 × 10 H,
474 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

E 0 = I 0 R 2 + (XL − XC ) 2 The variation of Z with frequency ω

At ω = ω 0 , XL = XC , Z = R = minimum.
E0
∴ Z = = R 2 + (XL − XC ) 2
I0
Here, Z is called impedance. Z
Zmin
Impedance R
ω0
It is the total resistance of a circuit, applied in the path of
ω (or f )
alternating current. It is given by
Fig. 7.27 Z versus ω for a series L-C-R circuit
Z = R 2 + (XL − XC ) 2
From phasor diagram, it is clear that voltage leads the
current by angle φ. Reduction of L-C-R circuit to L-C, R-C, L-R circuit
∴ From ∆OCB, The general formula of L-C-R series circuit can be reduced to apply it
on L-C, R-C, L-R, circuit.
CB VL −VC
tanφ = = For L-C-R circuit, impedance Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2
OC VR
I 0 XL − I 0 XC L-C circuit
= For L-C circuit, there is no R, so, we can ignore terms related to R.
I 0R
∴ For L-C circuit, Z = ( X L − X C ) 2 or ( X L − X C )
X − XC
tanφ = L (i) If X L > X C , then circuit will behave like pure inductive circuit and
R voltage will lead the current by π / 2.
(ii) If X L < X C , then circuit will behave like pure capacitive circuit
B and voltage will lag behind the current by π / 2.
(iii) If X L = X C , then Z = 0 in this condition and current in the circuit
will be maximum.
Z
XL− XC

R-C circuit
For R-C circuit, there is no L, so we can ignore the term related to L.
φ ∴ For R-C circuit, Z = R 2 + X C2
C R O The phase difference between current and emf,
Fig. 7.26 Impedance triangle of an L-C-R circuit XC
tan φ =
R
∴ The alternating emf in the series L-C-R circuit would Here, the current leads the voltage by φ.
be represented by E = E 0 sin(ωt + φ ). ∴ I = I 0 sin (ωt + φ)

Special Cases L-R circuit

(i) When XL = XC , In L-R circuit, there is no C, so we can ignore the term related to C.

∴ Z =R ∴ For L-R circuit, Z = R 2 + X L2

and tanφ = 0 (Q φ = 0 ° ) The phase difference between current and emf, tan φ = X L / R
Hence, voltage and current are in the same phase. Here, the emf leads the current by φ.
The AC circuit is non-inductive or resistive circuit. ∴ I = I 0 sin (ωt − φ)
(ii) When XL > XC , then tanφ is positive.
Hence, voltage leads the current by a phase angle φ. Resonance
The AC circuit is inductive circuit.
In series L-C-R circuit, when phase (φ ) between current
(iii) When XC > XL , then tanφ is negative. and voltage is zero, the circuit is said to be in resonance.
Hence, voltage lags behind the current by a phase As, applied frequency increases, then
angle φ. The AC circuit is capacitive circuit. XL = ωL, XL increases
Alternating Current 475

1 resonance to the impressed voltage, which is the voltage

and XC = , XC decreases.
ωC applied across R.
At some frequency (ω 0 ) , XL = XC Voltage across L (or C )
Q-factor =
⇒ XL = ω 0 L Voltage across R
1
and XC =
ω 0C VL or VC 1 L
The frequency at which XC and XL becomes equal is Q -factor = =
VR R C
called resonant frequency.
1 1 1 ω 0L
∴ ω 0L = or ω02 = or (2πf 0 ) 2 = = =
1
ω 0C LC LC R ω 0 RC
(Q ω 0 = 2πf 0 , where f 0 is resonant frequency)
It is also defined as,
1 1
2πf 0 = or f 0 = Maximum energy stored
LC 2π LC Q -factor = 2π ×
Energy dissipation
Resonant frequency is independent of the resistance
of the circuit. At resonating frequency, Q is just a number having no dimensions, it can also be
called voltage multiplication factor of the circuit.
Z = R = Minimum
From the above relation, it is clear that as R increases, (or
Since, Z is minimum, therefore I will be maximum.
current decreases) Q-factor of the circuit decreases which
V can be shown in graph below.
∴ I = = Maximum
Z Q
These circuits are used for voltage amplification and as I0 R = 10 Ω
selector circuits in wireless telegraphy. I0
I=—
√2 R decreases
Response curves of series L-C-R circuit Q increases

The impedance of an L-C-R circuit depends on the

R=100 Ω
frequency. The dependance is shown in figure. The
frequency is taken on logarithmic scale because of its wide
O ω1 ω0 ω2
range. ω
Z I Z Fig. 7.29 Q versus ω graph of an L-C-R circuit

The electronic circuit with high Q values would respond to

R a very narrow range of frequencies and vice-versa. The
higher the value of Q, the narrower and sharper is the
XL XC
resonance and greater is the current as shown below.
Resonance log ω
R3
I

XL – XC
Fig. 7.28 Impedance (Z) versus log ω graph for R2
a series L-C-R circuit
From the figure, we can see that at resonance, R1

1 R1 > R2 > R3
(i) XL = XC or ω 0 = O
ω
LC
Fig. 7.30 I versus ω graph of an L-C-R circuit
(ii) Z = Z min = R
(iii) and I is maximum. ω0
Also, Q-factor or Q =
ω1 − ω 2
Quality factor (Q-factor)
where, ω1 and ω 2 are frequencies when current decreases
It is the measure of sharpness of the resonance of an
to 0.707 times of the peak value of current (Fig. 7.29).
L-C-R circuit. It is defined as, the ratio of voltage
developed across the inductance or capacitance at We may write, ω1 = ω 0 + ∆ω ⇒ ω 2 = ω 0 − ∆ω
476 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

The difference ω1 − ω 2 = 2∆ω is often called the (ii) Inductive reactance, X L = ωL = (103 rad s−1) (4 H)
bandwidth of the circuit. = 4.0 × 103 Ω
 ω  (iii) The amplitude of voltage across inductor,
The quantity  Q = 0  , is regarded as a measure of
 2∆ω  V0 = I0 X L = (2.0 × 10 –2 A) (4.0 × 10 3 Ω) = 80 V
sharpness of resonance, i.e. Q -factor is defined as the ratio In an AC circuit, voltage across the inductor leads the
of resonant angular frequency to the bandwidth of the π
current by 90° or rad. Hence,
circuit. 2
The smaller the bandwidth (∆ω ), the sharper or narrower  π
VL = V0 sin ωt + 
 2
is the resonance.
 π 
Note = (80 V) sin (10 3 rad s −1) t + rad
(i) Q-factor denotes the sharpness of tuning.
 2 
(ii) High Q-factor indicates lower rate of energy loss. Note The amplitude of voltage across the resistor ( = 2.0 V) is not same
(iii) Higher value of Q-factor indicates sharper peak in the current. as the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor (= 80 V), even
(iv) R = 0, Q-factor = infinity though the amplitude of the current through both elements is the
same.
Example 7.13 A sinusoidal voltage of frequency 60 Hz and
peak value 150V is applied to a series L-R circuit, where Example 7.15 An alternating emf 200 virtual volts at 50 Hz
R = 20 Ω and L = 40 mH . is connected to a circuit of resistance 1 Ω and inductance
(i) Compute T, ω , X L, Z and φ. 0.01 H. What is the phase difference between the current
(ii) Compute the amplitudes of current,VR , VL andV0. and the emf in the circuit? Also find the virtual current in
the circuit.
Sol. (i) Consider a series L-R circuit as shown below
Sol. In case of an inductor, the voltage leads the current in
20 Ω 40 mH phase by an angle,
X 
φ = tan−1  L 
R 
Here, X L = ωL = (2πfL )
V0 = 150 V, f = 60 Hz
= (2π ) (50) (0.01) = π Ω
1 1
As T = = s and R =1Ω
f 60
∴ φ = tan–1(π ) ≈ 72.3°
∴ ω = 2πf = 377 rads−1 V rms V rms
Further, I rms = =
Q X L = ωL = (377) (0.040) = 15.08 Ω |Z | R 2 + X L2
⇒ Z = X L2 + R 2 = 25.05 Ω Substituting the values we have,
–1  X L  200
Phase angle, φ = tan   = tan −1
(0.754) = 37° I rms = = 60.67 A
R  (1) 2 + (π )2
(ii) Amplitudes (maximum value) are,
Example 7.16 A resistance and inductance are connected in
V 150 series across a voltage,V = 283 sin 314 t.
I0 = 0 = ≈ 6A
Z 25.05  π
The current is found to be I = 4 sin 314 t –  . Find the
⇒ V( 0 )R = I 0 R = 120 V and (V0 )L = I 0 X L = 90.5 V  4
∴ V0 = (V0 )R2 + (V0 )L2 = (120)2 + (90.5)2 = 150 .3 V values of the inductance and resistance.
Sol. In L-R series circuit current lags the voltage by an angle,
Example 7.14 A 100 Ω resistance is connected in series X 
with a 4 H inductor. The voltage across the resistor is φ = tan–1 L 
R 
VR = (2.0V ) sin (10 3 rads −1 )t.
π
(i) Find the expression of circuit current. Here, φ=
4
(ii) Find the inductive reactance.
∴ X L = R or ωL = R
(iii) Derive an expression for the voltage across the inductor.
∴ 314 L = R (Q ω = 314 rad s−1) …(i)
V (2.0 V) sin (103 rad s−1) t
Sol. (i) Current in the circuit, I = R = Further, V0 = I 0| Z |
R 100
= (2.0 × 10 –2 A) sin (10 3 rad s −1) t ∴ 283 = 4 R 2 + X L2
Alternating Current 477

