Module 11: Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

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In this module the students overview what is learning, memory, and
intelligence. The students also learn the necessary concepts in behavioral
psychology. The students also know the stages of memory and analyze the
difference between sensory, short-term, and long- term memory and identify which
part of the brain is involved in memory. The students also learn the causes of losing
memory and enumerate some memory disorders.
Objectives: After the completion of the chapter, students should be able to:
1. discuss the necessary concepts in behavioral psychology
2. explain what Lashley’s Search for the Engram is.
3. formulate the stages of memory.
4. analyze sensory memory, short-term memory, and long - term memory.
differ for each other.
5. identify the different parts of the brain involved in memory.
6. discuss the causes of losing memory
7. determine the different memory disorders.
References:
Kalat, J., (2018).Biological Psychology
Reading Supplements:
Beard, T., (2023). Classical Conditioning: How It Works and Examples.
https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/classical-conditioning-how-it-works
BetterHelp Editorial Team. (2024). What Are The Stages of Memory?
https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/memory/what-are-the-three-stages-of-memory/
Cherry, K., (2024). Operant vs. Classical Conditioning.
https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-vs-operant-conditioning-2794861
Cherry, K., (2023). What is Operant Conditioning?
https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863
Cherry, K., (2022). What is Memory?
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-memory-2795006
Cherry, K., (2022). The Little Albert Experiment.
https://www.verywellmind.com/the-little-albert-experiment-2794994
Cherry, K., (2022). How Social Learning Theory Works?
https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074
Cherry, K., (2022). Theories of Intelligence in Psychology.
https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035#toc-what-is-intelligen
ce
Cuncic, A., (2022). What Are the Five Stages of Memory?
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-the-5-stages-of-memory-5496658#:~:text=St
age%203%3A%20Recall,information%20from%20our%20memory%20stores.
Evans, O., (2023). Hippocampus Anatomy , Function, Location, and Damage.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/hippocampus.html
Hersh, E., (2018). Long Term Memory Loss: What You Need to Know.
https://www.healthline.com/health/long-term-memory-loss
Huizen, J., (2021). What to know about short - term and long- term memory loss.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/memory-loss
Vartak,A.,(2019).The Biology and Psychology of Learning.
https://sites.uci.edu/morningsignout/2019/03/22/the-biology-and-psychology-of-learni
ng
 Learning, Memory, and Intelligence
Learning is defined as the acquisition of every living organism that changes
behavior due to experience.Learning is one of the most important aspects throughout
life. Through this experience it changes the process of thoughts and behaviors of a
person. The biological process of learning begins with the neurons, the basic unit of
the brain. It changed the strength and number of pathways of the neurons which is
the process known as synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity refers to the best
demonstration to increase the strength of the connections of the neurons connecting
the brain. In this process , the electrical signals of nerve conduction between the
cells if frequent activity is performed improves the speed of conductions for the .
electrical signals. The repetitive actions not only increases behavioral learning but
also the formation of memory (Vartak, 2019).
The information from what we learned is stored in the systems of memory of
the brain among animals. The genetic information which is adapted from gradual
development, is stored in DNA. Memory indicates the process of storing information
and recovers the information from learning. Memory compares to a computer where
the information has a processing system.
Some researchers believed that intelligence is a single, general ability which
encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents. Intelligence is the ability of the
mind used for logic, reasoning, problem- solving and planning. Intelligence has the
ability to learn from experience, recognize the problem, and solve the problem.It is
capacity of the mind to to learn from experience and able to adapt with the new
situations.

Necessary concepts in behavioral psychology

1.Classical conditioning (Pavlov Behaviorism) was first described by Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning focuses on involuntary or automatic
behaviors through placing a neutral stimulus there is a reflex. In the famous
experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated response to the tone after the
sound as it repeated as food was presented. According to Beard (2023) behaviors
learned through connecting the neutral stimulus with a positive one. The best known
experiment about classical conditioning is Pavlov’s classical experiment about dogs.
The dog heard the bell (neutral) and expected to have food ( positive). This
unconditioned response triggers salivation automatically and naturally because of
food which is known as unconditioned response. Salvation starts after the neutral
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus ( the taste of food). The bell’s sound which is
now known as conditioned stimulus while the salivation in response to bell is
known as conditioned response (Cherry, 2024).
 Example In real life situation:
One day you go to a doctor to have your booster. And the doctor said “ Don’t
worry it is not painful”. But what the doctor said is not true, it is the most painful shot
you have had.
A few weeks later you go to the dentist for a check- up. As he put a mirror in
your mouth to examine your teeth the dentist said “ Don’t worry it is not painful”. You
jump out of the chair and run screaming out of the room.
● “Don’t worry it is not painful” is a conditioned stimulus while the pain of the
shot is the unconditioned stimulus.
● Conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that evokes a response because it has a
repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus
● Conditioned response a learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
\\
● . Operant conditioning ( instrumental conditioning) BF Skinner an American
psychologist was the father of operant conditioning . This theory focuses on either
reinforcement or punishment to increase and decrease. Through this process it forms
an association between the behavior and the result of the behavior. This theory
focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors. For example, if the lab
rat presses the lever it’s one the green light as a reward these lab rats receive a food
pellet. If the red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. Based on this
experiment they learned to press the green light and the red light was avoided
(Cherry, 2023).

