CS101 MCQs with Answers

1. 1.

115.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: O bj ect O ri e nt ed Par ad ig m

objec t
-
or ie nte d p ar adig m,
whi c h is a ss oc ia t ed wit h t he pr ogr a mmi ng pr oc ess ca l l ed
ob ject
-
or ie nte d
progr ammi ng(O O P).
F oll owi ngt hispar a digm, a soft wa r esyst emisvi eweda sacol l ect i onofunit s, ca ll e d
objec ts,
ea ch of whic h is ca pa ble of p er for mi ng t he a ct i ons t ha t ar e i mmedia t el y r ela t ed
t o it s el f a s wel l a s
r equ est i ng a ct ions of ot her obj ect s. T oget her , t hes e ob j ect s

int er a ct t o sol ve t he pr ob l em a t ha nd.

As a n exa mp l e of t he object
-
or i ent ed a ppr oa ch a t wor k, consi der t he t a sk of devel op i ng a gr a phica l user
i nt er fa ce. I n a n obj ect
-
or i ent ed envir onment , t he ic ons t ha t a ppea r on t he scr een wou l d b e i mp l ement
ed a s
ob j ect
s. Ea ch of t hes e obj ect s wou l d enc ompa ss a col l ect i on of fu nct i ons (ca l l ed
me t ho ds
i n t he ob j ect
-
or i ent ed ver na cula r ) descr ibi ng how t ha t obj ect is t o r espond t o t he oc cur r enc e
of va r ious event s, such a s
bei ng sel ect ed by a clic k of t he mous e but t on or bei
ng dr a gged a cr oss t he scr een by t he mous e.
T hus,

t he
ent ir e s yst em woul d b e c onst r uct ed a s a col l ect i on of obj ect s, ea c h of whic h
knows how t o r esp ond t o t he
event s r ela t ed t o it .

T ocont r a st t heob j ect

-
or i ent edpa r a di gm wit ht he i mp er a t ivepa ra di gm, c onsi
der a pr ogr a mi nvol vinga list
ofna mes. I nt het r a dit i ona li mp er a t ivepa r a digm, t hisl ist wou ldmer el yb ea col l ect
i onofda t a. Anypr ogr a m
unit a ccess i ng t he list wou l d ha ve t o c ont a i n t he a l gor it hms f or per f or mi ng t he
r equ ir ed ma nipu la t i ons. In
t he obj e
ct
-
or i ent ed a ppr oa ch, however , t he l ist wou l d b e c onst r uct ed a s a n ob j ect t ha t
cons ist ed of t he list
t oget her wit h a col l ect i on of met hods for ma nipu la t ing t he l ist . (T his mi ght inclu
de fu nct ions f or ins er t in g
a new ent r y i n t he l ist , del et i ng a n ent r y fr o
m t he l ist , det ect i ng if t he l ist is empt y, a nd sor t ing t he l ist . ) In
t ur n, a not her pr ogr a m unit t ha t needed t o ma nipu la t e t he list wou l d not c ont a
in a l gor it hms for per f or mi n g
t he p er t i nent t a sks. Inst ea d, it woul d ma ke us e of t he f unct i ons pr ovi ded i n t he

obj ect . In a sens e, r a t her

t ha n sor t i ng t he l ist a s in t he i mp er a t ive pa r a di gm, t he pr ogr a m u nit wou ld a
sk t he l ist t o sor t it s el f. It s

i nt r odu ct i on
. T o t his end, r eca ll t ha t a n obj ect ca n c ons ist of da t a (such a s a list of na mes) t
oget her wit h a
col l ect i on of met hods f or per
-

for mi ng a ct i vit i es (suc h a s inser t i ng new na mes in t he l ist ). T hes e f ea t ur es

must bedes cr ib edbyst a t ement si nt he wr it t enpr

a
class .
Onc e a cla ss ha s been c onst r uct ed, it ca n be a ppli ed a nyt i me a n ob j ect wit h t hos
e c ha r a ct er ist ics is
needed. T hus, sever a l ob j ect s ca n b e ba s ed on (t ha t is, built fr om) t he sa me cla ss .
J
ust like i dent ica l t wi ns,
t hes eob j ect swou l dbedist i nct ent it i esbut wou ldha vet hesa mec ha r a ct er ist icsbeca
uset heya r econst r uct ed
fr om t he sa me t emp la t e (t he sa me c la ss ). (An ob j ect tha t is based on a par t icula r
cla ss is sa id t o b e a n
i nst ance
of t ha
t cla ss . )
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Mod ule 116

2. 2.
116.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: V ar i ab le and Data T ype s

Hi gh
-
l evelpr ogr a mmi ngla ngua gesa ll ow loca t i ons in ma i n memor yt ob er ef er enc edby
descr ipt i vena mes
r at her t ha n by nu mer ic a ddr ess es. S uch a na me is known a s a
vari ab le,
in
r ec ognit i on of t he fa ct t ha t by
cha ngi ng t he va lu e st or ed a t t he loca t ion, t he va lu e a ss oc ia t ed wit h t he na me
cha nges a s t he pr ogr a m
ex ecut es. Unli ke P yt hon, our exa mp l e la ngua ges i n t hi s cha pt er r equ ir e t ha t va
r ia bles b e i dent if i ed via a
decla r a t ive st a t e
ment pr i or t o bei ng us ed els ewher e i n t he pr ogr a m. T hes e dec la r a t ive s t a t
ement s a ls o
r equir e t ha t t he pr ogr a mmer descr ib e t he t yp e of da t a t ha t wi l l be st or ed a t t he
memor y l oca t i on a ss ocia t ed
wit h t he va r ia ble.

S uch a t ype is known a s a

dat a type
a nd enc o
mpa ss es bot h t he ma nner i n whic h t he da t a it em is enc oded
a nd t he op er a t ions t ha t ca n be per for med on t ha t da t a. For exa mp l e, t he t yp e
i nt eger
r ef er s t o nu mer i c da t a
ha t ca n be
per f or med on i nt eger da t a inc lu de t he t r a dit i ona l ar it hmet i c op er a t ions a nd c
ompa r isons of r ela t i ve siz e,
sucha sdet er mi ni ngwhet her oneva lu eisgr ea t er t ha na not her . T het yp e
flo at
(s omet i mesca l l ed
re al
)r ef er s
t o nu mer ic da t a t ha t mi ght c on
t a in va lu es ot her t ha n whole nu mb er s, pr oba bly st or ed i n f l oa t ing
-
p oint
not a t ion. Oper a t ions per f or med on da t a of t ype fl oa t ar e simi la r t o t hos e per f or
med on da t a of t ype i nt eger .
R eca l l, however , t ha t t he a ct i vit y r equ ir ed for a ddi ng t wo it ems of t yp e fl
oa t diff er s fr om t ha t for a ddi ng
t wo it ems of t yp e i nt eger .

S uppose, t hen, t ha t we wa nt ed t o us e t he va r ia bl e W ei ght Limit i n a pr ogr a m t o

r ef er t o a n a r ea of ma i n

++,Ja va ,
a nd C # we wou l d dec la r e our int ent i on by i ns er t i ng t he st a t ement

i nt We ig htL i mi t;

t he pr ogr a m t o r ef er t o a memor y a r ea cont a ini ng a va l ue st or e

va r ia bl es of t he sa me t yp e ca n nor ma l l y be dec la r ed in t he sa me dec la r a t ion st a

t ement . F or exa mpl e, t h e
st a t ement

i nt H e ig ht, Wid t h;

wou l d dec la r e bot h H ei ght a nd Wi dt h t o b e va r ia bl es of t yp e i nt eger . Mor

eover , mo
st la ngua ges a ll ow a
va r ia bl e t o be a ss igned a n init ia l va lu e when it is dec la red. T hus,

i nt We ig htL i mi t = 100;

wou l dnot onl ydec la r eWei ght Limi t t obeavar ia bleoft yp ei nt eger buta lsoa ss ignit t
hest ar t ingva lu e100.
In c ont r a st , dyna mica l l y t yp ed
la ngua ges l i ke P yt hon a ll ow va r ia bles t o b e a ss igned wit hout fir st decla r i ng
t heir t ype; suc h va r ia bl es ar e chec ked f or cor r ect t yp e l a t er , when op er a t ions
a r e per f or med upon t hem.

Ot her com mon da t a t ypes i nclu de cha r a ct er a nd B ool ea n. T he t yp e c ha r a ct er

r
ef er s t o da t a cons ist i ng of
symb ols, pr oba blyst or edusi ngAS C IIor Uni c ode. Oper a t ionsper f or medonsuchda t
ainc lu dec ompa r isons
sucha sdet er mi ni ng whet her ones ymb oloc cur sbefor ea not her ina lp ha bet ica lor der ,
t est i ngt osee whet her
onest r ingofsymb
olsa ppea r sins i dea not her , a ndconca t ena t i ngonest r ingofsymb olsa t t heend ofa not
her
t o for m one l ong st r ing. T he st a t ement

c har L ette r, Digit ;

cou l d b e used i n t he la ngua ges C , C ++, C #, a nd Ja va t o dec la r e t he va r ia bles

Let t er a nd Di git t o be of t yp e

c ha r a ct er .

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T he t yp e
B oole an
r ef er s t o da t a it ems t ha t ca n t a ke on only t he va lu es t r ue or fa ls e. Oper a t ions
on da t a of
t yp e Bool ea n inclu de i nqu ir i es a s t o whet her t he cur r ent va lue is t r ue or fa lse. F
or exa mp l e, if t he va r ia ble
Limit Exc eeded wa s decla r ed

t o b e of t yp e B ool ea n, t hen a sta t ement of t he for m

if (Limi t Exc eeded) t hen (. . . ) els e (. . . )

wou l d be r ea sona bl e.

T he da t a t ypes t ha t a r e inc lu ded a s pr imit i ves i n a pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ge,

such a s int for int eger a nd c ha r
for c ha ra ct er , ar e ca ll ed
pr i mi t iv
e d at a typ es.
As we ha ve l ea r ned, t he da t a t ypes suc h a s: int eger , fl oa t ,
cha r a ct er , a nd b ool ea n a r e com mon pr i mit i ves. Ot her da t a t yp es t ha t ha ve
not yet b ec ome wi despr ea d
pr i mit i ves i nc lu de i ma ges, a udi o, vi deo, a nd hyp er t ext . However , t ypes suc h a s
GIF ,

JP EG, a nd HT ML
mi ght soon b ec ome a s com mon a s int eger a nd f l oa t .

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Mod ule 117

3. 3.

117.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: D at a S tr uc t ure

In a ddit i on t o da t a t ype, va r ia bl es i n a pr ogr a m a r e oft en a ss oc ia t ed wit h
d at a str uct ure,
whi c h is t h e
conc ept ua lsha peor ar ra ngement
ofda t a . F or exa mp l e, t ext isnor ma ll yvi eweda sa longst r ingofc ha r a ct er s,
wher ea s sa les r ec or ds mi ght be envisi oned a s a r ect a ngu la r t a ble of nu mer i c va
lu es, wher e ea c h r ow
r epr es ent s t he sa l es ma de b y a par t icula r emp l oyee a nd ea c h c olu mn r epr es ent
st
he sa l es ma de on a
pa rt icula r da y.