2
 283 ∴ Time lag between the maximum current and the
or R 2 + (ωL )2 =   = 5005.56 maximum voltage is given by
 4 
33.5 π
or 2 R 2 = 5005. 56 (as ωL = R ) φ
t = = 180 (Q φ = ωt)
∴ R = 50 Ω ω 120π
and from Eq. (i), L = 0.16 H = 1.55 × 10−3 s
Example 7.17 A long solenoid connected to a 12V DC source = 1.55 ms
passes a steady current of 2 A. When the solenoid is
connected to an AC source of 12 V at 50 Hz, the current Example 7.19 A circuit containing of a capacitor and an
flowing is 1A. Calculate inductance of the solenoid. active resistance R = 110 Ω connected in series is fed an
alternating voltage with amplitudeV0 = 110V . In this case,
Sol. Remember that the solenoid mentioned here is not just a the amplitude of current is equal to I 0 = 0.50 A. Find the
solenoid but has the resistance also due to its wire material. phase difference between the current and the voltage fed.
Now, in DC, the solenoid doesn’t offer any reactance after a
few milliseconds, however in the beginning it offers infinite Sol. Consider an RC circuit as shown below
resistance. So, the current by a DC source into an inductor is, R=110 Ω C
V
I=
R
12
or R= = 6Ω
2
But when an AC source is connected to the same inductor, V0 = 110V
the reactance will also come into picture.
V
So, I= Given, I 0 = 0.50 A
R + ω 2L2
2
V 110
∴ I 0 = 0 ⇒ 0.5 = ⇒ Z = 220 Ω
Here, I = 1 A,V = 12 V, R = 6 Ω Z Z
ω = 2 π × 50 = 100 π rads −1, L = ? Q Z 2 = R 2 + X C2 ⇒ (220)2 = (110)2 + X C2
12 ⇒ X C2 = (220)2 − (110)2 = 330 × 110
or 1= ⇒ L = 33 mH
6 + (100 πL )2
2
⇒ X C = 110 3 Ω
Example 7.18 A 100 µF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω Now we can write,
resistance is connected to 110 V, 60 Hz supply. X C 110 3
(a) What is the maximum current in the circuit? tan φ = = = 3 ⇒ φ = 60°
R 110
(b) What is the time lag between the maximum current and the
maximum voltage? Example 7.20 An AC voltage source is applied across an R-C
Sol. (a) Peak value of voltage, circuit. Angular frequency of the source is ω, resistance is R
and capacitance is C. The current registered is I. If now the
E 0 = 2 Erms = 2 × 110 = 155.5 V frequency of source is changed to ω /2 (but maintaining the
and ω = 2πf = 2π × 60 = 120π rad/s same voltage), the current in the circuit is found to be two
Let I 0 = maximum current in the circuit.
third. Calculate the ratio of reactance to resistance at the
original frequency ω .
E E0
∴ I0 = 0 = Sol. Consider the R-C circuit as shown below.
Z 2
 1 
R2 +   R C
 ωC 

155.5
= = 3.23 A
1600 + 703.62
(b) In an R-C circuit, the voltage lags behind the current by V, ω
the phase angle φ given by
1
X 1 1 Q XC =
tan φ = C = = ωC
R ωCR 120π × 10−4 × 40
and Z = R 2 + X C2
= 0.6631 = tan 33.5° V V
π ∴ I= = …(i)
∴ φ = 33.5° = 33.5 × rad Z R + X C2
2
180
478 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

ω Example 7.22 A series L-C-R circuit is connected across a

When frequency is changed to .
2  π
source of emf E = 20 sin 100πt −  . The current from the
 6
C
R
 π 
supply is I = 4 sin 100πt +  . Draw the impedance
 12
triangle for the circuit.
Sol. Given, E 0 = 20V and I 0 = 4A
V, ω E0
2 ∴ Z= = 5Ω
I0
The value of new capacitive reactance is π  π π
1 2 The current leads emf by φ = − −  =
X C′ = = = 2 XC 12  6  4
(ω /2) C ωC
The impedance triangle can be drawn as
2
New impedance, Z ′ = R + X C2 2
= R + (2X C )2

V 5

Ω
⇒ I′ = XC –XL = 5 sinφ = Ω

5
Z=
2 √2
R + 4 X C2
π
φ=
2 4
It is given that, I ′ = I 5
3 R = 5 cos φ = Ω
√2
2 V V
⇒ × = [from Eq. (i)]
3 2 2
R + XC R + 4X C2
2 Example 7.23 If the reading of voltmeterV1 is 30 V, what is
the reading of voltmeterV2 ?
⇒ 4R 2 + 16 X C2 = 9 R 2 + 9X C2 V2
⇒ 7X C2 = 5 R 2
XC 5
⇒ = V1
R 7
Example 7.21 A coil of inductance 0.01H is connected in
series with a capacitor of capacitance 25 µF with an AC E = 40 √2 sin µt
source whose emf is given by E = 310 sin 314t V. What is
the reactance of the circuit? Sol. AC voltmeter reads rms value of voltage.
Sol. Consider a series L-C circuit as shown below V
rms voltage applied = 0 = 40
2
L = 0.01 H C = 25 µF
If reading of voltmeterV2 is X, thenVrms = V12 + V22

I or X 2 + 302 = 40
⇒ X = 26.45 V
E = 310 sin 314t (volt) Example 7.24 An inductor coil, a capacitor and an AC
source of rms voltage 24 V are connected in series. When
Given, E = 310 sin 314 t (volt) the frequency of the sources is varied, a maximum rms
current of 6 A is observed. If this inductor coil is connected
Comparing it with general equation, E = E 0 sin ωt
to a battery of emf 12 V and internal resistance 4.0 Ω.
We get, What will be the current?
ω = 2πf = 314
Sol. Consider an L-C-R series circuit as shown below
314
or f= = 50 Hz R L C
2π
∴ Inductive reactance,
X L = ωL = 2 π f . L
= 314 × 0.01 = 3.14 Ω
1 1 24V
Capacitive reactance, X C = = = 127.3 Ω
ωC 314 × 25 × 10−6 where, R is the reactance of the inductor.
∴ Net reactance, X = X C − X L = (127.3 − 3.14) Ω = 124.16 Ω Maximum current will occur at series resonance.
Alternating Current 479

At series resonance, Z min = R and I max = 6A V0

Sol. The rms value of voltage across the source, Vrms =
V 24 2
⇒ I max = ⇒ 6= ⇒ R = 4Ω
Z min R Comparing the given equation with general equation,
Now, this inductor coil is connected with a battery of emf V0 = 100 2 and ω = 1000 rad s−1
12 V and internal resistance 4 Ω, so new circuit is
Also, R = 1000 Ω , C = 1 µF = 1 × 10−6F
4Ω L
and L = 2H
100 2
∴ Vrms = = 100 V
2

12 V 4Ω V rms V rms V rms

∴ I rms = = =
|Z | R + (X L − X C )2
2
 1 
2
In DC circuit, inductor offers zero resistance,
R 2 +  ωL − 
12  ωC 
∴ Current, I = = 1.5 A
4+4 100
=
2
Example 7.25 A coil of inductance 0.4 mH is connected to a 2  1 
capacitor of capacitance 400 pF. To what wavelength, is (1000) + 1000 × 2 − –6

 1000 × 1 × 10 
this circuit tuned?
Sol. Given, L = 0.4 mH = 0.4 × 10 −3 H, C = 400 pF = 4 × 10 −10 F = 0.0707 A
This is the condition of resonance. The current will be same everywhere in the circuit, therefore
∴ Resonant frequency, PD across resistor,
1 1 1 VR = I rms R = 0.0707 × 1000 = 70.7 V
f= = ×
2π LC 2 × 3.14 0.4 × 10 −3
× 4 × 10−10 PD across inductor,
VL = I rms X L = 0.0707 × 1000 × 2 = 141.4 V
107 and PD across capacitor,
= Hz
6.28 × 4 1
VC = I rms X C = 0.0707 × = 70.7 V
If the speed of electromagnetic wave is v then for tuning the 1 × 1000 × 10− 6
circuit, wavelength required would be
Note The rms voltages do not add directly as, VR + VL + VC = 282.8 V,
v 3 × 108ms−1
λ= = = 753.6 m which is not the source voltage 100 V. The reason is that these
f 107 voltages are not in phase and can be added by vector or by phasor
6.28 × 4 Hz algebra.

Example 7.26 A 200 km telephone wire has capacity of Example 7.28 Figure here, shows a series L-C -R circuit
−1 connected to a variable frequency source of 230 V.
0.014 µF km . If it carries an alternating current of
frequency 50 kHz, what should be the value of an L = 5.0 H, C = 80 µF and R = 40 Ω.
inductance required to be connected in series so that R
impedance is minimum?
Sol. Capacitance, C = 0.014 × 200 µF = 2.8 × 10−6F ε C
3 −1
Frequency, f = 50 k Hz = 50 × 10 cycles s
The impedance will be minimum at resonant frequency, when L
applied frequency will be same as resonant frequency (f0 = f ).
(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in
1 1
The resonant frequency, f0 = ⇒ L= resonance.
2π LC 4π 2f02C (b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of
1 current at the resonating frequency.
L= = 0.36 × 10−5 H
22 22 3 2 −6 (c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements
4× × × (50 × 10 ) × (2.8 × 10 ) of the circuit. Show that the potential drop across the L- C
7 7
combination is zero at the resonating frequency.
Example 7.27 Find the voltage across the various elements, Sol. (a) If ω 0 be the resonant angular frequency = source
i.e. resistance, capacitance and inductance which are in frequency at resonance, then
series and having values 1000 Ω, 1 µF and 2.0 H, 1 1
respectively. ω0 = = = 50 rad s−1
−6
Given emf as,V =100 2 sin 1000 t V LC 5 × 80 × 10
480 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