●
● 3. Little Albert Experiment was a famous experiment by the psychologist John B.
Watson and the graduate student Rosalie Rayner. Watson got the research step of
Pavlovs’ classical conditioning experiment showing that emotional reaction
 The image above shows little Albert ( the child who is the participant in the
experiment) with Watson and Rayner popularly known as Little Albert was a 9
months old child exposed to a series of stimuli that includes the white rat, rabbit, a
monkey, masks, and burning newspapers. They observed the body reactions of the
child to the different objects and the boy did not show fear at anyone.
On the next exposure of Albert with the white rat Watson made a loud noise
by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer. Naturally , Albert cried after the loud noise.
Albert started to expect if he saw a white rat, followed by a frightening noise . Albert
started to simply cry after seeing the rat.
Based on the Little Albert experiment how classical conditioning used a
conditioned emotional response.
Neutral Stimulus - the stimulus does not initially obtain a response ( white rat) ,
Unconditioned Stimulus - a stimulus that obtains a reflexive response. ( loud
noise)
Unconditioned Response - an innate response to the given stimulus ( fear).
Conditioned Stimulus a stimulus that obtains a response after the repeatedly
paired unconditioned stimulus (the white rat).
Conditioned Response the response because of the conditioned stimulus ( fear).
4. Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura
Psychologist Albert Bandura introduced the social learning theory that
learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling which are influenced by
factors like attention, motivation, attitude, and emotions. The infractions of learning
are between the environment and cognitive elements. Based on Bandura’s theory all
psychological influences like attention and memory.
According to Bandura people observe behavior through social interactions
with others directly or indirectly through observing behaviors such as media.
Behaviors which are imitated are rewarded but punishable behaviors are avoided.
Example:
(1) A child and an adult often shows learning even if they have no direct
experience.Even on how to swing the baseball bat even if you never experienced it in
your life but someone handed you and told you to hit a baseball. because you have
seen this on how to do the action either from a person or on television.
(2) There is a commercial that shows what the elders do the child does too so
learning came from observation.
Lashley’s Search for the Engram
Carl Lashley was an American physiologist turned psychologist who was
interested about what happened physically to the brain in the process of learning.
Pavlov and other behaviorists conditioning due to chemicals and electricals in the
brain (Philosophy and Mysticism, 2019). Lashley wanted to locate and trace
memory or “engram” the physical representation of what has been learned. The two
areas of the brain would be an example of an engram.Learning relies on new
strengthened connections between the areas of the brain. A knife elsewhere in the
brain that connects and terminates the response of learning.
Lashley trained the rats to find the maze and he created lesions on the
cerebral cortex of the brain to try and erase the memory trace mazed by the rats but
he never found out the engram evidence because the rat still able to find their way
despite of the size or location of the lesion. Based on these findings , Lashley
formulated the equipotentiality hypothesis that if one part of one area of the brain is
damaged , another part of the same area can take charge of that memory function.
Even though the experiment of Lashley failed to discover the evidence of engram,
still he was considered as the pioneer in the neuroscience field. Lashley therefore
proposed the two principles of the nervous system.
1. Equipotentiality - all the parts of the cortex equally contribute to complex
behaviors like learning. And any part of the cortex can be replaced for any
part.
2. Mass action - the cortex performs as a whole, and it is better to have more
cortex.