One c ommon da t a st r uct ur e is t he

arr ay,
whic h is a bloc k of el em ent s of t he sa me t yp e such a s a one
-
di mens i ona l list , a t wo
-
di mens i ona l t a ble wit h r ows a nd c olu mns, or t a bles wit h hi gher di mens i ons. T o
est a bl ish suc h a n a
rr a y in a pr ogr a m, ma ny pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges r equ ir e t ha t t he dec la r a t ion
st a t ement
decla r i ngt he na me oft hea r r a ya lsospeci fyt he l engt h of ea ch di mens i on oft hea r ra
y. F or exa mp l e, F i gur e
94 displa ys t he c onc ept ua l st r uct ur e decla r ed b y t he st a tement

i nt S cores[2 ][9];

a t wo
-
wou l d be wr it t en a s

INT E GE RS c
ores (2, 9)

Onc ea na r ra yha sbeendec la r ed, it ca nber ef er enc edels ewher ei nt hepr ogr a mb yit
sna me, or a nindi vi dua l
el ement ca n b e i dent if i ed b y mea ns of i nt eger va lu es c a ll ed
i ndi ces
t ha t spec if y t he r ow, c olu mn, a nd s o
on, des ir ed. However , t he r a ng
e of t hes e ind ic es va r i es fr om la ngua ge t o la ngua ge. F or exa mp l e, i n C (a nd
it s der i va t i ves C ++, Ja va, a nd C #) indic es st a rt at 0, mea ni ng t ha t t he ent r y i n t
he s ec ond r ow a nd f our t h
colu mn of t he a r ra y ca ll ed S c or es (a s dec la r ed a bove) wou l d b e r ef er enc ed

by S c or es[1][3], a nd t he ent r y
i n t he fir st r ow a nd fir st colu mn wou ld b e S cor es[0 ][ 0]. In cont r a st , indic es st a rt
a t 1 in a F ORT R AN
pr ogr a m s o t he ent r y i n t he s ec ond r ow a nd f our t h c olumn wou l d b e r ef er enc ed
b y S cor es(2, 4) (s ee a ga i n
F igur e 94).

Fi gure
94
: A t wo
-
di mensi onal arr ay wi t h t wo ro ws and ni ne col umns

Inc ont r a st t oa na rra yi nwhi c ha llda t a it emsa r et hes

a met yp e, a n
agg reg atety pe
(a ls oca ll eda
str uct ur e,
a
record,
or somet i mes a
heterog e neo us ar ray
) is a bl oc k of da t a in whic h di ff er ent el ement s ca n ha v e
diff er ent t yp es. F or i nst a nc e, a bloc kofda t a r ef er r ingt oa nemp l oyeemi ght c onsist
ofa nent r yca
l l edNa m e

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oft yp ec ha r a ct er , a nent r yca l l ed Age oft yp e int eger , a nda n ent r yca l l edS ki llR a t
i ngoft yp ef l oa t . S ucha n
a ggr ega t e t yp e wou ld b e dec la r ed i n C by t he st a t ement

str uc t

{c har

Name [25];

i nt Age ;

flo at S ki l lR at i ng;

} E mploy ee;

whic h sa ys t ha t t he va r ia bl e E mp l oyee is t o r ef er t o a str uct ur e (a bbr evia t ed st

r uct ) c ons ist i ng of t hr e e
comp onent s ca ll ed Na me (a st r ing of 25 c ha r a ct er s), Age, a nd S ki llR a t i ng (F i gur
e 95). Onc e suc h a n
a ggr ega t e ha s been decla r ed, a pr ogr a mmer ca n us e t
he st r uct ur e na me (E mp l oyee) t o r ef er t o t he ent ir e
a ggr ega t e or ca n r ef er enc e i ndi vi dua l
fie lds
wit hi n t he a ggr ega t e b y mea ns of t he s t r uct ur e na me f ol l owed
by a per iod a nd t he f i el d na me (suc h a s Empl oyee. Age) .

F igur e
95
: T he c onc ept ua l la yout of t he st r uct ur e Emp l oyee

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Mod ule 118

4. 4.

118.

Progr ammi ng
L ang uages: Ass ig n me nt S tat e me nt

Onc e t he sp ec ia l t er mi nol ogy t o b e used in a pr ogr am (suc h a s t he va r ia bles a nd

const a nt s) ha s bee n
decla r ed, apr ogr a mmer ca nbegi nt odescr ib et hea lgor it hmsi nvol ved. T hisisdoneby
mea nsofi mp er a t iv e
st a t ement s. T he m
ost ba sic i mp er a t ive st a t ement is t he
ass ig n me nt state me nt,
whic h r equ est s t ha t a va lu e
be a ss igned t o a var ia ble ( or mor e pr ec is el y, st or ed i n t he memor y a r ea ident if i
ed b y t he va r ia bl e). S uch a
st a t ement nor ma l l yt a kest hesynt a ct icf or mofava r ia ble,
foll owedbya symb olr epr es ent ingt hea ss ignment
op er a t ion, a ndt henb ya nexpr ess i oni ndica t i ngt he va lu et ob ea ss igned. T hesema nt
icsofsucha sta t ement
is t ha t t he expr essi on is t o be eva lua t ed a nd t he r esu lt st or ed a s t he va lu e of t he
va r ia ble. F or e
xa mp l e, t he
st a t ement :
Z = X + Y;

i n C , C ++, C #, a nd Ja va r equ est s t ha t t he sum of X a nd Y be a ss igned t o t he va r ia

ble Z. T he semi c ol on a t
t he endoft he l i ne, whic hisusedt os epa r a t esta t ement si n ma nyi mp er a t ive la ngua
ges, ist heonl ysynt a ct i c
diff er e
nc e fr om a n equ i va l ent P yt hon a ssignment st a t ement. In some ot her la ngua ges
(suc h a s Ada ) t h e
equ i va
-

l ent st a t ement wou l d a ppea r a s:

Z := X + Y;

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Mod ule 119

5. 5.

119.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Co ntro l S tr uct ures ( i f

-
st at e me nt)

A
co ntro l stat e me nt
a lt er s t he
ex ecut i on sequ enc e of t he pr ogr a m. Of a ll t he pr ogr a mmi ng c onst r uct s.

i f (co nd it io n)

S tate me nt A
else

S tate me ntB .

denot e t his usi ng t he if

-
st a t ement , we

wi ll pr oc eed a s foll ow:

if ( ma r ks> =50)

You ha ve pa ssed t he exa mi na t i on

Els e

You ha ve fa il ed t he exa mina t i on

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Mod ule 120

6. 6.

120.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Co ntro l S tr uct ures ( i f

-
st at e me nt exa mp les)

Int hismodu l e, wewi l ll ea r na not her exa mp l e.

S uppos ea univer s it ywa nt st ogivea schola r ship, ifa st udent

get s mor e t ha n 3. 0 C GP A i n a gi ven s emest er . We ca n wr it e t he pr ogr a m i n t he f
ol l owi ng wa y a nd you
ha ve a ls o seen it s i mp l ement a t i on i n t he vi deos i n t he onli ne c omp il er .

flo at f=3. 5;

i f (CG
PA>=3. 0)

else

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Mod ule 121

7. 7.

121.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Co ntro l S tr uct ures (L oops)

T her e is a not her t ype of cont r ol st r uct ur e known a s l oop. T he l oop c ont r ol st r uct
ur e it er a t es a set of
i nst r uct ions ba sed on t he pr ovided condit i on.

C ons i der t he fol l owi ng exa mpl e, we a r e i nt er est ed t o pr i nt t he cou nt i ng fr om 1

t o 5. One wa y of doi ng t his

is a s foll ows :
Doi ng
t his usi ng l oop

is ea si er , you just need t o gi ve one st a t ement t ha t is pr int i ng cou nt i ng a nd you

need
t o t el l t ha t how ma ny t i mes, you wa nt t o do it . One ca n wr it e t he l oop a s foll ows :

i nt i=1;

w hi le (i< =5)

co ut<< i;

i= i+1;

T his l oop wil l ex ecut e 5 t imes a s foll ows :

8. 8.

2. T hen a ga i n condit i on wou l d b e

c hec ked,

a nd t he c ondit i on woul d
be t r ue a s 2<

6<=5). T his woul d b e t he t er mi na t i on f or t he loop.

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Mod ule 122

9. 9.

122.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Progr ammi ng Co nc urr e nt Act ivi ti es

S uppose we wer e a sked t o des i gn a pr ogr a m t o pr oduc e a ni ma t i on for a n a ct ion

comput er ga me i nvol vi ng
mult ipl ea t t a cki ngenemyspa ces hips. Onea ppr oa chwoul dbet odes i gna singl e
pr ogr a mt ha t woul dc ont r ol
t he ent ir e a ni ma t i on scr een. S uch a pr ogr a m wou l d be c ha r ged wit h dr a wi ng ea
c h of t he spa ces hips, whic h
(if t he a ni ma t i on is t o a pp ea r r ea list ic) wou ld mea n t ha t t he pr ogr a m wou l d ha
ve t o keep up wit h t he
i ndi vi dua l c ha r a ct er ist i
cs of nu mer ous spa cecr a ft . An a lt er na t e a ppr oa ch wou l d b e t o des i gn a pr ogr a
mto
cont r ol t he a ni ma t i on of a singl e spa ces hip whos e cha r act er ist ics a r e det er mi
ned by pa ra met er s a ssigned a t

e c ons t r uct ed by cr ea t i ng mu lt ip l e
a ct iva t i ons of t his pr ogr a m, ea ch wit h it s own set of para met er s. By ex ecut i ng t
hes e a ct i va t ions
si mu lt a neous ly, we c ou l d obt a i n t he i l lusi on of ma ny i ndivi dua l spa ces hips st r
ea ki ng a cr oss t he scr een a t
t he sa me t i me.

S uch si mu lt a neous ex ecut i on of mult ipl e a ct i va t i ons is ca ll ed

par al le l proc ess i ng
or
co nc urre nt
process i ng.
Tr ue pa ra ll el pr oc ess i ng r equir es mult ip l e CP U cor es, one t o ex ecut e ea ch a ct i va
t i on. W hen
onlyoneC P Uisa va ila ble, t hei l lusi onofpa r a llelpr oc e
s singisobta inedb ya ll owingt hea ct i va t i onst osha r e
t he t i me of t he si ngl e pr oc ess or in a ma nner si mi la r t o tha t i mpl em ent ed b y mu
lt ipr ogr a mmi ng s yst ems
.

Ma ny moder nc omput er a pplica t ionsa r emor e ea si l ysol vedi nt hec ont ext ofpar a
llelpr oc ess ingt ha
ni nt h e
mor et r a dit i ona lc ont ext invol vi nga si ngl es equ enc eofi nst r uct ions. I nt ur n, newer
pr ogr a mmi ngla ngua ges
pr ovi des ynt a xfor expr ess i ngt hes ema nt icst r uct ur esi nvolvedi npa r a ll elc omput a t
i ons. T hedes i gnofsuc h
a la ngua ge r equ ir es t he i dent if i
ca t i on of t hes e s ema nt ic st r uct ur es a nd t he devel op ment of a synt a x for
r epr es ent i ng t hem.