ω0 50 Example 7.30
f0 = = = 7.96 Hz
2π 2 × 3.142 (a) In a series L-C-R circuit with an AC source, R = 300 Ω,
(b) At resonance, Z = R = 40 Ω C = 20 µF , L = 1.0 H ,V0 = 50 2V and f = 50/π Hz.
V 230 Find (i) the rms current in the circuit and (ii) the rms voltage
I rms = rms = = 5.75 A across each element.
Z 40
(b) Consider the situation of the previous part. Find the average
V0 2 Vrms 2 × 230
and I0 = = = = 8.13 A electric field energy stored in the capacitor and the average
Z Z 40 magnetic field energy stored in the coil.
(c) The rms potential drop across R is given by Sol. (a) Consider the series L-C-R circuit as shown below
Vrms = I rms R = 5.75 × 40 = 230 V
The rms potential drop across L is given by R = 300 Ω L =1 H C = 20 µF
VL rms = I rms X L = I rms (ω 0L )
= 5.75 × 50 × 5 = 1437.5 V
The rms potential drop across C is given by
1 1
Vrms = I rms X C = I rms × = 5.75 ×
ω 0C 50 × 80 × 10−6 f = 50 Hz
π
= 1437.5 V
The rms potential drop across L-C is given by It is given that,V0 = 50 2 V
VLC = VL − VC = 1437.5 − 1437.5 = 0 50
and ω = 2 πf = 2 π × = 100 rad s−1
Example 7.29 A box P and a coil Q are connected is series π
with an AC source of variable frequency. The emf of the ∴ X L = ωL = 100 × 1 = 100 Ω
source is constant at 28V. The frequency is so adjusted that 1 1
the maximum current flows in P and Q. Find ∴ XC = = = 500 Ω
ωC 100 × 20 × 10−6
(a) impedance of P and Q at this frequency,
(b) voltage across P and Q. Therefore, Z = R 2 + (X C − X L )2

25
µF
= (300)2 + (500 − 100)2 = 500 Ω
C=—
3 16 Ω L =1.2 mH 12 Ω
V0 50 2
∴ Peak value of current I 0 = = = 01
. 2A
Box P Coil Q Z 500
I0 0.1 2
(i)∴ I rms = = = 0.1A
2 2
28V
(ii) rms voltage across each element is
Sol. Current is maximum, i.e. case of series resonance, VR = I rmsR = 0.1 × 300 = 30 V
1 1 VL = I rmsX L = 0.1 × 100 = 10 V
∴ ω0 = = = 104 rad s−1
LC −3 25 −6 and VC = I rmsX C = 0.1 × 500 = 50V
1.2 × 10 × × 10
3 (b) The average electric field energy stored in capacitor is
At resonance, X C = X L given by
1 1
XC =
1
=
1
= 12 Ω = X L U C = CVC2 = × 20 × 10−6 × (50)2 = 25 mJ
ω 0C 104 × 25 2 2
× 10−6 Also, the average magnetic field energy stored in the
3
coil is given by
Resistance R1 and R 2 are in series, so R net = R1 + R 2 1 2 1
V 28 28 U L = L I rms . )2 = 5 mJ
= × 1 × (01
∴ I= = = = 1A 2 2
R1 + R 2 16 + 12 28
Example 7.31 A series L-C-R circuit containing a resistance
2 2 2
(a) ZP = (16) + (X C ) = (16) + (12) = 20 Ω 2 of 120 Ω has angular frequency 4 × 10 5 rads −1 . At resonance
the voltages across resistance and inductance are 60V and
ZQ = (12)2 + (X L )2 = (12)2 + (12)2 = 12 2 Ω 40V, respectively. Find the values of L and C. At what
angular frequency the current in the circuit lags the voltage
(b) VP = I ZP = 1 × 20 = 20 V
by π/4?
VQ = I ZQ = 1 × 12 2 = 12 2 V
Alternating Current 481

Sol. At resonance, X L − X C = 0 and Z = R = 120 Ω 1 R – j ωL

Y = = 2 + j ωC
(VR ) rms 60 1 Z R + ω 2L2
∴ I rms = = = A
R 120 2
R + j (ωCR 2 + ω 3L2C – ωL )
(V ) =
Also, I rms = L rms R 2 + ω 2L2
ωL
(V ) 40 ∴ The magnitude of the admittance,
∴ L = L rms =
ωI rms  1 R 2 + (ωC R 2 + ω 3L2C − ωL ) 2
( 4 × 105 )   1
 2 |Y | = =
Z R 2 + ω 2L2
= 2.0 × 10–4 H = 0.2 mH
1 1
The admittance will be minimum, when
The resonance frequency is given by, ω = or C = .
LC ω 2L ωC R 2 + ω 3L2C − ωL = 0
Substituting the values, we have
1 R2
1 or ω= − 2
C = = 3.125 × 10–8 F LC L
(4 × 105 )2 (2.0 × 10–4 )
Current lags the voltage by π /4 or 45°, so It gives the condition of resonance and the corresponding
1 frequency,
ωL −
tan 45° = ω C
R ω 1 1 R2
f = = − 2
Substituting the values of L, C, R and tan 45°, we get 2π 2π LC L
ω = 8 ×105 rad s−1
is known as resonance frequency. At resonance frequency,
admittance is minimum or the impedance is maximum.
Parallel circuit (Rejector circuit) Thus, the parallel circuit does not allow this frequency
Let us consider an alternating source connected across an from the source to pass in the circuit. Due to this reason
inductance L in parallel with a capacitor C. the circuit with such a frequency is known as rejector
The resistance in series with the inductance is R and with circuit.
the capacitor is zero. Note If R = 0, resonance frequency is
1
same as resonance
(Every inductor in real world has some non-zero internal 2 π LC
frequency in series L-C-R circuit or acceptor circuit.
resistance while in case of a capacitor, it can be neglected).
L R At resonance, the reactive component of Y vanishes or Y
is real. The reciprocal of the admittance is called the
IL parallel resistor or the dynamic resistance. The
dynamic resistance is thus, reciprocal of the real part of
IC C the admittance.
R 2 + ω 2L2
I
∴ Dynamic resistance =
R
1 R2
Substituting, ω 2 = − 2 (resonance frequency)
V LC L
Fig. 7.31 A capacitor (C) is in parallel with series
L
combination of R and L We have, dynamic resistance =
CR
Let the instantaneous value of emf applied be V and the V0 V CR
corresponding currents are I , I L and I C . Then, ∴ Peak current through the supply = = 0
L / CR L
1 1
I = IL + IC ⇒ = + jωC V0
Z R + jωL The peak current through capacitor = = ωCV0 . The
1 1/ωC
is known as admittance (Y ). Admittance is defined as ratio of the peak current through capacitor and through
Z
the supply is known as Q-factor.
the reciprocal of the impedance. Its unit is mho.
Therefore, V0 ω C ωL
Thus, Q-factor = =
V0 CR /L R
482 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

This is basically the measure of current magnification. The V0

=− cos ωt = − (I 0 )L cos ωt
rejector circuit at resonance exhibits current magnification XL
of ωL /R , similar to the voltage magnification of the same
dV
ratio exhibited by the series acceptor circuit at resonance. and IC = = V0ω C cos ωt
dt
Fig. (a) shows the variation of current I with angular
frequency, ω in parallel LC circuit (i.e., R = 0) and Fig. (b) V0
= cos ωt = (I 0 )C cos ωt
shows the variation of impedance Z with ω . XC
I where, the reactance X L and X C are as defined.
|Z |
Example 7.34 AC voltage source (V, ω) is applied across a
parallel LC circuit as shown in the figure. Find the
impedance of the circuit and phase of current.
IC C
ω ω
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.32 For a parallel LC circuit (a) I versus ω (b) | Z | versus ω IL L

Note At resonance the current through the supply and voltage are in
phase, while the current through the capacitor leads the voltage IR R
by 90°.

Example 7.32 A capacitor of capacitance 250 pF is

connected in parallel with a choke coil having inductance of
1.6 × 10 –2 H and resistance 20 Ω. Calculate V,ω
(a) the resonance frequency and
Sol. Current through the resistor, IR = V /R , in phase with voltage,
(b) the circuit impedance at resonance.
Sol. (a) The resonance frequency of a rejector L-C-R circuit is Current through the inductor, IL = V /X L, lags voltage by π / 2,
given by, Current through the capacitor, IC = V /X C , leads voltage
by π /2.
1 1 R2
f= − 2
2π LC L IC
(IC − IL)
2
1 1 (20) ≡
= −2 −12
− −2 2
O I
2π (1.6 × 10 ) (250 × 10 ) (1.6 × 10 ) IR
V φ
= 7.96 × 104 Hz IL V
IR
(b) The circuit impedance at resonance is given by, V
L 1.6 × 10−2 Assuming, resultant current, I = [IR2 + (IC − IL )2]1/ 2
Z= = = 3.2 × 106 Ω
CR (250 × 10−12 ) (20) 1/ 2
V V  V  
2 2
V
Example 7.33 For the circuit shown in figure, find the ⇒ =   +  −  
Z  R   XC XL  
instantaneous current through each element.  
1/ 2
1 1 1  
2
 1
⇒ = 2 + −  
V = V0 sin ωt
C L Z R  XC XL  
R  
−1/ 2
1  1  
2
Impedance, Z =  2 + ωC −  
R  ωL  
Sol. The three current equations are, 
dV 1 1 1
dI
V = IR R ,V = L L and = IC −
I − IL X C X L
dt dt C Phase difference, tan φ = C =
IR 1/R
For steady state, solutions of equations are,
  1 
V V φ = tan−1 R ωC − 
IR = = 0 sin ωt = (I 0 )R sin ωt
R R   ω L  
V V This means current leads the voltage.
IL = ∫ L dt = − ωL0 cos ωt
Alternating Current 483

Example 7.35 Find the current drawn from the source in each At resonance, X L = X C
of the circuits as given below 1
⇒ ωL =
(i) IL=0.6 A L ωC
1
⇒ ω = ω0 =
IL=0.4 A C LC
ω0 1
I ⇒ f0 = =
2π 2π LC
1
(ii) C =
1.0 A
2π (0.01) × 10−6