Memory refers to the capacity of the brain to store and retrieve information
and these memories are not simple as recorded and neatly store the information
these are selected, constructed, and edited not by us but due to the world around us.
There are three processes which are involved in memory and these are encoding,
storage, and retrieval. These processes determine if something is to remember or
forget.
The Five Major Stages of Memory
Stage 1: Encoding
● Encoding occurs if we become attentive with the information.
Example: If we are trying to remember the lists of the groceries we need to be
attentive to the list of the items in order for us to encode in our memory.
● Encoding the information in a format style that can be stored in our memory.
Example: If we see a new word we need to encode it to say it out loud or write
it down .
● Encoding the information allows access to it at a later time.
Example : when we are encoding the list of groceries, we will be able to get
back the information if we need it.
● External factors like stress or fatigue affect the process of encoding.
Example: When you are stressed and you attempt to encode the list of
groceries, you encounter difficulties remembering it.
● To store the information in the long -term memory it is important to encode it.
Example : If you want to recall the list of groceries for more than a few
minutes, it is necessary to encode this information in a long- term memory.
These are the several ways on how to encode verbal information:
1. Structural encoding - focuses on the words that look alike like noting the
words if long or short, in uppercase or lowercase, typed or written.
2. Phonemic encoding - focuses on the sounds of the words.
3. Semantic encoding - focuses on the meaning of words. It requires a differ
level of processing compared to structural or phonetic encoding that results
better in memory.
Stage 2: Storage after the information enters the brain, it has to be stored or
maintained.According to Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the three
stage model which many psychologists used.
Based on this model, the information is stored successively ordered in three
memory systems and these are sensory memory, short- term memory, and long-
term memory.
1. Sensory memory - these are one store the incoming information in
particular but Immediately. The sensory memory is capable of storing very
large amounts but the information is not processed. People will only see a
circle of light if the flashlight is moving quickly in a circle inside the dark room
when it moves rather than the individual points because the sensory memory
keeps the successive images by the moving flashlight when the brain sees
the circle. Iconic memory is known for visual sensory memory while auditory
sensory memory is known as echoic memory.

2. Short- Term Memory - It is the capability to recall a little amount of

information from the latest period of time. In short term memory the brain
systems stored information in a short period of time normally around 30
seconds. It holds typically about seven pieces at a time of information.
Example: A person facing the sequence of twelve letters which are difficult to
remember later in ten seconds because the short- term memory is not
capable to handle in twelve pieces of information HO TB UT TE RE DP OP
 CO RN IN AB OW L. But these letters can be easily remembered if these are
grouped into six familiar words because the short - term memory can only
hold six pieces of words and these are HOT BUTTERED POPCORN IN A
BOWL.
● Working Memory psychologists nowadays consider short- term memory to
be a working memory rather than a temporary storage system of information.
Working memory refers to the way we store the information while working.
Working memory permits people to store temporary and visual images
manipulation, information stores while a decision is made and remembering
the phone number long enough to write it down. The common test of working
memory is the delayed response task which is a person responding based on
what you saw or heard shortly a while ago.

3. Long - Term Memory - it is the capability to remember memories from

a longer time ago. It refers to the brain systems that involve storing events for
a long period of time.

Stage 3: Recall is the process to get back the information from our memory. We
need to encode and store the information in our memory in order for us to recall the
information from our memory. Recall is the process of getting back the information
that is stored in our memory. If we recall the information the event we re- experience
which are originally in our memory system is encoded.
There are two types of recalling:
1. Free recall if we remember the information without any cues or prompts.
2. Cued recall. If we remember the information through the aid of cues or
prompts.
Stage 4: Retrieval is the process if the information is getting out of the memory. It is
like recall which is retrieval is a process to actively search the information stores in
our memory while recalling is the process of remembering information passively.
Example: If you are trying to remember the name of a person at a party you will
need to retrieve from your memory the information.
Stage 5: Forgetting refers to a person who is not able to retrieve the information
from the memory. It processes the information from memory. Is losing.
Example: You forgot to remember the name of the person you met in the party and
the information from your memory is lost.
 The Location, and Function of the Hippocampus

The hippocampus is found at the brain’s

medial temporal lobe.The hippocampus has an
important role in forming and retrieving
memories, spatial navigation, and emotional
responses. If the hippocampus is damaged it
impairs memory and makes it difficult to form
new memories, It focuses the importance in
learning and cognition.
The hippocampus is a curved- shaped
structure of the temporal lobe connected with
learning and memory. The name came from
Greek words meaning “sea monster” or known as
seahorse. Hippocampus is a part of the limbic
system, regulates and processes emotions and
memories.
Hippocampus is most strongly connected with memory formation, storage
place for new long- term memories and transition for new long-term memories
forming to form more permanent memories. In each hemisphere of the brain, there
are two hippocampi found in the temporal lobe above each ear.(Evans, 2023).
Hippocampus is necessary to organize and store new memories especially in
declarative memories (e.g., memories which are related to facts and events). It makes
the memory stronger, connecting sensations and emotions of the memories. The
amygdala together with the hippocampus connects emotion and strengthens the new
memories.
Memory Loss after Damage to the Hippocampus