Ea chpr ogr a mmi ngla ngua get endst oa ppr oa cht hepa ra ll elpr oc ess i ngpar a digmfr
omit sownpoi nt ofvi ew,
r esult ing in diff er ent t er mi nol ogy. F or exa mp l e, wha t we ha v
e inf or ma ll y r ef er r ed t o a s a n
act i vat i on
is
ca ll ed a
t ask
in t he Ada ver na cula r a nd a
t hread
in Ja va . T ha t is, in a n Ada pr ogr a m, si mult a neous a ct ions
a r e per for med b y cr ea t ing mu lt ipl e
t asks,
wher ea s in Ja va one cr ea t es mu lt ip l e
t hreads.
In eit her ca se,
the
r esult is t ha t mu lt ip l e a ct i vit i es a r e gener a t ed a nd ex ec ut ed i n muc h t he sa me
wa y a s pr ocess es under t h e
cont r ol of a mu lt it a ski ng op er a t ing syst em. W e wi l l a dopt t he Ja va t er mi nology
a nd r ef er t o such

P er ha ps t he most ba sic a c
t ion t ha t must be expr ess ed i n a pr ogr a m i nvol vi ng pa ra ll el pr oc ess i ng is t ha t
of
cr ea t i ng new t hr ea ds. If we wa nt mult ip l e a ct iva t i ons of t he spa ces hip pr ogr a m
t o be ex ecut ed a t t he sa m e
t i me, we need a synt a x for sa yi ng so. S uch spa wni ng of new t hr ea ds i
s si mi la r t o t ha t of r equ est i ng t h e
ex ecut i on of a tr a dit i ona l funct i on. T he diff er enc e is tha t , in t he t ra dit i ona l s et t
i ng, t he pr ogr a m unit t ha t
r equ est s t he a ct iva t i on of a funct i on does not pr ogr ess a ny fur t her unt i l t he r
equ est ed funct i on t er mi na t es
(
r eca l l F igur e 6. 8), wher ea s i n t he pa ra ll el cont ext t he r equ est i ng pr ogr a m u nit
c ont i nu es ex ecut ion whi l e
t he r equ est ed funct ion p er for ms it s ta sk (F igur e 96).
T hus,
t o cr ea t e mu lt ip l e spa ce
-

s hips s tr ea ki ng a cr os s
t he scr een, we wou l d wr it e a ma i n pr ogr a m t ha t simp l y gener a t es mu lt ip l e a ct
i va t ions of t he spa ces hip
pr ogr a m, ea c h pr ovi ded wit h t he pa ra met er s descr ibi ng t he dist i nguis hi ng cha r
a ct er ist ics of t ha t spa cesh
ip.

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Fi gure
96
:
Spawni ng t hreads

A mor e c omp l ex iss u e a ss ocia t ed wit h pa ra ll el pr oc ess ing i nvol ves ha ndli ng c
ommu nica t i on b et wee n
t hr ea ds. F or inst a nc e, i n our spa ceship exa mp l e, t he t hr ea ds r epr es ent i ng t h
e diff er ent spa ceships mi ght
needt oc ommu nica t et heir loca t i onsa mongt hems el vesi nor der t ocoor di na t et heir a
ct ivit i es. Inot her
ca ses,

one t hr ea d mi ght need t o wa it unt il a not her r ea ches a cer t a in point in it s computa
t ion, or one t hr ea d mi ght
need t o s
t op a not her one unt il t he fir st ha sa ccompl is hed a pa rt icula r ta sk.

S uch c ommu nica t i on needs ha ve l ong b een a t opic of st udy a mong c omput er sci ent
ist s, a nd ma ny newer
pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges r ef l ect va r ious a ppr oa ches t o t hr ea d i nt er a ct i on pr obl
ems. As a n ex
a mp l e, l et us
cons i der t he c ommu nica t i on pr obl ems enc ou nt er ed when t wo t hr ea ds ma nipu la
t e t he sa me da t a . If ea ch of
t wot hr ea dst ha t a r eex ecut i ngc oncur r ent ly needt oa ddt heva lu et hr eet oa
commonit em ofda t a ,a met ho d
is needed t o ensur e t ha t one t hr e
a d is a ll owed t o c omplet e it s t r a nsa ct ion b ef or e t he ot her is a ll owed t o
per f or m it s t a sk. Ot her wis e t hey c ou l d bot h st a r t t heir i ndivi dua l c omput a t
ions wit h t he sa me i nit ia l va lu e,
whic h wou l d mea n t ha t t he fi na l r esu lt wou ld b e i ncr ement ed by onl y t hr ee
r a t her t ha n six. Dat a t ha t ca n
be a cc ess ed by onl y one t hr ea d a t a t i me is sa id t o ha ve mut ua ll y exc lusi ve a cc
ess .

One wa y t o i mp l ement mut ua l l y exc lus i ve a ccess is t o wr it e t he pr ogr a m unit s t

ha t descr ib e t he t hr ea ds
i nvol ved s o t ha t when a t hr ea d is usin
g s ha r ed da t a , it bl oc ks ot her t hr ea ds fr om a cc ess i ng t ha t da t a unt i l
such a cc ess is sa fe.

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Mod ule 123

10. 10.

123.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Ar it h me ti c O per ators E xamp l es

C
-
la ngua ge ha s t he f oll owing a r it hmet ic op er a t or s:

Addit i on

-
S ubtr a ct ion

Mult ip li ca t ion

Di vis i on

Modulus

+,
-

op er a nds

is deci ma l nu mb er , t hen it r esult s in t he sa me wa y a s in ma t hema t ics, for exa mp l

e:
11. 11.

5. 0/ 2. 0 woul d r esu lt i nt o 2. 5.

However , when bot h op er a nds a r e int eger s, t hen it wou l d t r unca t e t he dec i ma l
point a nd

5/ 2 wou l d r esult i nt o 2.
5%2 wou l d gi ve 1.

Mod ule 124

12. 12.

124.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: Re l at io nal O per ato rs E xamp l es

C
-
la ngua ge ha s t he f oll owing r ela t iona l op er a t or s:

<

Les s t ha n

<=

Les s t ha n or equa l t o

>

Gr ea t er t ha n

>=
Gr ea t er t ha n or equa l t o

==

Equa l t o

!=

Not Equa l t o

C ++R ela t i ona l Op er a t or sar e

us ed t o c ompa r e va lu es of t wo va r ia bles . H er e i n exa mp l e we us ed t he
op er a t or s in

if st a t ement .

Now i f t he r esu lt a ft er compa r ison of t wo va r ia bl es is

Tr ue, t hen

if st a t ement

r et ur ns va lu e
13. 13.

1.

And if t he r esult a ft er compa r ison of t wo va r ia bl es is

Fa lse, t h
en
i f st a t ement

r et ur ns va lu e
14. 14.

0.

#i nc l ud e<iost re am>

us i ng name sp ac e std;

void

mai n()

i nt

a=10, b=20, c=10;

if
( a>b)

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cout<<" a is greater" <<e nd l;

if
( a<b)
cout<<" a is s mal l er" <<e nd l;

if
( a<=c)

cout<<" a is less t han/ e q ual to c" <<

e nd l;

if
( a>=c)

cout<<" a is less t han/ e q ual to c" <<e nd l;

O ut p ut

a is s mal ler

a is less t han/ eq ual to c

a is gre ate r t han/ eq ual to c

I
n C ++ R ela t i ona l op er a t or s, t wo op er a t or s t ha t is

==

(Is Equa l t o) a nd

!=

(is Not Equa l T o), ar e used t o

chec k whet her t he t wo va r ia bl es t o be c ompa r ed a r e equa l or not
.

Let us t a ke one exa mp l e whic h demonst r a t e

t hes e t wo op er a t or s
.

#i nc l ud e<iost re am>

us i ng name sp ac e std;

void mai n()

i nt num1 = 30;

i nt num2 = 40;
i nt num3 = 40;

if( nu m1!= nu m2)

cout<<" nu m1 Is Not E qual T o num2" <<e nd l;

if( nu m2== nu m3)

cout<<" nu m2 Is E q ual T o nu m3" <<e ndl ;

O utp ut

nu m1 Is Not E qual T o num2

nu m2 Is E qual T o num3

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Mod ule 125

15. 15.

125.

Progr ammi ng L ang uages: L ogic al O per ato rs E xa mpl es

16. 16.

1.

C
-
la ngua ge L ogi ca l Oper a t or s ar e used if we wa nt t o compa r e mor e

t ha n one c ondit i on.

17. 17.

2.

Dep endi ng upon t he r equir ement , pr op er logica l op er a tor is used.

18. 18.

3.

F ol l owi ng t a bl e shows us t he diff er ent C ++ oper a t or sava i la bl e

Oper ators

Name o f t he
Oper ator
T ype

&&

AND Op er a t or

Bi na r y

||

OR Oper a t or

Bi na r y

NOT Oper at or

Una r y

Ac c or di ng t o na mes of t he L ogi ca l Op er a t or s, t he c ondit i on sa t isfi ed i n f ol l owi

ng s it ua t ion a nd exp ect ed
output s ar e gi ven

O per ator

O ut p ut

AND
Out put is 1 onl y when c ondit i ons on bot h si des

of Op er a t or become T r ue

OR

Out put is 0 onl y when c ondit i ons on bot h si des

of Op er a t or become F a ls e

NOT

It gi ves i nver t ed Out put

Let us look a t a ll logica l op er a t or s wit h exa mpl e

-

#i nc lude<i ost r ea m>

us i ng

name sp ac e

st d;

i nt

ma i n()

{
i nt

nu m1=30;

i nt

nu m2=40;

if
( nu m1> = 40 || nu m2> = 40 )

cout <<"OR If Bloc k Get s Ex ecut ed"<< endl;

if
( nu m1> = 20 & & num2> = 20 )

cout <<"AND If B l oc k G et s Execut ed"<< endl;

if
( !( nu m1> = 40 ))

cout <<"NOT If Bloc k G et s Execut ed"<< endl;

ret ur n

0;

O ut p ut:

OR If Bloc k Get s Ex ecut ed

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AND If B l oc k G et s Execut ed

NOT If Bloc k G et s Execut ed

E xp l anat io n o f t he Prog ra m

Or st at ement gives out put = 1 when a ny of t he t wo c ondit i on is sa t isfi ed.

if
( nu m1>40 || nu m2>=40)

Her e i n a bove pr ogr a m , nu m2=40.

S o,
one of t he t wo condit i ons is sa t isfi ed.
S o,

sta t ement is ex ecut ed.

F or AND op er a t or , out put is 1 onl y when b ot h condit i ons a r e sa t isfied.

if
( nu m1>=20 & & nu m2>=20)

T hus,

in a bove pr ogr a m, bot h t he c ondit i ons a r e Tr ue so if bl oc k get s ex ecut ed.

T rut h T abl e

O per ator

1st
Cond it io n

2nd
Cond it io n

O ut p ut

AND

Tr ue
Tr ue

Tr ue

Tr ue

F a lse

F a lse

F a lse

Tr ue

F a lse

F a lse

F a lse

F a lse

OR

Tr ue

Tr ue

Tr ue

Tr ue
F a lse

Tr ue

F a lse

Tr ue

Tr ue

F a lse

F a lse

F a lse

NOT

Tr ue

F a lse

F a lse

Tr ue
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 126

19. 19.
126.