L = 1592 Hz
0.6 A
= 1.592 kHz
At f = f0 , impedance is minimum and equal to zero.
0.3 A R
At f < f0 , X C > X L , as frequency increases, impedance
decreases.
When f > f0 , X C < X L , as frequency increases, impedance
increases as shown below
Sol. (i) Current in inductor lags the voltage by π /2. Z
Current in capacitor leads the voltage by π /2 .
The phasor diagram can be drawn as

IC = 0.4 A

O f
I V I V fo
I = 0.2 A
IL = 0.6 A Example 7.37 Inductance (L), capacitance (C) and resistance
(R) are constained in a box. When 250V DC is applied to
By vector algebra, current from source = 0.2 A the terminals of the box, a current of 1.0A flows in the
(ii) Current in resistor is in phase with voltage. The phasor circuit. When an AC source of 250Vrms at 2250 rad s −1 is
diagram can be drawn as connected, a current of 1.25 Arms flows. It is observed that
the current rises with frequency and becomes maximum at
IC = 1.0 A 0.4 A I 4500 rad s −1. Find the values of L, C and R. Draw the
circuit diagram.
I
O
IR = 0.3 A
Sol. When DC source is applied, current = 1A
In DC circuit, inductor offers zero resistance and capacitor
IL = 0.6 A
0.3 A offers infinite resistance. Hence, R and C cannot be in series.
So, net current drawn from the source is V 250
I = DC ⇒ 1 = ⇒ R = 250 Ω
R R
i = (0.3)2 + (0.4)2 = 0.5 A
For AC source,
Example 7.36 An LC circuit (L = 0.01H , C = 1µF ) is V 250
impedance, Z = rms = = 200 Ω
connected to an AC source of variable frequency. If the I rms 1.25
frequency is varied from 1 kHz to 2 kHz, then show the As Z < R, R, L and C cannot be in series.
consequent variation of impedance by a rough sketch. R cannot be in series with C as explained earlier.
C
As current is maximum at resonance and current increases
A with frequency, so R cannot be in series with L. In fact, L and
C must be in series.
L
I1 R=250 Ω

I2 C
Sol. Impedance (Z) of the circuit is
L
1 1 1
= −
Z XC XL
484 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

250 V
I1 =
= 1 A, in phase with voltage ∴ Z′ =
250 I2
Impedance of lower branch, 1 250 ω 2LC − 1 1000
 1  ⇒ ωL − = ⇒ =
Z ′ =  ωL −  ωC 0.75 ωC 3
 ωC 
(2250)2LC − 1 1000
250 ⇒ = ...(i)
⇒ I2 = 2250 C 3
Z′
The phase difference between I 2 and voltage is π /2. At resonance, I 2 is maximum, Z ′ is minimum
The angle between I1 and I 2 is 90°. 1
⇒ Z ′ = ωL − =0
ωC
I2 1
⇒ = ω 2 = ωr2 = (4500)2 ...(ii)
I LC
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
2
 2250 
  −1
I1  4500 1000
=
2250 C 3
I12 + I 22 = I 2 ⇒ (1)2 + I 22 = (1.25)2 3/4 3 1
⇒ C = × = 10−6 F = 1µF ⇒ LC =
⇒ I 2 = (1.25)2 − (1)2 = 0.562 2250 1000 (4500)2
⇒ I 2 = 0.75 A 1 100 4
⇒ L= = = H
V (4500)2 × 10−6 45 × 45 81
⇒ I2 =
Z′ ∴ R = 250 Ω, L = 4 / 81 H, C = 1 µF

CHECK POINT 7.2

1. Ohm’s law expressed as E = IR voltage leads the current by 45°. The inductance of the coil
(a) can never be applied to AC is
1 1 1 1
(b) applies to AC in the same manner as to DC (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) always applies to AC circuits when Z is substituted for R 10 π 20 π 40 π 60 π
(d) tells us that E eff = 0.707 (Emax) for AC 8. Two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in parallel and a
2. An alternating current of rms value 10 A is passed through time varying current flows as shown in figure. Then the
a 12 Ω resistor. The maximum potential difference across ratio of currents I 1 / I 2 at any time t is
the resistor is L1
I1
(a) 20 V (b) 90 V
(c) 169.70 V (d) None of these
3. The reactance of a 25 µF capacitor at the AC frequency of I I
4000 Hz is
5 5 L2
(a) Ω (b) Ω (c) 10 Ω (d) 10 Ω I2
π π
L1 L2
4. The capacity of a pure capacitor is 1 F. In DC circuits, its (a) L1 / L2 (b) L2 / L1 (c) (d)
effective resistance will be (l1 + l 2)2 (l1 + l 2)2
(a) zero (b) infinite (c) 1 Ω (d) 1/2 Ω
9. An inductance and a resistance are connected in series with
5. In an AC circuit, an alternating voltage e = 200 2 sin100 t V an AC potential. In this circuit,
is connected to a capacitor of capacity1 µF. The rms value of (a) the current and the potential difference across the
the current in the circuit is resistance lead the PD across the inductance by phase
(a) 100 mA (b) 200 mA (c) 20 mA (d) 10 mA angle π/ 2
(b) the current and the potential difference across the
6. The reactance of a coil when used in the domestic AC power resistance lag behind PD across the inductance by an
supply (220 V, 50 cycles per second) is 50 Ω. The angle π/ 2
inductance of the coil is nearly (c) the current and the potential difference across the
(a) 2.2 H (b) 1.6 H resistance lag behind the PD across the inductance by an
(c) 0.22 H (d) 0.16 H angle π
(d) the PD across the resistance lags behind the PD across the
7. An inductive coil has a resistance of 100 Ω. When an AC inductance by an angle π/ 2but the current in the
signal of frequency 1000 Hz is applied to the coil, the resistance leads the PD across inductance by π/ 2
Alternating Current 485

10. In L-R circuit, resistance is 8 Ω and inductive reactance is 18. With increase in frequency of an AC supply, the impedance
6 Ω, then impedance is of an L-C-R series circuit
(a) 2 Ω (b) 14 Ω (c) 4 Ω (d) 10 Ω (a) remains constant
π (b) increases
11. In an AC circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by . (c) decreases
3
The components in the circuit may be (d) decreases at first, becomes minimum and then increases
(a) R and L (b) L and C (c) R and C (d) only R 19. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 300 V and an angular
12. In an AC circuit, a resistance R is connected in series with frequency ω = 400 rads −1 is applied to series L-C-R circuit, in
an inductance L. If phase angle between voltage and which R = 3 Ω, L = 20 mH and C = 625µF. The peak value of
current be 45°, the value of inductive reactance will be current in the circuit is
(a) R /4 (a) 30 2A (b) 60A
(b) R /2 (c)100A (d) 60 2A
(c) R
(d) cannot be found with the given data 20. The value of current at resonance in a series L-C-R circuit is
affected by the value of
13. In a circuit containing R and L, as the frequency of the
(a) R only (b) C only
impressed AC increases, the impedance of the circuit
(c) L only (d) L,C and R
(a) decreases
(b) increases 21. An L-C-R series circuit is connected to a source of
(c) remains unchanged alternating current. At resonance the applied voltage and
(d) first increases and then decreases current flowing through the circuit will have a phase
difference of
14. An AC voltage is applied to a resistance R and an inductor L (a) zero (b) π/ 4
in series. If R and the inductive reactance are both equal to (c) π/ 2 (d) π
3 Ω, the phase difference (in rad) between the applied
voltage and the current in the circuit is 22. A series L-C-R circuit is operated at resonance. Then
(a) π / 4 (b) π / 2 (c) zero (d) π / 6 (a) voltage across R is minimum
(b) impedance is minimum
15. In an L-R circuit, the value of L is 
0.4
 H and the value of R (c) impedance is maximum
 π  (d) current amplitude is minimum
is 30 Ω. If in the circuit, an alternating emf of
200 V at 50 cycle s −1 is connected, the impedance of the 23. An L-C-R series circuit is under resonance. If I m is current
circuit and current will be amplitude, Vm is voltage amplitude, R is the resistance, Z is
(a) 11.4 Ω ,17.5 A (b) 30.7 Ω , 6.5 A the impedance, X L is the inductive reactance and X C is the
(c) 40.4 Ω , 5 A (d) 50 Ω , 4 A capacitive reactance, then
Vm Vm
16. The instantaneous values of current and voltage in an AC (a) I m = (b) I m =
Z XL
circuit are given by Vm Vm
(c) I m = (d) I m =
 π
I = 6sin 100 πt +  XC R
 4
24. In an L-C-R series AC circuit, at resonance
 π
V = 5sin 100 πt −  , then (a) the capacitive reactance is more than the inductive
 4 (b) the capacitive reactance equals the inductive reactance
(a) current leads the voltage by 45° (c) the capacitive reactance is less than the inductive reactance
(b) voltage leads the current by 90° (d) the current is minimum
(c) current leads the voltage by 90° 25. An L-C-R series circuit connected to a source E, is at
(d) voltage leads the current by 45° resonance. Then,
17. In an L-C-R series circuit the AC voltage across R, L and C (a) the voltage across R is zero
come out as 10V, 10V and 20V, respectively. The voltage (b) the voltage across R equals applied voltage
across the entire combination will be (c) the voltage across C is zero
(a) 30 V (b) 10 3 V (c) 20 V (d) 10 2 V (d) the voltage across C equals applied voltage
486 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT
For electric circuits power is defined as the product of (ii) AC circuit containing L only
voltage and current. π π
φ= or Pav = Vrms I rms cos ⇒ Pav = 0
In AC circuit, both emf and current changes continuously 2 2
with respect to time, so in AC circuit, we have to calculate So, average power in L is zero.
average power in complete cycle (0 → T ).
(iii) AC circuit containing C only
Hence, average power is defined as the average of π π
instantaneous power in an AC circuit over a full cycle. Its φ= or Pav = Vrms I rms cos = 0
SI unit is watt. 2 2
Instantaneous power, P = VI So, average power in C is zero.
[QV = V0 sinωt, I = I 0 sin(ωt + φ )] (iv) AC circuit containing L and R
Here,V and I are instantaneous voltage and current, ωL R
tan φ = ⇒ cos φ =
respectively. R R 2 + ω 2L2
Total work done or energy spent in maintaining current R
over one full cycle is given by ⇒ Pav = VrmsI rms ⋅
R + ω 2L2
2
V I T
W = 0 0 cosφ (v) AC circuit containing C and R
2
Thus, average power associated in AC circuit is given by 1 / ωC
tan φ =
W V0 I 0 R
Pav = = cosφ R
T 2 ⇒ cos φ =
V I R + 1 / ω 2C 2
2
Pav = 0 ⋅ 0 cosφ
2 2 R
⇒ Pav = VrmsI rms
Pav = Vrms I rms cosφ R 2 + 1/ ω 2C 2
(vi) AC circuit containing L, C and R
Here, cosφ is power factor.
ωL − 1 / ωC
Power factor is defined as cosine of the angle of lag or lead tan φ =
(i.e. cosφ). It is also defined as the ratio of resistance and R
R
impedance. ⇒ cos φ =
R 2 + (ωL − 1 / ωC ) 2
Pav True power R
cosφ = = ⇒ Pav = VrmsI rms ⋅
Vrms I rms Apparent power 2
 1 
R 2 +  ωL − 
 ωC 
It is said to be leading, if current leads voltage, lagging, if
current lags voltage. Thus, a power factor of 0.5 lagging
means current lags the voltage by 60° (as Half power points in series L-C-R circuit
cos −1 (0.5) = 60 ° ). The values of ω at which the power input is half of its
maximum value are called half power points.
The product ofV rms and I rms gives the apparent power (or
At these points,
virtual power). While the true power is obtained by
Pmax
multiplying the apparent power by the power factor cosφ.
Thus, P Pmax
P = ——
Apparent power = V rms × I rms 2