In 1953, Henry Molaison, also known as Patient H.M., suffered from 10 minor
epileptic seizures per day and once a week major seizures even though he tried to
have an antiepileptic drug once a day. To alleviate the severe epilepsy he undergoes
surgery on the large portions of the hippocampus and nearby structures of the medial
temporal cortex from both hemispheres.
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

After the surgery H.M’s intellect and ability of languages and personality are
still intact except the emotional placidity. After the surgery he suffered from
anterograde amnesia. Retrograde is a type of amnesia where a person cannot
recall what happened after brain damage. after The case of anterograde amnesia
to H.M., due to the removal of the hippocampus, unable to form a new explicit
memory (Heining, 2023)..
Aside from anterograde amnesia he also suffered from retrograde amnesia (
loss of memory for the events happened before the brain damage. After surgery the
episode of seizure decreases but he cannot longer form new memories or to recall
the prior 11 years of life. He is able to recall his childhood stage but he cannot recall
the events a few years before the surgery happened.
Intact of Working Memory
Even H.M. has a large deficiency of forming long term memories, his short -
term or working memory still functioning. Brenda Milner in 1959 on her one test, H.M.
asked
Impaired Storage of Long- Term Memory

Long- term memory refers to how the brain stores information over time that
includes events to remember, facts, how to complete tasks, like finding the way of
going home. Long - term memory loss is when you are in trouble recalling the
information if you need it. There are many people that their long - term memories
begin to get weaker as they get older which is a normal part of aging. Losing long-
term memory is also a sign of more serious problems such as dementia

Memory Loss: If a person is unable to remember new events one or more

memories, recall one or more events of the past or both.

Causes of Memory Loss These are the possible causes of memory loss:

1. Aging - this causes changes in the brain affects both short- term and long -
term memory. In short term memory problems there is difficulty to learn the new
information while in long term memory problems there may be difficulty retrieving the
previous learned information or memories. The age- related memory problems are
typically mild or temporary and if with serious memory problems may be a sign of an
underlying condition like dementia.
2. Sleep deprivation - generally agreed by the scientists that in memory
consolidation memory is important. This is the process of preserving the key
memories and rejecting the excessive or not relevant information. Not getting enough
sleep every night can inhibit the short- term memory. If a person has an underlying
sleep problem, these memory issues settle to manage people to boost their sleep
schedule.
3. Alcohol Consumption drinking too much alcohol impairs short- term
memory. Permanent brain changes if you drink excessive amounts of alcohol that
have impacts in short- term and long - term memory.
4. Infections - there are many infections that directly cause cognitive changes
like memory loss or delirium . Infections came from viruses, bacteria, or fungus like
meningitis, syphilis, urinary tract infection, and many others.
5. Aging - this causes changes in the brain affects both short- term and long -
term memory. In short term memory problems there is difficulty to learn the new
information while in long term memory problems there may be difficulty retrieving the
previous learned information or memories. The age- related memory problems are
typically mild or temporary and if with serious memory problems may be a sign of an
underlying condition like dementia.
6. Sleep deprivation - generally agreed by the scientists that in memory
consolidation memory is important. This is the process of preserving the key
memories and rejecting the excessive or not relevant information. Not getting enough
sleep every night can inhibit the short- term memory. If a person has an underlying
sleep problem, these memory issues settle to manage people to boost their sleep
schedule.
7. Alcohol Consumption drinking too much alcohol impairs short- term
memory. Permanent brain changes if you drink excessive amounts of alcohol that
have impacts in short- term and long - term memory.
8. Infections - there are many infections that directly cause cognitive changes
like memory loss or delirium . Infections came from viruses, bacteria, or fungus like
meningitis, syphilis, urinary tract infection, and many others.

Memory disorders- are changes of recalling and making memories which are either
physically or mentally health conditions, traumas, injuries, substances, or
medications. Memory disorders are changes in the brain structures that hinder the
ability to make, keep, or recall memories. It is not about the day to day forgetfulness
but generally means of losing memory that sustains you from functioning safely and
effectively.

Some of the Memory Disorders :

1. Amnesia - a memory loss that patients

2. Korsakoff’s Syndrome a memory disorder due to vitamin B1 deficiency
associated with alcoholism. .
3. Alzheimer’s Disease- most common type of dementia starts with mild
memory loss of ability to carry conversation and responses to the
environment. It affects the ability of the person to carry out daily activities. It
controls thought, memory, and language.
4. Cognitive impairment - is when a person has trouble remembering,
learning new things, concentrating, and decisions affect daily lives.
5. Delirium- is a mental state that is confused, disoriented, and unable to think
or clearly remember. It mainly affects the attention and awareness of a
person.
6. Dementia- impaired ability to remember, think , and mainly memory and other
cognitive functions.