S oftware
E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware E ngi nee r i ng Disc i pl i ne

T o a ppr ecia t e t he pr ob l ems i nvol ved i n s oft wa r e engi neer i ng, it is helpfu l t o s el
ect a lar ge c omp l ex devic e
(a n a utomob il e, a mult ist or y of fi c e buil ding, or per ha ps a ca t hedr a l) a nd i ma
gine b ei ng a sked t o desi gn

it
a nd t hen t o super vis e it s const r uct ion. How ca n you est i ma t e t he c ost i n t i me,
money, a nd ot her r esour c es
t o compl et e t he pr oj ect ? H ow ca n you di vide t he pr oj ec t int o ma na gea b l e pi ec
es? How ca n you ensur e t ha t
t hepi ec espr oduc eda r ec ompa t ib l e?H owca
nt hos ewor ki ngont he va r ious pi ec es c ommu nica t e?Howca n
you mea sur epr ogr ess ?Howca n youcop e wit ht he wi der a nge ofdet a il(t hes el ect i on
oft hedoor knobs, t he
des i gn of t he ga r goyl es, t he a va i la bi lit y of blu e gla ss for t he st a i ned gla ss wi
ndows, t he
st r engt h of t h e
pil la r s, t hedes i gn oft he duct wor kf or t hehea t i ngs yst em)?Qu est ions oft hesa mesc
op e must bea ns wer ed
dur i ng t he devel op ment of a lar ge soft wa r e syst em.

B eca us e engi neer i ng is a well

-
est a blis hed fi el d, you mi ght t hi nk t ha t t her e is a w
ea lt h of pr evi ousl y
devel op edengi neer i ngt ec hni qu est ha tca nbeusefuli nans wer i ngsuchqu est i ons. T
hisr ea soni ngispar t ia ll y
t r ue, but it over l ooks funda ment a l diff er enc es bet ween t he pr op er t i es of soft wa r
e a nd t hos e of ot her fi el ds
of engi neer i ng. T he
s e dist i nct i onsha vec ha l l engeds oft wa r e engi neer i ngpr oj ect s, l ea di ngt oc ost
over r uns,
la t e deli ver yofpr odu ct s, a nd dissa t isfi edcust omer s. Int ur n, ident i fyingt hes e dist i
nct i onsha spr ovent ob e
t he fir st st ep i n a dva nc ing t he soft wa r e engi neer i ng di
sc ipl i ne.

One suc h dist i nct i on i nvol ves t he a bi lit y t o c onst r uct syst ems fr om gener ic pr efa
br ica t ed c omp onent s.

-
t he
-

buil di ng bloc ks when const r uct i ng co

mpl ex devic es. The desi gner of a new a ut omobi l e does not ha ve t o
des i gn a new engi ne or t ra ns miss i on but inst ea d uses pr evi ous ly des igned ver si
ons of t hes e c omponent s.
S oft wa r e engi neer i ng, however , la gs i n t his r ega r d. In t he pa st , pr evious l y des i
gned sof
t wa r e c omp onent s
wer e doma i n sp eci fi c t ha t is, t heir int er na l des i gn wa s ba sed on a spec if ic a ppl
ica t i on a nd t hus t heir use a s
gener i c comp onent s wa s li mit ed. T he r esult is t ha t compl ex soft wa r e syst ems ha
ve hist or ica l l y been bui lt
fr omscr a t ch. Aswewil l

s eei nt hisc ha pt er , signif ica nt pr ogr ess isbei ngma dei nt hisr ega r d, a lt hou ghmor e
wor k r ema i ns t o b e done.
Anot her dist inct i on b et ween soft wa r e engineer i ng a nd ot her engineer i ng dis cip l i
nes is t he la c k of
qua nt it a t ive t ec hni qu es, ca ll ed
me tr ics,
for
mea s ur i ng t he pr op er t i es of s oft wa r e. F or exa mp l e, t o pr oj ect
t hec ost ofdevel op i nga soft wa r es yst em, onewou l dl i ket oest i ma t et hec omp l ex it
yoft hepr opos edpr oduct ,

t ing t he qua l it y of a
soft wa r e pr odu ct is cha l l engi ng. In t he ca se of mec ha ni ca l devic es, a n i mpor t a nt
mea sur e of qua l it y is t he
mea n t i me b et ween fa i lur es, whic h is ess ent ia ll y a mea sur ement of how wel l a
devic e endur es wea r .
S oft wa r e, i nc ont r a st ,doesn
ot wea r out ,sot hismet hodofmea sur i ngqua l it yisnot a sa pplica bl ei ns oft wa r e
engineer i ng.

T he dif fi cult i es i nvol ved i n mea sur i ng soft wa r e pr oper t i es i n a qua nt it a t ive ma
nner is one of t he r ea sons
t ha t soft wa r e engi neer i ng ha s str uggl ed t o fi nd a
r igor ous foot i ng i n t he sa me s ens e a s mec ha nica l a nd
el ect r ica l engi neer i ng. Wher ea s t hes e la t t er subject s ar e fou nded on t he est a blis
hed sci enc e of physi cs,
soft wa r e engi neer i ng cont i nu es t o sea r ch f or it s r oot s.

T hus, r esea r chi nsoft wa r eengi neer i ngis

cur r ent l ypr ogr ess i ngont wol evel s:S omer es ea r cher s, somet i mes
ca ll ed pr a ct it ioner s, wor k t owa r d devel op i ng t ec hni qu es for immedia t e a pplica
t i on, wher ea s ot her s, ca ll ed
t heor et ic ia ns, sea r ch f or under l yi ng pr incip l es a nd t heor ies on whic h mor e st a bl
e t ec
hni qu es ca n s omeda y
be c onst r uct ed. B ei ng ba sed on a subject i ve f ou nda t i on, ma ny met hodol ogi es
devel op ed a nd pr omot ed by
pr a ct it ioner sint hepa stha vebeenr ep la c edbyot her a ppr oa chest ha t ma yt hems el
vesbecome obsol et e wit h
t i me. Mea nwhi l e, pr ogr ess by
t heor et i cia ns cont i nu es t o b e s l ow.

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T heneedf or pr ogr ess bybot hpr a ct it ioner sa ndt heor et i cia nsisenor mous. Our soci et
yha sbec omea ddict ed
t o comput er syst ems a nd t heir a ss ocia t ed soft wa r e. Our ec onomy, hea lt hca r e,
gover nment , la w
enfor c ement , t r a nspor
t at ion, a nd def ens e dep end onla r ges oft wa r esyst ems. Yet t her ec ont i nu et ob e ma j
or
pr oblemswit ht her elia bil it yoft hes es yst ems. S oft wa r eer r or sha veca us edsuchdisa
st er sa ndnea r disa st er s
a s t he r isi ng moon b ei ng i nt er pr et ed a s a nucl ea r a tt a ck, a o
ne
-
da y l oss of $5 mi l li on b y t he Ba nk of N ew
Yor k, t he l oss of spa ce pr ob es, ra dia t i on over dos es t ha t ha ve ki l l ed a nd pa ra lyz
ed, a nd t he si mult a neou s
disr upt ion of t el ep hone c ommu nica t i ons over la r ge r egi ons.

T his is not t o sa yt ha t t he sit ua t ion is a ll bl

ea k. Much progr ess is bei ng ma de i n over c omi ng suc h pr obl ems
a s t he la c k of pr efa br ica t ed c omp onent s a nd met r i cs. Mor eover , t he a ppli ca t ion
of c omput er t ec hnol ogy t o
t he s oft wa r e devel op ment pr oc ess , r esu lt i ng i n wha t is ca ll ed
co mp ut er
-
aid ed so ftw are e ng i
nee ri ng
(CAS E ),
is cont i nui ng t o st r ea ml i ne a nd ot her wis e si m pli f y t he soft wa r e devel op ment
pr oc ess . C AS E ha s
l edt ot he devel op ment ofa va r iet y ofc omput er iz eds ys t ems, knowna s
CAS Etoo ls ,
whic h i nc lu depr oj ect
pla nning syst ems (t o a ss ist in cost est i ma
t i on, pr oj ect schedul i ng, a nd per sonnel a ll oca t i on), pr oj ect
ma na gement syst ems(t oa ss ist inmonit or i ngt hepr ogr ess oft hedevel op ment pr oj
ect ), docu ment a t iont ools
(t o a ss ist in wr it i ng a nd or ga ni zi ng docu ment a t i on), prot ot yp i ng a nd si mu la t
ion syst ems (
t o a ss ist in t he
devel op ment of pr ot ot yp es), i nt er fa ce des i gn syst ems (t o a ssist in t he devel op
ment of G UIs), a nd
pr ogr a mmi ng s yst ems (t o a ss ist in wr it i ng a nd debuggi ng pr ogr a ms). S ome of t
hes e t ools a r e lit t l e mor e
t ha n t he wor d pr oc ess or s, spr ea ds heet s
oft wa r e, a nd ema il c om mu nica t i on syst ems t ha t wer e or i gi na ll y
devel op ed for gener ic us e a nd a dopt ed by s oft wa r e engineer s. Ot her s a r e quit e s
op hist ica t ed pa c ka ges
des i gned pr i ma r il y for t he soft wa r e engi neer i ng envir onment . Indeed, syst ems
known a s
integr a
ted
deve lop me nte nvi ro nme nts(IDE s)
combi net oolsf or devel op i ngsoft wa r e( edit or s, comp il er s, debu ggi ng
t ools, a nds oon)i nt oa singl e, i nt egr a t edpa cka ge. P r i meexa mp l esofsuchs yst emsa r
et hos ef or devel op in g
a pplica t i ons for sma r t phones. T hes e not on
l y pr ovi de t he pr ogr a mmi ng t ools nec essa r y t o wr it e a nd debu g
t he soft wa r e but a lso pr ovi de si mu la t or s t ha t, by mea ns of gr a phica l displa ys, a ll
ow a pr ogr a mmer t o s ee
how t he s oft wa r e bei ng devel op ed wou l d a ct ua lly p er for m on a phone.

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Mod ule 127

20. 20.

127.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware L i fe cycl e

T he most funda ment a l conc ept i n soft wa r e engi neer i ng is t he soft wa r e lif e c yc l e.
T he soft wa r e l if e cyc l e is
showni nF igur e97. T hisfi gur er epr es ent st hefa ct t ha t onc es oft wa r eisdevel op ed, it
ent er sa cycl eof
b ei n g
used a nd ma i nt a i ned

for ma ny ma nufa ct ur ed pr oduct s a s wel l. T he dif f er enc e is t ha t , in t he ca se of ot

her pr oduct s, t he
ma i nt ena nc e p ha se t ends t o be a r epa ir pr ocess
, wher ea s in t he ca se of soft wa r e, t he ma i nt ena nc e p ha se
t ends t o c ons ist of c or r ect i ng or upda t i ng. Indeed, sof t wa r e moves i nt o t he ma i
nt ena nc e p ha se b eca use

ngesi nt he
soft wa r e, or cha nges ma de dur i ng a pr evi ous modi fi ca t i on ar e fou nd t o indu c e pr
obl ems els ewher e i n t he
soft wa r e.

R ega r dl ess of why s oft wa r e ent er s t he ma i nt ena nc e p ha se, t he pr oc ess r equ ir

es t ha t a per son ( oft en not t he
or i gina l a ut hor ) st udy t
he u nder l yi ng pr ogr a m a nd it s docu ment a t i on u nt i l t he pr ogr a m, or a t l ea st t
he
per t i nent par t of t he pr ogr a m, is under st ood. Ot her wis e, a ny modif ica t i on cou l d
int r oduc e mor e pr obl ems
t ha nit sol ves. Ac quir i ngt hisunder st a ndi ngca nbeadif ficu lt t a sk,eve
n whent hesoft wa r eiswel l
-
desi gne d
a nddocu ment ed. Infa ct ,it isoft en wit hint hispha set ha t apiec eofsoft wa r eisdisca r
dedunder t hepr et ens e
(t oo oft en t r ue) t ha t it is ea si er t o devel op a new syst em fr om scr a t ch t ha n t o
modif y t he ex ist i ng pa cka g e

succ ess ful l y.