and true power = apparent power × power factor ω1 ω0 ω2 v

Special cases Fig. 7.33 Half power points in series L-C-R circuit
(i) AC circuit containing R only
1  2∆ω   1 
Here, φ = 0 °, Pav = VrmsI rms cos 0 ° ω = ω 0 ± ∆ω = ω 0 ±   ω = ω0 1 ± 
2  ω0  0  2Q 
⇒ Pav = VrmsI rms [maximum]
Alternating Current 487

1 Example 7.41 A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V,

The amplitude of the current falls by a factor of and 50 Hz AC supply.
2
(i) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
hence, the power (P ∝ I 2 ) goes down by half.
(ii) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?
The separation between these two half power points is
ω Sol. (i) R rms value of current in the circuit,
2∆ ω = 0 . This separation is called the full-width at half V 220
Q Irms = rms = = 2.2 A
R 100
1
maximum and is th fraction of the resonant frequency. (ii) We know that, the power dissipated in an AC circuit is
Q given by P = Vrms Irms cos φ
Example 7.38 An iron cored coil is connected in series with where, φ is the phase difference between current and
an electric bulb, with an AC source, as shown in figure. As voltage.
the iron piece is taken out of the coil, how will the brightness In a circuit containing resistor only, φ = 0° , thus
of bulb change? cos φ = cos 0° = 1
∴ P = Vrms Irms = 220 × 2.2 = 484 W

Example 7.42 A series L-C-R circuit is connected across an

 π
AC source E = 10 sin 100πt − . Current from the supply
 6
 π 
is I = 2 sin 100πt + , what is the average power
Sol. As the iron rod is taken out of the coil, the self-inductance  12
of the coil decreases, the impedance of circuit decreases, dissipated?
hence current increases. So, power consumed (and hence Sol. Phase difference between voltage and current,
brightness of bulb) by bulb increases.
π  π π
φ= − −  =
Example 7.39 A light bulb has the rating 200W, 220V. Find 12  6  4
(i) resistance of the bulb filament and (ii) rms value of
1
current flowing through the filament. ⇒ Power factor = cos φ =
Sol. (i) Resistance of the bulb, 2

V 2
220 × 220 22 × 22 Average power dissipated,
R= = = = 242 Ω V I
P 200 2 = m m cos φ
P 200 10 2
(ii) The rms value of current = = = A = 0.9 A 10 × 2 1
V 220 11 = × =5 2W
2 2
Example 7.40 A series L-C -R circuit with R = 20 Ω,
L = 15
. H and C = 35 µF is connected to a variable Example 7.43 An AC circuit containing 800 mH inductor and
frequency 200 V, AC supply. When the frequency of the a 60 µF capacitor is in series with 15 Ω resistance. They are
supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz AC supply. Obtain average
the average power transferred to the circuit in one complete power transferred to each element and total power absorbed.
cycle?
Sol. Reactance of the inductor,
Sol. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural X L = ωL = 2πfL = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 800 × 10−3 = 251.2 Ω
frequency of the circuit, the circuit is said to be in resonance.
At resonance, Capacitive reactance,
Z = R = 20 Ω 1 1
Since, the L-C-R circuit is resistive, so the phase angle XC = =
ωC 2πfC
between the current and voltage is zero.
φ = 0° 1
i.e. = = 53.07 Ω
Erms 200 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 60 × 10−6
and Irms = = = 10 A
Z 20 ∴ Impedance, Z = R 2 + (X L − X C )2
P = average power transferred per cycle.
= 152 + (251.2 − 53.07)2
∴ P = Irms Erms cos 0°
= 10 × 200 = 2000 W ⇒ Z = 198.7 Ω
V 230
= 2.0 kW ∴ I rms = rms = = 1.157 A
Z 198.7
488 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Note that the inductor and capacitor do not consume power Hence, Z =R
over a cycle. V 200
∴ I rms = rms = = 2A
Now, average power dissipated in the resistor, Z 100
2
= I rms ⋅ R = (1.157)2 × 15 = 20.07 W Power dissipated P = Vrms I rms cos φ
Total power consumed = Vrms ⋅ I rms ⋅ cos φ At resonance, current and voltage are in phase or φ = 0°
R ∴ P = (200) (2) (1) = 400 W
= Vrms ⋅ I rms ⋅
Z Example 7.46 A solenoid with inductance L = 7 mH and
230 × 1.157 × 15 active resistance R = 44 Ω is first connected to a source of
= = 20.08 W
198.7 direct voltageV0 and then to source of sinusoidal voltage
Note that the total power consumed always is same as that with effective valueV = V0 . At what frequency of the
consumed in resistor. oscillator will the power consumed by the solenoid be η = 5.0
times less than in the former case?
Example 7.44 A 60 cycle AC circuit has a resistance of
200 Ω and inductor of 100 mH. What is the power factor? Sol. When a solenoid is connected to a source of direct voltage,V0
What capacitance placed in the circuit will make the power R = 44 Ω L = 7 mH
factor unity ?
Sol. Z = R 2 + (ωL )2
= (200 ) 2 + (2π × 60 × 100 × 10 −3 ) 2 = 203.52 Ω
V0
Z
XL= ω L
V02
θ Power consumed, P1 =
R R
R 200 When it is connected to a sinusoidal voltage, effective
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.983 impedance comes into role.
Z 203.52
R L
Now, for the power factor to be unity, φ = 0 that means
1
X L = X C or ωL =
ωC
1 1
∴ C = 2 = Vrms = V0, f
ω L (2π × 60) × 100 × 10−3
2

∴ C = 70.36 µF ∴ Z = R 2 + X L2
Example 7.45 An L-C-R series circuit with 100 Ω resistance Now, power consumed will be
is connected to an AC source of 200V and angular
V0 R V02 R
frequency 300 rads −1. When only the capacitance is P2 = Vrms I rms cos φ = V0 ⋅ ⋅ = 2
removed, the current lags behind the voltage by 60°. When Z Z Z
only the inductance is removed, the current leads the voltage P1
by 60°. Calculate the current and the power dissipated in the Given, P2 =
η
L-C-R circuit.
Sol. When capacitance is removed, V02R V02
⇒ =
X Z2 ηR
tan φ = L
R ⇒ ηR 2 = Z 2 = R 2 + X L2
XL
or tan 60° = ⇒ X L2 = (η − 1) R 2
R
∴ XL = 3 R …(i) ⇒ (2πf L )2 = (η − 1) R 2

When inductance is removed, R

∴ Frequency of the oscillator, f = η−1
X X 2 πL
tan φ = C or tan 60° = C 44
R R = 5 −1
22
∴ XC = 3 R …(ii) 2× × 7 × 10−3
7
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) we see that, X C = X L
So, the L-C-R circuit is in resonance. = 2 × 103 Hz = 2 kHz
Alternating Current 489

Example 7.47 Consider the following R-L-C circuit in which Sol. Coil
R = 12 Ω, X L = 24 Ω, X C = 8 Ω. The emf of source is
R =160 Ω R0 L
given byV = 10 sin (100πt )V .
(i) Find the energy dissipated in 10 min.
80 V 180 V
(ii) If resistance is removed from the circuit and value of
inductance is doubled, express variation of current with time
t in the new circuit.
220V
R =12 Ω XL = 24 Ω XC = 8 Ω Vr 80 1
Current in the circuit, I rms = = = A
R 160 2
R0
Now, VR 0 = I rmsR 0 =
2
XL
V0 =10 V and VL = I rmsX L =
2
Sol. (i) Impedance,
⇒ ( R + VR 0 )2 + VL2 = (220)2
V
2 2 2 2
Z = R + (X L − X C ) = (12) + (24 − 8) = 20 Ω 2 2
 R0  XL  2
R 12 3 ⇒  80 +  +   = (220) …(i)
cos φ = = =  2   2 
Z 20 5
Also, VR20 + VL2 = (180)2
Power consumed,
2 2
1 1 V R  X 
P = V0 I 0 cos φ = V0 ⋅ 0 cos φ ⇒  0  +  L  = (180)2 …(ii)
2 2 Z 2  2 
1 (10)2 3 Subtracting Eq. (ii) from Eq. (i), we get
= × = 1.5 W 2 2
2 (20) 5  R0 R0 2 2
Energy dissipated, E = Pt = (1.5) (10 × 60) = 900 J  80 +  −   = (220) − (180)
 2 2
(ii)
X L′ = 2XL = 48 Ω XC = 8 Ω ⇒ (80 + R 0 )(80) = (400)(40)
⇒ R 0 = 120 Ω
Power consumed in coil,
2
2  1
P = I rms R 0 =   × 120 = 30 W
V0 = 10 V  2
Impedance, Z = X L′ − X C = 48 − 8 = 40 Ω Example 7.49 A current of 4 A flows in a coil when
V 10 1 connected to a 12V DC source. If the same coil is connected
∴ Current, I 0 = 0 = = A
Z 40 4 to a 12V, 50 rads −1 AC source, a current of 2.4 A flows in
V = VL −VC the circuit. Determine the inductance of the coil. Also find
VL the power developed in the circuit, if a 2500 µF capacitor is
connected in series with the coil.
O I Sol. (i) A coil consists of an inductance (L) and a resistance (R).
In DC, only resistance is effective. Hence,
VC I V 12
R= = =3Ω
I 4
Current lags the voltage by π /2. V Vrms
In AC, I rms = rms =
1 Z R + ω 2L2
2
I = I 0 sin (ωt − π / 2) = sin (100πt − π / 2) A
4
1 Vrms  
2

Example 7.48 A series circuit consisting of an inductance free ∴ L2 =    − R 2

resistance R = 0.16 k Ω and a coil with active resistance is ω  I rms 
2


connected to the mains with effective voltageV = 220V . 2
Find the heat power generated in the coil, if the effective 1 Vrms  2
∴ L=   −R
voltage values across the resistance R and the coil are equal ω  I rms 
toV1 = 80V andV2 = 180V , respectively.
490 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

V0 V
Substituting the values, we get Now, we have, (IR1 )0 = , (I X1 )0 = 0
R1 X1
2
1  12  2
L=   − (3) = 0.08 H
50  2.4 (IR1)0
V
(ii) When capacitor is connected to the circuit, the φ′
impedance is, Z = R 2 + (X L − X C )2
Here, R =3Ω
(IX1)0
X L = ωL = (50) (0.08) = 4 Ω
1 1
and XC = = =8Ω 2 2
ωC (50) ( 2500 × 10–6 ) V  V 
∴ I0 = (IR1 )20 + (I X1 )20 =  0 +  0 
∴ Z = (3)2 + (4 – 8)2 = 5 Ω  R1   X1 
Now, P = Vrms I rms cos φ V0 1 1 1
2
⇒ = V0 2 + 2 ⇒ Z = =5 K (i)
Vrms R Vrms  Z R1 X1 1 1
= Vrms × × =  ×R +
Z Z  Z  R12 X12
2
12 (I X1 )0 V0 /X1 R1 4
Substituting the values, we get P =   × 3 tan φ ′ = = = = tan φ = ...(ii)
 5 (IR1 )0 V0 /R1 X1 3
= 17.28 W 3
Putting X1 = R1 in Eq. (i)
4
Example 7.50 The series and parallel circuits shown in figure 1 1 1
have the same impedance and the same power factor. If ⇒ 2
+ 2
= 2
R = 3 Ω and X = 4 Ω, find the values of R1 and X1. Also, R1 3  5
 R1
find the impedance and power factor. 4 
1  16 1
⇒ 1 +  =
R R12  9  25
1 9
⇒ =
R1 X1 R12 (25)2
25
⇒ R1 = Ω
X 3
3 25
⇒ X1 = R1 = Ω
(a) (b) 4 4

Sol.
Wattless current
R = 3Ω The current which consumes no power for its maintainance
in the circuit is called wattless current or idle current.
V0 or
If the resistance in an AC circuit is zero, its power factor
X = 4Ω
will be zero. Although the current flows in the circuit, yet
the average power remains zero, i.e. there is no energy
dissipation in the circuit. Such a circuit is called the
Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2 = 5 Ω wattless circuit and the current flowing is called the
R 3 wattless current.
Power factor, cos φ = = ⇒ φ = cos−1(0.6) If the circuit contains either inductance or capacitance
Z 5
X 4 only, then phase difference between current and voltage is
⇒ tan φ = = 90°, i.e. φ = 90 °. The average power in such a circuit is
R 3
IR IX1
Pav = Vrms × I rms × cosφ
1
= Vrms × I rms × cos 90 ° = 0
V0 R1 X1 The concept of wattless current is similar to that of a
frictionless pendulum, where the total work done by
gravity upon the pendulum in a cycle is zero.
Alternating Current 491

Example 7.51 A charged 30 µF capacitor is connected to a

L-C oscillations 27 mH inductor. What is the angular frequency of free
When a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through oscillations of the circuit?
a non-resistive inductor, electrical oscillations of constant Sol. Angular frequency of free oscillations of L-C oscillations is
amplitude and frequency are produced. These oscillations 1 1
are called L-C oscillations. ω= =
LC 27 × 10 × 30 × 10−6
−3

Working = 1.11 × 103 rad s−1

When a capacitor is supplied with an AC current,
it gets charged. Example 7.52 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a
portion of MW broadcast band (800 kHz to 1200 kHz). If
C C its L-C circuit has an effective inductance of 200 µH, what
must be the range of its variable capacitor?
I=0 I max Sol. For tuning, the natural frequency, i.e. the frequency of
L
L free oscillations of the LC circuit should be equal to the
frequency of the radiowave. Now for
Completely 1
electrical Completely
f= , we get
energy 2π LC
magnetic energy
(a) (b) 1 1
f1 = or C1 =
Fig. 7.34 2π LC1 4π Lf12
2

When this charged capacitor is connected with an 1

or C1 =
inductor, current flows through inductor, giving rise to 4 × 9.87 × 2 × 10−4 × (8 × 105 )2
magnetic flux, hence induced emf is produced in the = 197.8 × 10−12 F
circuit. Due to this, the charge (or energy) on the capacitor
= 197.8 pF
decreases and an equivalent amount of energy is stored in
1 1
the inductor in the form of magnetic field. When the Similarly, C 2 = =
discharging of the capacitor completes, current and 4π 2Lf22 4 × 9.87 × 2 × 10−4 × (12 × 105 )2
magnetic flux linked with L starts decreasing. or C 2 = 87.95 × 10−12 F
Therefore, an induced emf is produced which recharges = 87.95 pF
the capacitor in opposite direction. This process of
charging and discharging of capacitor is repeated and Example 7.53 In an L-C circuit L = 33
. H and C = 840 pF .
energy taken once from source keeps on oscillating At t = 0 charge on the capacitor is 105µC and maximum.
between C and L. Compute the following quantities at t = 2 ms.
(i) The energy stored in the capacitor.
The equation of LC oscillation is given by,
(ii) The total energy in the circuit.
d 2q 1
2
+ q =0 (iii) The energy stored in the inductor.
dt LC Also, write the equation for the variation of current in the
inductor with time.
where, q = q 0 cos (ωt + φ )
And the charge oscillates with a frequency, Sol. Given, L = 3.3 H , C = 840 × 10−12 F
ω 1 and q 0 = 105 × 10−6 C
ν= =
2π 2π LC The angular frequency of L-C oscillations is,
The L-C oscillations discussed above are not realistic for 1 1
ω= = = 1.9 × 104 rads −1
the two reasons. LC 3.3 × 840 × 10−12
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of Charge stored in the capacitor at time t, would be, q = q 0 cos ω t
this resistance will introduce a damping effect on the (i) At t = 2 × 10−3 s
charge and current in the circuit and the oscillations
finally die away. q = (105 × 10−6 ) cos(1.9 × 104 × 2 × 10−3 )
(ii) Even, if the resistance is zero, the total energy of the = 100.3 × 10−6 C
system would not remain constant. It is radiated ∴ Energy stored in the capacitor,
away from the system in the form of electromagnetic 1 q 2 (100.3 × 10−6 )2
waves. In fact, radio and TV transmitters depend on UC = = = 6.0 J
2 C 2 × 840 × 10−12
this radiation.
492 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

(ii) Total energy in the circuit, Q 02

Total energy is . So, when the total energy is shared
1 q 02 (105 × 10−6 )2 2C
U = = = 6.56 J
2 C 2 × 840 × 10−12 equally between the capacitor and inductor, the energy stored
(iii) Energy stored in inductor in the given time in the capacitor that time will be half of the total energy
= total energy in circuit − energy stored in capacitor 1  Q2 
=  0 .
2 2C 
= (6.56 − 6.0) J = 0.56 J
Also, I = I 0 sin ωt q 2 1  Q 02 
Let the charge at that time be q, then =  .
 q 2C 2  2 C 
where, I 0 = q 0 × ω QI = 
 t Q0
= 105 × 10−6 × 1.9 × 104 = 2A ∴ q=±
2
∴ I = (2A) sin ωt Q0
Also, q = Q 0 cos ω t or ± = Q 0 cos ω t
Example 7.54 An L-C circuit contains 20 mH inductor and a 2
50 µF capacitor with an initial charge of 10 mC. The π 3π 5π
∴ ωt = , , etc.
resistance of the circuit is negligible. Let the instant, the 4 4 4
circuit is closed be t = 0. What is the total energy stored π π T T
initially? At what times is the total energy shared equally ∴ t= = =
4 ω 4 (2π ) 8
between the inductor and the capacitor?
3π 3 T
Sol. Total energy stored initially means energy stored in the or t= = and so on
4ω 8
Q 02 (10 × 10−3 )2 T 3T 5T
capacitor = = =1J So, energy will be equally shared at t = , , etc.
2 C 2 × 50 × 10−6 8 8 8