Exper i enc e ha s shown t ha t a lit t l e eff or t dur ing t he devel op ment of soft wa r e ca n
ma ke a t r emendous
diff er enc e when modif ica t i ons a r e r equ ir ed.

Fi gure
97
: T he sof t
ware l i f e cycl e

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21. 21.

128.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Req ui re me nt A nalys is Phas e

T he ma j or st eps in t he t r a dit i ona l soft wa r e devel op ment li f e cycl e a r e r equir

ement s a na l ysis, des ign,
i mp l ementa t i on, a nd t est ing (F i gur e 98).

Req uir e me nts A nalys is:

T he soft wa r e li f e cycl e b egi ns wit h r equ ir ement s a na l ysis

t he goa l of whic h is
to
s pec if y wha t s er vi c es t he pr opos ed s ys t em wil l pr ovi de, t o ident if y a ny con dit i
ons (t i me c ons t r a int s ,
secur it y, a nd so on) on t hos e s er vic es, a nd t o defi ne how t he out si de wor l d wi ll i
nt er a ct wit h t he s yst em.
R equir ements a na lys is i nvol ves si gnif ica nt inpu
t fr om t he
st ake ho lde rs
(futur e user s a s well a s t hos e wit h
ot her t i es, such a s l ega l or fi na nc ia l i nt er est s) of t he pr op os ed s yst em. I n fa ct ,
in ca ses wher e t he ult i ma t e
user isa nent it y, sucha sa compa nyor gover nment a genc y, t ha t int endst ohir ea sof
t wa r edevel op er for t he
a ct ua l ex ecut i on of t he s oft wa r e pr oj ect , r equ ir ement s a na lys is ma y st a r t by a
fea sib il it y st udy conduct e d
sol el y b y t he us er . In ot her ca ses, t he soft wa r e devel op er ma y be i n t he busi ness
of pr odu ci ng
co mme rc i al
off
-
t he
-
s hel f (CO T S
)
soft wa r e for t he ma ss ma r ket , per ha ps t o be sol d in r et a i l st or es or downl oa ded
via
t he Int er net . In t his s et t i ng t he user is a less pr ec is el y defi ned ent it y, a nd r equir
ement s a na lys is ma y begi n
wit h a ma r ket st udy by t he soft wa r e devel op er . In a ny ca se,

t he r equ ir ements a na lys is pr oc ess consist s of

t ra de
-
offs b et ween wa nt s, needs, cost s, a nd f ea sib il it y; a nd fina ll y devel op i ng a set of r
equir ement s t h
at
i dent i f y t he f ea t ur es a nd ser vi c es t ha t t he f i nis hed soft wa r e syst em must ha ve.
T hes e r equ ir ement s a r e
r ec or dedi na docu ment ca l l eda
softw arer eq ui re me nts speci fi c at io n.
I na sens e, t hisdocu ment isa wr it t en
a gr eement bet ween a l l pa rt i es conc er ned, w

pr ovi de a mea ns of r esol vi ng disput es t ha t ma y a r ise la t er i n t he devel op ment pr

oc ess . T he s i gni fi ca nc e of
t he soft wa r e r equir ement s speci fi ca t ion is demonst r a t ed by t he fa ct t ha t pr of ess
i ona l or ga ni
za t i ons such a s
IEEE a nd la r ge s oft wa r e cl i ent s such a s t he U. S . Dep a rt ment of D ef ens e ha ve a
dopt ed st a nda r ds for it s
comp osit i on.

ob j ect i ve t owa r d whic

t o pr ovide t his st a bil it y. Indeed, most pr a ct it ioner s i n t he s oft wa r e engineer i ng f

i el d a r gue t ha t poor
com mu nica t i on a nd cha ngi ng r equir ement s a r e t he ma j or ca uses of cost ov
er r uns a nd la t e pr odu ct deli ver y

pla n onc e t he f ou nda t i on ha s been c onst r uct ed, but inst a nc es a bound of or ga niza
t i ons t ha t ha ve expa nded,
or ot her wis ea

under wa y. T his ma y ha ve b een b eca us e a compa ny deci ded t ha t t he syst em t ha t

wa s or igina ll y b ei ng
devel op edf or onl ya subs idia r yshou l di nst ea da ppl yt ot heen
t ir ec or por a t ionor t ha t a dva nc esi nt ec hnolog y
suppla nt edt heca pa bil it i esa va i la bledur i ngt hei nit ia lr equ ir ements a na lys is. Ina
nyca se, soft wa r eengineer s

nda t or y.

Fi gure
98
:
T he tradi t ional devel opment phase of t he sof t ware l i f e cycl e

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 129

22. 22.

129.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Des ig n Phase

Wher ea s r equ ir ement s a na l ysis pr ovi des a descr ipt i on of t he pr op os ed s oft wa r e

pr oduct , des i gn i nvol ves
cr ea t i ng a pla n for t he const r uct i on of t he pr op os ed syst em. In a sens e, r equ ir
ement s a na lys is is a bout
i dent i f yi ng t he pr ob l em t o b e solved, whi l e des i g
n is about devel op i ng a solut i on t o t he pr obl em. F r om a
la y
-

what
a soft wa r e syst em i s
t o do, wher ea s des i gn is equa t ed wit h dec i ding
ho w
t he s yst em wi l l do it . Alt hough t his des cr ipt i on is
enl i ght eni ng, ma ny soft wa r e engi neer s a r gue t ha t it is fla wed b eca us e, in a ct ua
lit y, t her e is a lot of
how
cons i der ed dur i ng r equir ement s a na l ys is a nd a lot of
wh at
cons i der ed dur i ng des i gn.

It is in t he
des ign st a ge t ha t t he int er na l st r uct ur e of t he soft wa r e syst em is est a blis hed. T
he r esult of t h e

If t he pr oj ect wer e t o c onst r uct a n off i c e bui l

di ng r a t her t ha n a soft wa r e s yst em, t he des i gn st a ge wou l d
cons ist of devel op i ng det a i l ed st r uct ur a l pla ns for a buil di ng t ha t meet s t he sp
ec if i ed r equir ement s. F or
exa mp l e, suc h pla ns wou l d i nclu de a c oll ect ion of b lu epr i nt s descr ib i ng t he pr
op os ed bu i ldi
ng a t va r ious
l evels of det a i l. It is fr om t hes e docu ment s t ha t t he a ct ua l buildi ng wou l d be
const r uct ed. T echni qu es for
devel op i ng t hes e p la ns ha ve evolved over ma ny yea r s a nd i nc lu de st a nda r diz ed
not a t i ona l s yst ems a nd
nu mer ous modeli ng a nd dia gr a mmi ng

met hodol ogi es.

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23. 23.

130.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: I mp le me nt atio n Phas e

I mp l ement a t ion i nvol ves t he a ct ua l wr it i ng of pr ogr a ms, cr ea t ion of da t a fil es,

a nd devel op ment of
da t a bases. It is at t he i mp l ement a t i on st a ge t ha t we see t he dist i nct i on b et
ween t he t a sks of a
softw ar e
analyst
(somet i mes r ef er r ed t o a s a syst em a na l yst ) a nd a
programme r.
T he for mer is a per son i nvol ved
wit h t he ent ir e devel op ment pr oc ess , per ha ps wit h a n emp ha sis on t he r equ ir
ement s a na lysis a nd desi gn
st eps. T hela t t er isa per soni nvol vedpr i ma r i l ywit ht hei m
pl em ent a t i ons t ep. Init s na rr owes t i nt er pr et a t ion,
a pr ogr a mmer is c ha r ged wit h wr it i ngpr ogr a mst ha t i mpl ement t hedesi gnpr oduc
edbya soft wa r ea na l yst .
Ha vi ng ma de t his dist i nct i on, we shou l d not e a ga i n t ha t t her e is no c ent r a l a ut
hor it y cont r olli ng t h
e us e of
t er mi nol ogy t hr ou ghout t he comput i ng com mu nit y. Ma ny who ca r r y t he t it l e of
soft wa r e a na lyst a r e
ess ent ia l ly pr ogr a mmer s, a nd ma ny wit h t he t it l e pr ogr a mmer ( or per ha ps seni
or pr ogr a mmer ) a r e a ct ua ll y
soft wa r ea na lyst si nt heful ls ens eoft het er
m. T hisblur r ingoft er mi nol ogyisfou ndedi nt hefa ct t ha t t oda y
t he st eps i n t he s oft wa r e devel op ment pr oc ess a r e oft en int er mi ngl ed.

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24. 24.

131.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: T esti ng Phas e

In t he t r a dit i ona l devel op ment pha s e of t he pa st , t est ing wa s

ess ent ia l l y equa t ed wit h t he pr oc ess of
debu ggi ng pr ogr a ms a nd c onf ir mi ng t ha t t he fi na l soft wa r e pr oduct wa s compa t
ibl e wit h t he soft wa r e
r equir ement s sp ec if ica t i on. T oda y, however , t his vis ion of t est i ng is cons i der ed
fa r t oo na r r ow. Pr ogr a ms
a r enot t he

onl ya r t ifa ct st ha t a r et est eddur i ngt hesoft wa r edevel op ment pr oc ess . Indeed, t
her esu lt of ea c h

r ec ogni z ed a s onl y one s egment i n t he over a ll st r uggl e f

or qua l it y a s s ur a nce, whic h is a n ob j ect i ve t ha t
per mea t est he ent ir es oft wa r el if e c yc l e. T hus, ma nysof t wa r e engi neer sa r gu et
ha t t est i ngshou l dno l onger
be vi ewed a s a sepa ra t e st ep in soft wa r e devel op ment , but inst ea d it , a nd it s ma
ny ma nif est a t i ons,
shou l d
be i nc or por a t ed i nt o t he ot her st eps, pr oduc i ng a t hr ee
-
s t ep devel op ment pr oc ess whos e c omp onent s mi ght

and conf i rmat i on,

and val i dat i on,

and t est i ng.

Unf or t una t el y, even wit h

moder n qua l it y a ss ur a nce t ec hniqu es, la r ge soft wa r e s yst ems c ont i nu e t o c ont
ain
er r or s, even a ft er signif ica nt t est i ng. Ma ny of t hes e er r or s ma y go undet ect ed
for t he l if e of t he syst em, but
ot her s ma y ca use ma j or ma lfu nct i ons. T he eli mi na t i on of such er r o
r s is one of t he goa ls of soft wa r e
engi neer i ng. T he fa ct t ha t t hey a r e st il l pr eva l ent i ndi ca t es t ha t a lot of r es ea
r ch r ema i ns t o b e done.

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Mod ule 132
25. 25.

132.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware E ngi nee r i ng Met h odolog ies (I)

Ea r ly a ppr oa ches t o soft wa r e engi neer ing i ns ist ed on p er for mi ng r equ ir ement s
a na l ysis, des i gn,
i mp l ement a t i on, a ndt est i ngi na str ict lys equ ent ia lma nner . T hebel i ef wa st ha tt
oo muc hwa sa tr iskdur ing
t he devel op ment of a la r ge soft wa r e syst em t o a ll ow
for va r ia t ions. As a r esult , soft wa r e engi neer s i nsist e d
t ha t t he ent ir e r equir ement s speci fi ca t i on of t he syst em b e compl et ed bef or e begi
nni ng t he des i gn a nd,
li kewis e, t ha t t he desi gn b e c omp l et ed b ef or e b egi nni ng i mp l ement a t ion. T he
r esu lt wa s a devel op
ment
pr oc ess now r ef er r ed t o a s t he
wate r
-

fal l mod el,

a n a na logy t o t he fa ct t ha t t he devel op ment pr oc ess wa s
a ll owed t o f l ow i n only one dir ect i on.

In r ec ent yea r s, soft wa r e engineer i ng t echni qu es ha ve cha nged t o r efl ect t he

cont r a di ct i on bet ween t he
hi ghl y st r uct ur ed envir onment dict a t ed by t he wa t er
-
-

-
a nd
-
er r or
pr oc ess t ha t is oft en vit a l t o cr ea t i ve pr obl em
sol vi ng. T his is illust r a t ed by t he emer genc e of t he
i ncre me nt al mo de l
for soft wa r e devel op ment . F oll owi ng t his model, t he des ir ed soft wa r e syst em is
const r uct edi ni ncr ement s, t hefir st bei nga simp li fi edver sionoft hefi na lpr oduct wit hl
i mit edfu nct i on
a l it y.
Onc e t his ver s i on ha s been t est ed a nd p er ha ps eva lua t ed by t he futur e us er , mor
e f ea t ur es ar e a dded a nd
t est ed i n a n i ncr ement a l ma nner unt il t he syst em is c ompl et e. F or exa mp l e, if t
he s yst em b ei ng devel op ed
isa pa t ient r ec or dss yst emf or a hosp it
a l, t hef ir st incr ement ma yi ncor p or a t eonl yt hea bi l it yt ovi ewpa t i ent
r ec or ds fr om a sma l l sa mpl e of t he ent ir e r ec or d sys t em. O nc e t ha t ver si on is
op er a t iona l, a ddit i ona l
f ea t ur es, such a s t he a bil it y t o a dd a nd upda t e r ec or ds, wou l d be a dded i n a st
ep
wis e ma nner .

Anot her model t ha t r epr es ent s t he shift a wa y fr om st r ict a dher enc e t o t he wa t

er fa ll model is t he
ite r at ive
mo de l,
whi c h is si mi la r t o, a nd i n fa ct somet i mes equa t ed wit h, t he i ncr ementa l model,
a lt hou gh t he t wo
a r e dist i nct . Wher ea s t he i ncr em
ent a l model ca r r ies t he not i on of
ext endi ng
ea ch pr el i mi na r y ver si on of a
pr oduct i nt o a lar ger ver sion, t he it er a t ive model enc ompa ss es t he conc ept of
ref i ni ng
ea ch ver si on. In
r ea lit y, t he i ncr ement a l model i nvol ves a n under l yi ng it er a t ive pr oc ess , a nd t
he it er a t ive model ma y
i ncr ement a l l y a dd f ea t ur es.

A si gni fi ca nt exa mp l e of it er a t ive t ec hni qu es is t he

r atio nal uni fie d proc ess
(
RUP,

t ha t wa scr ea t edbyt heR a t iona lS oft wa r eC or por a t ion, whic his nowa divis i
onofIBM. R UP is ess ent ia
lly
a soft wa r e devel op ment pa ra di gm t ha t r edef i nes t he st eps i n t he devel op ment
pha s e of t he s oft wa r e l if e
cycl e a nd pr ovi des gu i del i nes f or per for mi ng t hos e st eps. T hes e gu i deli nes, a
long wit h C AS E t ools t o
suppor t t hem, a r e ma r ket ed by I BM. T oda y, R UP is

wi del y a ppli ed t hr ou ghout t he soft wa r e i ndust r y. In

fa ct , it s popula r it y ha s l ed t o t he devel op ment of a nonpr opr iet a r y ver si on, ca ll
ed t he
uni fi e d proc es s ,
t ha t
is a va ila bl e on a nonc omm er c ia l ba sis.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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26. 26.

133.
S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware
E ngi nee r i ng Met h odolog ies (I I )

Incr ement a l a nd it er a t ive models somet i mes ma ke u se of t he t r end i n s oft wa r e

devel op ment t owa r d
prototy pi ng
i n whic h i nc omp l et e ver si ons of t he pr opos ed syst em, ca l l ed pr ot ot yp es, a r e
built a nd
eva lua t ed. In t he ca se of t he i ncr ement a l model t hes e pr ot ot yp es evol ve i nt o t he
c omp l et e, fi na l s yst em, a
pr oc ess knowna s
evol ut io naryprototy p i ng.
Inamor eit er a t ive
sit ua t ion, t hepr ot ot yp es ma ybedisca r ded
i nfa vor ofa fr eshi mp l ement a t i onoft hef i na ldes i gn. Thisa ppr oa chisknowna s
throw aw ayprototyp i ng.
An exa mp l e t ha t nor ma l l y fa lls wit hi n t his t hr owa wa y ca t egor y is
r ap i d prototy p i ng
i n whic h a si mp l e
exa mp l e

oft hepr op os edsyst emisqu ic klyconst r uct edi nt heea r l yst a gesofdevel op ment . S ucha
pr ot ot yp e
ma y c onsist of onl y a few scr een i ma ges t ha t gi ve a n i ndi ca t ion of how t he s yst em
wi l l i nt er a ct wit h it s
user s a nd wha t ca pa bilit i es it wi ll ha ve. T he goa l
is not t o pr oduc e a wor ki ng ver si on of t he pr oduct but t o
obt a i n a demonst r a t ion t ool t ha t ca n be used t o cla r if y com mu nica t i on b et ween
t he pa r t ies i nvol ved i n t h e
soft wa r e devel op ment pr oc ess . F or exa mp l e, ra pid prot ot yp es ha ve pr oved a dva
nt a geous i n cla r
if yin g
syst em r equ ir ement s dur i ng r equ ir ement s a na lys is or a s a ids dur ing sa l es pr es
ent a t ions t o p ot ent ia l c li ent s.

A l ess f or ma l i nca r na t i on of i ncr ementa l a nd it er a t ive i dea s t ha t ha s been us ed

f or yea r s by c omput er
ent husia st s/ hobbyist sis knowna s
ope n
-
so ur ced eve lop me nt.

fr eesoft wa r e ispr oduc ed. P er ha pst he most pr omi nent exa mp l eist heL i nuxop er a t
ingsyst em whos e op en
-

sour c e devel op ment wa s or igi na ll y l ed by L i nus T or va lds. T he op en

-
s our c e devel op ment of
a soft wa r e
pa cka ge pr oc eeds a s fol l ows: A si ngl e a ut hor wr it es a n i nit ia l ver si on of t he soft
wa r e (usua ll y t o fu lf il l his
or her own needs) a nd p ost s t he sour c e c ode a nd it s docu ment a t i on on t he Int er
net . Fr om t her e it ca n b e
downloa ded a nd used b y ot her s
wit hout c ha r ge. B ec a use t hes e ot her us er s ha ve t he s our c e c ode a nd
docu ment a t ion, t hey a r e a bl e t o modi f y or enha nc e t he soft wa r e t o fit t heir own
needs or t o c or r ect er r or s
t ha t t hey f i nd. T hey r ep or t t hes e c ha nges t o t he or i gi na l a ut hor , who i nc or
por a t es

t hem i nt o t he p os t e d
ver si on of t he s oft wa r e, ma king t his ext ended ver si on a va ila bl e f or fur t her modif
ica t i ons. In pr a ct ice, it is
poss ib l e f or a soft wa r e pa cka ge t o evol ve t hr ough s ever a l ext ensi ons i n a singl e
week.

P er ha ps t he most pr onou nc ed s hift fr o

m t he wa t er fa ll model is r epr es ent ed b y t he c oll ect ion of
met hodol ogi es known a s
agile met hods,
ea c h of whi c h pr o
-

pos es ea r l y a nd qu ic k i mp l ement a t ion on a n

i ncr ement a l ba sis, r espons i veness t o cha ngi ng r equ ir ement s, a nd a r educ ed emp
ha sis on r igor ous
r eq
uir ement s a na l ys is a nd des i gn. One exa mpl e of an a gi l e met ho d is
ext re me prog r ammi ng (X P).
F ol l owi ng t he XP model, soft wa r e is devel op ed b y a tea m of l ess t ha n a doz en
indi vi dua ls wor ki ng i n a
com mu na l
wor kspa c e

wher e t hey fr eel y sha r e i dea s a nd a ss ist ea c

h ot her i n t he devel op ment pr oj ect . T he
soft wa r e is devel op ed i ncr ement a l l y by mea ns of r ep ea t ed da il y c ycl es of i nf or
ma l r equir ement s a na lys is,
des i gni ng, i mp l ement i ng, a nd t est i ng. T hus, new expa nded ver si ons of t he soft wa
r e pa cka ge a ppea r on a
r egula r b

i ncr ement s. In su mma r y, a gi l e met hods ar e cha r a ct er i z ed by fl ex ib i lit y, whi c h

is i n st ar k cont r a st t o t he
wa t er fa ll model t ha t conjur es t he i ma ge of ma na ger
s a nd pr ogr a mmer s wor ki ng i n i ndi vi dua l off ic es whi l e
r igi dl y p er for mi ng wel l
-
def i ned por t i ons of t he over a ll soft wa r e devel op ment t a sk.

T he c ont r a st s dep ict ed b y c ompa r ing t he wa t er fa ll mod el a nd XP r evea l t he br

ea dt h of met hodol ogi es t ha t
a r e bei ng a ppli
ed t o t he soft wa r e devel op ment pr oc es s in t he hop es of f indi ng b et t er wa ys t o c
onst r uct
r el ia blesoft wa r ei na neff ic i ent ma nner . R es ea r chi nt hefi el disa nongoi ngpr oc ess.
P r ogr essisbei ngma de,
but muc h wor k r ema i ns t o b e done.

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27. 27.

134.

S oftware
E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware E ngi nee r i ng Met h odolog ies (II )

Akeyp oi nt ist ha t t omodi f ysoft wa r eone must under st a ndt hepr ogr a mor a tlea st t
hep er t i nent par t soft he
pr ogr a m. Ga ini ng such a n under st a ndi ng is oft en dif fi c ult enou gh i n t he ca s e of s
ma l l pr ogr
a ms a nd wou l d
be c l os e t o i mp oss ibl e when dea li ng wit h la r ge s oft wa r e s yst ems if it wer e not f
or
mod ul ari ty

t ha t is, t he
di vis i on of soft wa r e i nt o ma na gea bl e u nit s, gener i ca l l y ca ll ed
mo d ules,
ea c h of whic h dea ls wit h onl y a
Modules c ome i n a va r i et y of f or ms. W e ha ve a lr ea dy s een t ha t i n t he c ont ext of
t he i mp er a t ive pa r a digm,
modu l es a ppea r a s funct ions. In c ont r a st, t he obj ect
-
or i ent ed pa ra di gm
us es ob j ect s a s t he ba sic modu la r
const it u ent s. T hes edist i nct i onsa r ei mp or t a nt beca us et hey det er mi net heu nder l
yi nggoa l dur i ngt hei nit ia l
soft wa r e des ign pr oc ess . Is t he goa l t o r epr es ent t he over a ll t a sk a s i ndivi dua l,
ma na gea bl e pr oc ess es or t o
i den
t i f y t he ob j ect s in t he s yst em a nd under st a nd how t hey i nt er a ct ?