CHECK POINT 7.3

1. An electric heater rated 220 V and 550 W is connected to AC 6. The impedance of a circuit consists of 3 Ω resistance and
mains. The current drawn by it is 4 Ω reactance. The power factor of the circuit is
(a) 0.8 A (b) 2.5 A (a) 0.4 (b) 0.6
(c) 0.4 A (d) 1.25 A (c) 0.8 (d) 1.0
2. In an AC circuit, the potential difference V and current I are 7. Power dissipated in an L-C-R series circuit connected to an
given respectively by AC source of emf ε is
2
V = 100sin(100 t)V ε2 R2 +  Lω −
1 

π εR
2
 Cω 
 (a) (b)
and I = 100sin 100t +  mA  2 
 3 1  
2 R
 R +  Lω −  
 Cω  
The power dissipated in the circuit will be
(a)104 W (b) 10 W (c) 2.5 W (d) 5 W  1  
2
ε2  R2 +  Lω −  
 Cω   ε2R
(c) 
3. In an AC circuit, the power factor (d)
(a) is zero when the circuit contains an ideal resistance only R 2
R2 +  Lω +
1 
(b) is unity when the circuit contains an ideal resistance only 
 Cω 
(c) is infinity when the circuit contains an ideal inductance
only 8. The energy stored in an inductor of self-inductance L henry
(d) None of the above carrying a current of I is
1 1
4. The average power dissipated in a pure inductor of (a) L2 I (b) L I 2
inductance L, when an AC current is passing through it, is 2 2
1 2 1 2 (c) L I 2 (d) L2 I
(a) LI (b) LI (c) 2LI 2 (d) zero
2 4 9. In an inductor of inductance L = 100 mH, a current of
5. The average power dissipated in a pure capacitance C in an I = 10 A is flowing. The energy stored in the inductor is
AC circuit is (a) 5 J (b) 10 J
1 1
(a) CV (b) zero (c) (d) CV 2 (c) 100 J (d) 1000 J
CV 2 4
Alternating Current 493

CHOKE COIL cosφ =

R
Choke coil is a device having high inductance and R 2 + XL2
negligible resistance. It is used in AC circuits for the where, XL is the inductive reactance or effective
purpose of adjusting current to any required value in such opposition of the choke coil. It is given by XL = L ω
a way that power loss in a circuit can be minimised. It is
used in fluorescent tubes. R
∴ cosφ ≈ ≈0 (as R << Lω )
Lω
Principle As R << Lω, cosφ is very small. Thus, the power absorbed
It is based on the principle of wattless current. by the coilVrms I rms cosφ is very small.
On account of its large impedance, Z = R 2 + ω 2L2 , the
Construction current passing through the coil is very small. In actual
Iron core practice choke coil is equivalent to a R-L circuit. For an
ideal choke coil R = 0, therefore no electric energy is
wasted, i.e. average power, P = 0.
Starter
The only loss of energy is due to hysteresis in the iron
Coil of Cu wire core, which is much less than the loss of energy in the
Choke resistance that can also reduce the current, if placed
Choke coil coil
(a) (b)
instead of the choke coil.
Example 7.55 An AC circuit consists of a 220 Ω resistance
Fig. 7.35 and a 0.7 H choke. Find the power absorbed from 220V and
50 Hz source connected in this circuit, if the resistance and
It consists of a copper coil wound over a soft iron choke are joined,
laminated core. Thick copper wire is used in order to (i) in series (ii) in parallel.
reduce the resistance (R ) of the circuit whereas to improve Sol. (i) In series the impedance of the circuit,
the inductance (L ) of the coil, soft iron is used. The choke
coil got its name because it is used to choke or reduce the Z = R 2 + ω 2L2 = R 2 + ( 2π fL )2
current in the circuit.
= (220)2 + (2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.7)2 = 311 Ω
Types of choke coil Vrms 220
Choke coil for different frequencies are made by using ∴ I rms = = = 0.707 A
Z 311
different substances in their core.
(i) To reduce low frequency alternating currents, choke
coils with laminated soft iron cores are used. These Z
are called af choke coils. XL
(ii) To reduce high frequency alternating currents, choke
coils with air cores are used. These are called rf φ
choke coils. R

Theory and from the impedance diagram drawn above,

R 220
Let us consider a choke coil of large inductance L and low cos φ = = = 0.707
Z 311
resistance R as shown in Fig. 7.36. The power factor for
∴ The power absorbed in the circuit,
such a coil is given by
P = V rms I rms cos φ
L R = ( 220) (0.707) (0.707) W
= 109.97 W
(ii) When the resistance and choke are in parallel, the
entire power is absorbed in resistance, as the choke
(having zero resistance) absorbs no power.
V = V0 sin ωt
V2 ( 220) 2
Fig. 7.36 AC voltage applied to a choke coil ∴ P = rms = = 220 W
R 220
494 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Example 7.56 A choke coil is needed to operate an arc lamp

at 160V (rms) and 50 Hz. The lamp has an effective
Construction
resistance of 5 Ω when running at 10 A (rms ). Calculate the It consists of two coils, primary coil (P ) and secondary coil
inductance of the choke coil. If the same arc lamp is to be (S ), insulated from each other wounded on soft iron core.
operated on 160V (DC ), what additional resistance is Often the primary coil is the input coil and secondary coil
required? Compare the power loses in both cases. is the output coil. These soft iron cores are laminated to
( rms )R = (irms ) (R ) = 10 × 5 = 50 V
Sol. For lamp, V minimise eddy current loss.
Laminated
core
L R

choke lamp Output

Input
AC secondary
VL VR source s primary
coil (S)
coil (P)

V = V0 sin ωt
Fig. 7.37 Construction of a transformer
In series,
( rms )2 = V
V ( rms )R2 + V
( rms )L2

∴ ( rms )2 – (Vrms )R2

( rms )L = V
V
Theory and working
The value of the emf induced in secondary coil due to
= (160)2 – (50)2 = 152 V alternating voltage applied to primary depends on the
As ( rms )L = (I rms )X L = (I rms ) (2πfL )
V number of turns in the secondary. We consider an ideal
(Vrms )L transformer in which the primary has negligible
∴ L= resistance and all the flux in the core links both primary
(2πf ) (I rms )
and secondary windings.
152
Substituting the values, L = Let φ be the flux in each turn in the core at time t, due to
( 2π ) (50) (10)
current in the primary, when a voltageVP is applied to it.
= 4.84 × 10–2 H Then, the induced emf or voltage ε S , in the secondary
Now, when the lamp is operated at 160 V (DC) and instead of having N S turns is
choke let an additional resistance R ′ is put in series with it dφ
then, V = I (R + R ′ ) ε S = − NS …(i)
dt
or 160 = 10 (5 + R ′ )
∴ R ′ = 11 Ω The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf
In case of AC, as the choke has no resistance, power loss in in the primary. This is
choke is zero. dφ
ε P = − NP …(ii)
In case of DC, the power loss in additional resistance R ′ is, dt
P = I 2R ′ = (10)2 (11) = 1100 W But ε P = VP . If this were not so, the primary current would
be infinite, since the primary has zero resistance
Transformer (as considered). If the secondary is an open circuit or the
It is a device which is used to change the alternating current taken from it is small, then to a good approximation.
voltage. The transformers are of the following types ε S = VS
where,VS is the voltage across the secondary.
Step-up transformer
It is used to increase the AC voltages. Therefore, Eqs. (i ) and (ii ) can be written as,
dφ
Step-down transformer VS = − N S …(iii)
It is used to decrease the AC voltages. dt
dφ
Principle VP = − NP …(iv)
dt
Transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction,
From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we have
i.e. whenever an amount of magnetic flux linked with a
coil changes, an emf is induced in the neighbouring coil. VS N S
= …(v)
VP NP
Alternating Current 495