T o il lust r a t e, let us c ons i der how t he pr oc ess of devel opi ng a si mp l e modula r pr

ogr a m t o s i mu la t e a t ennis
ga me mi ght pr ogr ess in t he i mp er a t i ve a nd t he ob j ect
-
or i ent ed pa ra di gms. In t he i mp e
r a t ive pa r a digm we
begi nbyc ons i der i ngt hea ct i onst ha t must t a kep la c e. B eca use ea c hvol l eyb egi
nswit ha pla yer ser vi ngt he

per ha psa bit ofpr oba

bilit y)wou l dc omput et hei nit ia lspeeda nddir ect i onoft heba ll.
Next ,

we wou l dnee d
t odet er mi net hepa t hoft heba l l(W i l lit hit t henet ?W her ewil lit bou nc e?). W emi ght p
la nonpla c ingt hes e
comput a t ions in a not her fu nct i on na med C omput eP a t h. T he ne
xt st ep mi ght b e t o det er mi ne if t he ot her
pla yer is a ble t o r et ur n t he ba ll, a nd if
so,

pla n on pla c i ng t hes e c omputa t i ons i n a funct i on na med R et ur n.

C ont i nui ngi nt hisfa shi on, we might a rr ive

a t t he modul a rst r uct ur edepi ct edbyt he

str uct urec har t
show n
i n F igur e 99, in whic h funct i ons ar e r epr es ent ed by r ect a ngl es a nd funct i on dep
endenc i es (i mp l ement ed by
funct i on ca lls) ar e r epr es ent ed by ar r ows. In par t icula r , t he cha r t indica t es t ha t t
he
ent ir e ga me is over s een
by a funct i on na med C ont r olGa me, a nd t o per f or m it s ta sk, C ont r olGa me ca l ls on
t he ser vi c es of t h e
funct i ons S er ve, R et ur n, C omput eP a t h, a nd Up da t eS c or e.

Not e t ha t t he st r uct ur e cha r t does not indica t e how ea ch funct i on is t o per for
m it s t a sk. Ra t her , it mer el y
i dent i fi es t he fu nct i ons a nd i ndi ca t es t he dep endenc i es a mong t he fu nct i ons. In
r ea l it y, t he fu nct i on
C ont r olGa me mi ght p er for m it s t a sk by fir st ca ll i ng t he S er ve fu nct i on, t hen r
ep ea t edl y ca ll i ng on t he
funct i ons C omput eP a t h

a nd R et ur n unt i l one r ep or t s a miss , a nd fi na l l y ca ll i ng on t he ser vi c es of

Up da t eS c or e bef or e r ep ea t i ng t he whol e pr oc ess by a ga i n ca ll i ng on S er ve.

At t his st a ge we ha ve obta i ned only a ver y si mplist ic outli ne of t he desir ed pr ogr a

m, but our poi nt ha s
a
lr ea dy b een ma de. I n a cc or da nc e wit h t he i mp er a t i ve pa ra digm, we ha ve b een
desi gni ng t he pr ogr a m b y
cons i der i ngt hea ct ivit i est ha t must beper for meda ndaret her ef or eobt a i ni nga des i
gnin whi c ht he modu l es
a r e funct i ons.

Fi gure
99
: A si mpl e st ruct ure chart

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28. 28.

135.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Co upl i ng

W e ha ve i nt r oduc ed modu la r it y a s a wa y of pr oduc i ng ma na gea bl e s oft wa r e. T

he i dea is t ha t a ny fut ur e
modif i ca t ion wi ll l ikel y a ppl y t o onl y a few of t he modul es, a ll owi ng t he p er son
ma ki ng t he modi fi ca t io n
t o c onc ent r a t e on t ha t por t ion of t he s yst em r a t he
r t ha n st r uggl i ng wit h t he ent ir e pa c ka ge. T his, of c our se,
dep ends on t he a ss umpt i on t ha t cha nges i n one modu l e wil l not u nknowi ngl y a
ffect ot her modu l es i n t h e
syst em. C ons equ ent l y, a goa l when des igni ng a modula r syst em s houl d b e t o ma xi
mi z e i ndep endenc
e
a mong modul es or , in ot her wor ds, t o mi ni mi z e t he li nka ge b et ween modu l es
( known a s int er modu l e
co up l i ng
). I ndeed, one met r i ct ha t ha sbeenus edt o me a sur et he comp l ex it y ofa soft wa r es yst
em(a ndt hus
obt a i n a mea ns of est i ma t i ng t he exp ens e of
ma i nt a i ni ng t he s oft wa r e) is t o mea sur e it s i nt er modu l e
coup l ing.

Int er modu l ec oupl i ngoccur si nsever a lf or ms. Oneis

co ntro lco upl i ng,
whi c hoc cur s whena modu l epa s s es
cont r ol of ex ecut i on t o a not her , a s in a funct i on ca ll. T he st r uct ur e cha r t in F igur
e

99r epr es ent s t he c ont r ol

coup l ing t ha t ex ist s bet ween fu nct i ons. In pa r t icula r , the a r r ow fr om t he modu l
e C ont r olGa me t o S er ve
i ndi ca t es t ha t t he f or mer pa sses cont r ol t o t he la t t er . It is a lso cont r ol c oupli ng
t ha t is r epr es ent ed i n F igur e
100, wher e t h
e a rr ows t r a ce t he pa t h of c ont r ol a s it is pa ss ed fr om ob j ect t o obj ect .

Fi gure
100

Anot her for m of i nt er modul e c oupl i ng is

d at a co u
p l i ng,
whi ch r ef er s t o t he s ha r ing of da t a bet wee n
modu l es. If t wo modu l es i nt er a ct wit h t he sa me it em of da ta , t hen modif ica t i ons
ma de t o one modu l e ma y
a ffect t heot her , a ndmodif ica t i onst ot hef or ma t oft heda ta it selfc ou l dha ver ep er
cussi onsi nb ot h
modul es.

Da t a coupl i ng b et ween fu nct i ons ca n occur in t wo for ms. One is by exp l ic it l y pa ss

ing da t a fr om on e
funct i ont oa not her i nt hef or mofpa ra met er s. S uchc oupli ng isr epr es ent edi na st r
uct ur ec ha r t bya narr ow
bet ween t he funct i ons t ha t is la bel ed t
o i ndica t e t he da t a bei ng pa ss ed. T he dir ect i on of t he a rr ow i ndica t es
t he dir ect i on in whic h t he it em is t r a nsfer r ed.

S i mila r da t acoupli ngoccur sbet weenob j ect sina nobj e ct

-
or i ent eddes ign. F or exa mp l e, whenP la yer Aa s ks
t he ob j ect Judge t o eva lua t e i
t s ser ve (s ee F i gur e 100), it must pa ss t he t r a ject or y i nfor ma t i on t o Judge. O n
t he ot her ha nd, one of t he b enef it s of t he ob j ect
-
or i ent e d pa ra di gm is t ha t it inher ent l y t ends t o r educ e da t a
coup l ing b et ween ob j ect s t o a mi ni mu m. T his is beca use t he met hod
s wit hi n a n ob j ect t end t o i nc lu de a l l

In

t ur n, t her e is no need t o pa s s t ha t infor ma t i on t o ot her obj ect s a nd t hus int er

obj ect da t a coup l ing is
mi nimi z ed.

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In cont r a st t o pa ss ing da t a expl ic it l y a s pa ra met er s, dat a ca n be shar ed a mong

modu l es i mp l ic it l y i n t he
for m of
glo b al d at a,
whic h a r e da t a
it ems t ha t ar e a utoma t i ca l ly a va i la bl e t o a ll modul es t hr oughout t he
syst em, a s oppos ed t o l oca l da t a it ems t ha t ar e a cc ess ib l e onl y wit hi n a pa r t
icula r modu l e u nl ess expl i cit l y
pa ssedt oa not her . Most hi gh
-
l evella ngua gespr ovidewa ysofi mp l ement i ngbot h

gl oba la ndl oca lda t a , but

t he use of gl oba l da t a shoul d b e emp l oyed wit h ca ut ion. T he pr obl em is t ha t a per
son t r yi ng t o modi f y a
modu l et ha t isdep endent ongl oba lda t a ma yfi ndit di ff i cult t oident if yhowt hemodu l
ei nqu est i onint er a ct s
wit h ot her mo

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Mod ule 136

29. 29.

136.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Co hes io n

Jus t a s imp or t a nt a s mi ni mi zi ng t he c oup li ng b et ween modu l es is ma xi mi zi ng t

he int er na l bi ndi ng wit hi n
ea c h modu l e. T het er m
co hesio n
r ef er st ot his i nt er na lb i ndi ng or , in ot her wor ds, t he degr ee ofr ela t edness

devel op ment of a syst em a nd cons i der t he ent ir e soft wa r e l if e c yc l e. If it

bec omes nec ess a r y t o ma ke

cha nges i n a modul e, t he ex ist enc e of a va r iet y of a ct ivi t i es wit hi n it ca n confus e
wha t woul d ot her wis e b e
a simp l epr oc ess . T hus, ina ddit i ont os eeki ngl ow i nt er modu l e c oupl i ng, soft wa r e
des i gner sst r ivef or hi gh
i nt r a modu l e c
ohes i on. A wea k f or m of c ohes ion is known a s
logic al co hes io n.
T his is t he cohesi on wit hin
a modul e i nduc ed b y t he fa ct t ha t it s int er na l el ement s per for m a ct i vit i es l ogi
ca l l y si mi la r in na t ur e. F or

s commu nica t i on wit h t he out si de wor l d. T he

com mu nica t i on. However , t het opi csoft hec ommu nica t i onca nva r ygr ea t l y. S
omema ydea lwit hobt a i nin g
da t a , wher ea s

ot her s dea l wit h r epor t i ng r esult s.

Ast r onger for mofc ohes ionisknowna s

func tio nalco hesio n,
whi ch mea nst ha t a llt hepa r tsoft he modul e
a r e focus ed on t he p er for ma nc e of a singl e a ct i vit y. I n an i mp er a t ive des i gn,
funct i ona l c ohesi on ca n oft e n
be i n
cr ea sed b y isola t i ng subt a sks in ot her modul es a nd t hen usi ng t hes e modu l es a s a
bstr a ct t ools. T his is
demonst r a t ed i n our t ennis si mu la t ion exa mp l e (s ee a ga i n F igur e 99) wher e t he
modu l e C ont r olGa me us es
t he ot her modu l es a s a bstra ct t ools so t ha t it ca n
conc ent r a t e on over s eei ng t he ga me r a t her t ha n bei ng
dist r a ct ed by t he det a i ls of s er ving, r et ur ni ng, a nd ma i nt a i ni ng t he sc or e.