The above relation is based on three assumptions (ii) Resistance of the windings The wire used for the
(i) The primary resistance and current are small. windings has some resistance and so, energy is lost
(ii) The same flux links both the primary and the due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R ). In high
secondary as there is very little leakage of magnetic current, low voltage windings, this is minimised by
flux. using thick wire.
(iii) The secondary current is small. (iii) Eddy currents The alternating magnetic flux
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes
output power to the input power. heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated
Output power VS I S core.
i.e. η= = (iv) Hysteresis The magnetisation of the core is
Input power VP I P
repeatedly reversed by an alternating magnetic field.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient The resulting expenditure of energy in the core
(no energy losses), the power input is equal to the power appears as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a
output, and since P = IV , I P VP = I S VS …(vi) magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.
Although, some energy is always lost, still this is a good
(v) Magnetostriction It is the humming noise of a
approximation, since a well designed transformer may
transformer.
have an efficiency of more than 95%.
Combining Eqs. (v) and (vi), we have Uses of transformers
I P VS N S Transformers are used in almost all AC operations. Some
= = …(vii)
I S VP NP of them are given below
Since, I andV both oscillate with the same frequency as (i) In the induction furnaces.
the AC source, Eq. (vii) also gives the ratio of the (ii) In voltage regulators for TV, computer, refrigerator etc.
amplitudes or rms values of corresponding quantities.
(iii) A step-down transformer is used for the purpose of
Now, we can observe how a transformer affects the weldings.
voltage and current. We have
(iv) In the transmission of AC over long distances.
N  N 
VS =  S  VP and I S =  P  I P …(viii)
 NP   NS  Example 7.57 In a step-down transformer having primary to
secondary turn ratio 10 : 1, the input voltage applied is
So, if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns 250V and output current is 10 A. Assuming 100%
than the primary (i.e. N S > NP ), the voltage is stepped up efficiency, calculate the
(VS > VP ). This type of arrangement is called a step-up (i) voltage across secondary coil,
transformer. However, in this arrangement, there is less (ii) current in primary coil
(iii) and power output.
current in the secondary than in the primary
N 1
(i. e. NP /N S < 1 and I S < I P ). If the secondary coil has less Sol. Given, S = , VP = 250 V
N P 10
turns than the primary (i. e. N S < NP ), we have a
step-down transformer. In this case,VS < VP and I S > I P , and I S = 10 A
i.e., the voltage is stepped down (or reduced) and the V N
(i) S = S
current is increased. The equations obtained above apply VP N P
to ideal transformers (i.e. which have zero energy losses). N
⇒ VS = S × VP =
1
× 250 = 25 V
Note The ratio k = Ns , is also known as transformation ratio. NP 10
Np
I N
(ii) P = S
Energy losses in transformers IS NP
In actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to N 1
⇒ IP = S I S = × 10 = 1A
the following reasons. NP 10
(i) Flux leakage There is always some leakage of flux (iii) Power output = VS I S = 25 × 10 = 250 W
i.e., not all of the flux that the primary passes
through the secondary, due to poor design of the Example 7.58 A 10 kW transformer has 20 turns in the
primary and 100 turns in the secondary circuit. An AC
core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by
voltageV1 = 600 sin 314 t is applied to the primary. Find (i)
winding the primary and secondary coils one over the maximum value of flux and (ii) the maximum value of
the other. secondary voltage.
496 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Sol. (i) Flux linked with each turn of primary,

φ = B A cos ωt = φ 0 cos ωt
Electric generator or dynamo
Here, φ 0 = B A = maximum value of flux linked with Electric generator is a device which is used to convert
each turn mechanical energy to electrical energy. Generator provide
dφ d nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
∴ V1 = − N1 = −N1 (φ 0 cos ωt ) = ωN1 φ 0 sin ωt
dt dt The reverse conversion of electrical energy to mechanical
V energy is done by electric motor.
Peak value ofV1 = V0 = ω N1 φ 0 or φ 0 = 0
ωN1 Electric generators are of two types
Given,V1 = 600 sin 314 t = V0 sin ωt 1. AC generator 2. DC generator
∴ V0 = 600 V, ω = 314 rad s−1
600 1. AC generator or AC dynamo
Hence, φ 0 = = 0.0955 Wb
314 × 20 It is used to produce alternating current energy from
mechanical energy.
V0 N2
(ii) 20 =
V1 N1 (i) Principle
∴ Maximum value of secondary voltage is, It is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic
N 100 induction, i.e. whenever the amount of magnetic flux
V20 = 2 V10 = × 600 = 3000 V
N1 20 linked with a coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil.
The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s
Example 7.59 (i) The primary of a transformer has 400 turns right-hand rule.
while the secondary has 2000 turns. If the power output
from the secondary at 1100 V is 12.1 kW, calculate the (ii) Construction
primary voltage. (ii) If the resistance of the primary is 0.2 Ω AC generator has following parts
and that of the secondary is 2.0 Ω and the efficiency of the
(a) Armature ABCD is a rectangular armature coil
transformer is 90 % calculate the heat losses in the primary
and the secondary coils. consisting of a large number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound over a laminated soft iron core.
Sol. (i) Given, N1 = 400, N 2 = 2000, V2 = 1100 V
(b) Field magnets N and S are the pole pieces of a
N1 400 strong electromagnet in which the armature coil is
As,V1 = V2 ⋅ = 1100 × = 220 V
N2 2000 rotated. Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the
(ii) Resistance of primary, R1 = 0.2 Ω magnetic field lines.
Resistance of secondary, R 2 = 2.0 Ω (c) Slip rings R 1 and R 2 are two hollow metallic rings
Output power, P2 = V2 I 2 = 12.1kW = 12100 W which are connected by the two ends of armature
∴ Current in the secondary,
coil. These rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.
P 12100 Axis
I2 = 2 = = 11A Armature
Motion Field magnets
V2 1100
output power B C
As, efficiency =
input power
N S
90 12100 W
⇒ =
100 Input power
A D
12100 × 100
Input power, P1 = = 13.44 × 103 W
90
Brushes B1
Also, input power, P1 = V1 I1 R1
P 13.44 × 103
∴ Current in the primary, I1 = 1 = = 61.1A B2
V1 220 R2

Power loss in the primary,

= I12 R1 = (61.1)2 × 0.2 = 746.64 W
Load, R
Power loss in the secondary,
Fig. 7.38 Construction of an AC generators
= I 22 R 2 = (11)2 × 2.0 = 242 W
Alternating Current 497

(d) Brushes B1 and B 2 are two flexible graphite contacts. Frequency, ν = 100 rpm
They are fixed and are kept in light contact with R 1 100 5
= rps = rps
and R 2 , respectively. These are used to pass on 60 3
current from the armature coil to the external load Magnetic field, B = 3.6 × 10−2 T
resistance R.
∴ Peak value of emf, E 0 = NABω
(e) Source of energy The armature coil is rotated with = NAB (2πν )
the help of turbine or any other device connected to 5
it. The rotational kinetic energy of the turbine is = 1000 × 10−2 × 3.6 × 10−2 × 2 × π ×
3
converted into electrical energy by the AC generator.
= 3.77 V
(iii) Theory and working E
E rms or EV = 0
As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field, angle 2
θ between the field and normal to the coil changes = 2.67 V
continuously. Hence, magnetic flux linked with the coil
also changes and therefore emf is induced in the coil. 2. DC generator or DC dynamo
Induced current in the external circuit changes direction It is used for producing direct current energy from
after every half rotation of the coil. mechanical energy.
Hence, the induced current is of alternating in nature. The
emf, so induced is given by the formula, E = E 0 sinωt. C B
where, E 0 = E max = NAB ω, B C
ω = angular frequency of the coil, I I
N = number of turns in the coil, S
D
N S
A
N

A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil

and B = strength of magnetic field. A D

The variation of E with time in AC generator is shown in B1 B2 B1 B2

R1 R2 R2 R1
figure below

(a) (b)
E
Fig. 7.40 (a) and (b) Constructions of DC generator
E0
The principle and working of DC generator is same as that
of AC generator. The only difference is that slip ring
O t arrangement of AC generator is replaced by split ring
arrangement or commutator arrangement in DC generator.
The magnitude of emf induced in DC generator is also
Fig. 7.39 Variation of emf in AC generator
E = E 0 sinωt
Note If AC is produced by a generator having a large number of However, the direction of E is not reversed in the second
poles, then its frequency half cycle because after half the rotation of the coil, R 1 goes
Number of poles × rotation per second P × n in contact with B 2 and R 2 goes in contact with B1.
ν= =
2 2
The variation of E with time in DC generator is shown in
where, P is the number of poles, n is the rotational frequency of
figure below.
the coil.
Y
Example 7.60 An AC generator consists of a coil of
1000 turns each of area 100 cm 2 and rotating at an angular E
speed of 100 rpm in a uniform magnetic field of
3 .6 × 10 −2 T. Find the peak and rms value of emf induced in
the coil. O X
t
Sol. Given, number of turns, N = 1000, Fig. 7.41 Variation of emf in DC generator
2 −4 2 −2 2
Area, A = 100 cm = 100 × 10 m = 10 m
498 OBJECTIVE Physics Vol. 2

Advantages of AC over DC Disadvantages of AC over DC

Advantages of AC over DC are given below. Disadvantages of AC over DC are given below.
(i) The generation of AC is easy and economical. (i) AC can be transmitted from surface of the conductor
(ii) AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of and hence need several strands of thin wire insulated
rectifiers. from each other.
(iii) In AC, energy loss is minimum, so it can be (ii) AC shock is more attractive, while DC shock is
transmitted over long distances. repulsive. So, AC is more harmful.
(iv) Wide range of voltages are obtained by the use of (iii) AC cannot be used in electroplating process because
transformer. a constant current is needed in this, which is given
(v) AC machines have low maintainance cost. by DC.

CHECK POINT 7.4

1. Choke coil is a device having 7. In a transformer, the number of turns in primary and
(a) low inductance and low resistance secondary are 500 and 2000, respectively. If current in
(b) high inductance and high resistance primary is 48 A, the current in the secondary is
(c) low inductance and high resistance (a) 12 A (b) 24 A
(d) high inductance and low resistance (c) 48 A (d) 144 A
2. What is increased in step-down transformer? 8. The core used in a transformer and other electromagnetic
(a) Voltage (b) Current (c) Power (d) Current density devices is laminated so that
3. A transformer works on the principle of (a) ratio of voltage in the primary and secondary may
be increased
(a) self-induction
(b) energy loss due to eddy currents may be minimised
(b) electrical inertia
(c) mutual induction (c) the weight of the transformer may be reduced
(d) magnetic effect of the electrical current (d) residual magnetism in the core may be reduced

4. Quantity that remains unchanged in a transformer is 9. Which of the following is constructed on the principle of
(a) voltage (b) current electromagnetic induction?
(c) frequency (d) None of these (a) Galvanometer
(b) Electric motor
5. The ratio of secondary to the primary turns in a transformer
(c) Generator
is 3 : 2. If the power output be P, then the input power
(d) Voltmeter
neglecting all losses must be equal to
(a) 5 P (b) 1.5 P (c) P (d) (2/ 5) P 10. When speed of a DC generator decreases, the armature
6. The transformation ratio in the step-up transformer is current
(a) 1 (a) increases
(b) greater than one (b) decreases
(c) does not change
(c) less than one
(d) increases and decreases continuously
(d) the ratio greater or less than one depends on the other factors