Inob j ect
-
or i ent eddes i gns, ent ir eobject sa r eusua ll yonl yl ogi ca l l ycohes i veb eca uset he met
hods wit hina n
ob j ect oft en p er f
or m l oos el y r ela t ed a ct i vit i es

t he only c om mon b ond bei ng t ha t t hey a r e a ct ivit i es

per f or med by t he sa me obj ect . F or exa mp l e, in our t ennis si mula t i on exa mp l e,
ea c h pla yer obj ect cont a i ns
met hodsf or ser vi nga swel la sr et ur ni ngt heba l l, whi c ha r esignif i
ca nt l ydiff er ent a ct ivit i es. S ucha nobj ect
wou l d t her ef or e b e only a logica l l y cohes i ve modu l e. However , soft wa r e des
igner s shoul d st r ive t o ma ke
ea c hi ndi vi dua lmet hodwit hi na nobj ect funct i ona ll yc ohes i ve. T ha tis, event hou ght
heobj ect i nit sent ir et
y
is onl y l ogica l l y cohes i ve, ea c h met hod wit hi n a n obj ect shou l d per f or m onl y one
fu nct i ona ll y c ohesi v e
t a sk (F igur e 101).

Fi gure
101
: L ogical and f unct i onal cohesi on wi t hin anobject

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Mod ule 137

30. 30.

137.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: I nfor matio n H id i ng

One of t he c or ner st ones of good modu la r des i gn is ca pt ur ed in t he c onc ept of

i nfor matio n hid i ng,
whi c h
r ef er st ot her est r ict i onofi nf or ma t i ont oa spec if icp or t i onofa soft wa r es yst em. H
er et het er m
i nf ormati on
shoul d b e i nt er pr et ed i n a br oa d sens e, i nc lu di ng a ny knowl edge a bout t he st r
uct ur e a nd cont ent s of a
pr ogr a m unit . As such, it inc ludes da
t a, t he t yp e of da ta str uct ur es used, enc odi ng syst ems, t he int er na l
comp osit i ona l st r uct ur e of a modu l e, t he l ogica l st r uct ur e of a pr ocedur a l unit ,
a nd a ny ot her fa ct or s
r ega r di ng t he int er na l pr oper t i es of a modu l e. T he poi nt of i nf or ma t ion hi di ng
is t o
keep t he a ct ions of
modu l es fr om ha ving unnec essa r y dep endenc i es or ef f ect s on ot her modu l es. Ot
her wis e, t he va li dit y of a
modu l e ma y be compr omis ed, p er ha ps by er r or s in t he devel op ment of ot her
modul es or by mis gu i ded
eff or t s dur ing soft wa r e ma i nt ena nc e
. If, for exa mp l e, a modu l e does not r est r ict t he use of it s int er na l da t a
fr om ot her modul es, t hen t ha t da ta ma y bec ome c or r upted by ot her modul es. Or ,
if one modu l e is des i gned

ift ha t i nt er na lst r uct ur eisa lt er ed.

It is i mp or t a nt t o not e t ha t inf or ma t ion hidi ng ha s t wo i nca r na t ions

one a s a des i gn goa l, t he ot her a s a n

i mp l ementa t i on goa l. A module shou l d be des i gned so tha t ot her modules do not
need a cc ess t o it s int er na l
i nf
or ma t ion, a nd a modu l e s houl d b e i mp l ement ed i n a ma nner t ha t r einf or c es it s
bounda r i es. Exa mpl es of
t he f or mer a r e ma xi mi z i ng c ohesi on a nd mi ni miz i ng c oupl i ng. Exa mp l es of t he
la t t er i nvol ve t he us e of
l oca l va r ia bl es, a pplyi ng enca psula t i on, a nd usi ng we
ll
-

def i ned c ont r ol st r uct ur es.

F ina l l y we shou l d not e t ha t inf or ma t ion hi di ng is cent r al t o t he t heme of a bstr a

ct ion a nd t he use of a bstra ct
by
it s us er , a llowingt heus er t oc onc ent r a t eont hela r ger a pplica t i ona t ha nd. I nt his s
ens et hen, i nf or ma t io n
hi di ng cor r esp onds t o t he c onc ept of sea li ng t he a bstra ct t ool i n muc h t he sa me
wa y a s a ta mp er pr oof
encl osur e ca n be used t o sa fegua r d compl ex a n
d pot ent ia l ly da nger ous el ect r onic equ ip ment . Bot h pr ot ect
t heir user s fr om t he da nger s i nsi de a s well a s pr ot ect t heir int er i or s fr om i nt r
usi on fr om t heir user s.

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31. 31.

138.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Co mpo ne nts

W eha vea lr ea dyment i onedt ha t oneobst a cl e

i nt hefi el dofsoft wa r eengi neer i ngist hela ckofpr efa br ica t e d

-
t he
-

a ppr oa ch t o s oft wa r e devel op ment pr omis es hop e i n t his r ega r d. In pa r t icula r ,

t he obj ect
-
or i
ent e d
pr ogr a mmi ng pa ra di gm is pr ovi ng esp ec ia l l y usefu l beca use ob j ect s for m c omp l
et e, self
-
c ont a ined u nit s
t ha t ha ve c l ea r ly defi ned i nt er fa ces wit h t heir envir onment s. Onc e a n ob j ect , or
mor e c or r ect l y a cla ss , ha s
beendesi gnedt ofulf i l lacer t a inr ol e
, it ca nbeusedt ofulf il lt ha t r ol ei na nypr ogr a mr equ ir i ngt ha tser vi c e.
Mor e
-

over , i nher it a nc epr ovi desa mea nsofr efi ningpr efa br ica t edob j ect defi nit i onsi nt
hos eca sesinwhic h
t he defi nit ions must be cust omi z ed t o conf or m t o t he needs of a spec i
f ic a pp lica t i on. It is not s ur pr is i ng,
t hen, t ha t t he obj ect
-
or i ent ed pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges C ++, Ja va , a nd C # ar e a ccompa ni ed b y c oll ect
ions

r ol es. In p
a r t icula r , C ++ is ass ocia t ed wit h t he C ++ St a nda r d T emp la t e Libr a r y, t he Ja va
pr ogr a mmi ng
envir onment is a ccompa ni ed by t he Ja va Appl ica t i on P r ogr a mmer I nt er fa ce ( AP
I), a nd C # pr ogr a mmer s
ha ve a cc ess t o t he . NET F ra mewor k C la ss Libr ar y.

T he fa ct t ha t obj ec
t s a nd cla ss es ha ve t he p ot ent ia l of pr ovi di ng pr efa br ica t ed buil di ng bl oc ks f or
soft wa r e
des i gn does not mea n t ha t t hey a r e idea l. One pr obl em is t ha t t hey pr ovi de r ela t i
vel y s ma ll bl oc ks fr o m
whic h t o bu il d. T hus, a n obj ect is a ct ua ll y a spec ia l c a se of
t he mor e gener a l c onc ept of a
co mpo ne nt,
whic h is, by def i nit i on, a r eusa ble u nit of soft wa r e. I n pr a ct ice, most component s
a r e ba sed on t he ob j ect
-
or i ent edpa r a digma ndt a ket he f or mofa col l ect i on of one or mor e obj ect st ha t
funct i ona sasel f
-
c ont a i ned

unit .

R es ea r ch in t he devel op ment a nd us e of c omp onent s ha s led t o t he emer gi ng f i el

d known a s
co mpo ne nt
ar c hite ct ure
(a ls o known a s comp onent
-
ba sed soft wa r e engi neer i ng) i n whi c h t he t ra dit i ona l r ol e of a
pr ogr a mmer is r epla c ed by a
co mpo ne nt ass e mb l er
w
ho const r uct s soft wa r e syst ems fr om pr efa br ica t ed
comp onent s t ha t , in ma ny devel op ment envir onment s , ar e displa yed a s ic ons i n a
gr a phica l i nt er fa ce.
R a t her t ha nb ei nvol vedwit ht hei nt er na lpr ogr a mmi ngoft hec omp onent s, t hemet
hodol ogyofa comp onent
a
ss emb l er is t o s el ect p er t inent comp onent s fr om c oll e ct i ons of pr edef i ned c omp
onent s a nd t hen c onnect
t hem, wit hmi ni ma lcust omi za t i on, t oobt a int hedes ir edfunct i ona l it y. Indeed, a pr
oper t yofa wel l
-
des i gne d
comp onent is t ha t it ca n be ext ended t o enc om
pa ss f ea t ur es of a par t icula r a pplica t i on wit hout i nt er na l
modif i ca t ions.
An a r ea wher e c omp onent a r chit ect ur es ha ve f ou nd f er t il e gr ou nd is i n s ma r t
phone syst ems. Due t o t he
r esour c e c onst r a int s of t hes e devic es, a pplica t ions a r e a ct ua lly a set of colla b o
r a t ing c omponent s, ea c h of
whic h pr ovi des some dis cr et e fu nct i on for t he a pplica t ion. F or exa mpl e, ea ch
disp la y scr een wit hi n a n
a pplica t i on is usua ll y a sepa ra t e component . B ehi nd t he sc enes, t her e ma y ex ist
ot her ser vic e c omp onent s
t o st or e a nd a cc ess in
f or ma t i on on a memor y ca r d, per for m some c ont i nu ous funct i on (such a s pla ying
music ), or a cc ess i nf or ma t i on over t he I nt er net . Ea ch of t hes e c omp onent s is i
ndi vi dua l ly st a r t ed a nd
st opp ed a s needed t o ser vic e t he us er eff ic i ent ly; however , t he a pplica t i on
a ppea rs a s a sea ml ess ser i es of
displa ys a nd a ct ions.

As i defr omt he mot i va t iont o li mi t t heus e ofsyst emr es our c es, t hec omp onent a r
chit ect ur e ofs ma r t phones
pa ys di vi dends i n i nt egr a t ion bet ween a pplica t i ons. F or exa mp l e, Fa ceb ook (a
well
-
known socia l
n
et wor ki ng syst em) when ex ecut ed on a sma r t phone ma y us e t he c omp onent s of t
he c ont a ct s applica t i on
t o a dd a ll F a ceb ook fr iends a s cont a ct s. F ur t her mor e, the t el ephony a pplica t i on
(t he one t ha t ha ndl es t h e
funct i onsoft hephone), ma ya lsoa cc ess t he c ont a c

scr een (a l ong wit h his or her la st Fa ceb ook post ).

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Mod ule 139

32. 32.

139.
S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Des ig n

Patte r ns

Ani ncr ea si ngl ypower fu lt oolf or soft wa r e engi neer sist hegr owi ngc ol l ect i onof desi
gnpa t t er ns. A
desig n
patte r n
is a pr e
-
devel op ed model f or sol vi ng a r ecur ri ng pr obl em i n soft wa r e des i gn. F or exa mp
l e, t h e
Ada pt er pa t t er n pr ovi des a solut i on

t o a pr obl em t ha t oft en oc cur s when c onst r uct ing soft wa r e fr o m

pr efa br ica t ed modu l es. Inpa rt icula r ,apr efa br ica t ed modu l e ma yha vet hefunct i
ona l it yneededt osol vet h e
pr obl ema t ha ndbut ma y not ha vea nint er fa c et ha t iscompa t ibl e wit ht hecur r ent a p
plica t ion. Insuchca s es

pr efa br ica t ed modul e t o be

us ed i n t he a ppli ca t i on.

Anot her wel l

-
est a bl ished des i gnpa t t er nist heD ec or a t or pa t t er n. It pr ovidesa mea ns of desi gni
nga syst e m
t ha t per for ms diff er ent c omb i na t i ons of t he sa me a ct i vit i es dep endi ng on t he s
it ua t ion a t t he t i me. S uch
syst ems ca n l ea d t
o a n expl os i on of opt i ons t ha t , wit hout car eful desi gn, ca n r esult in enor mousl y c
omp l ex
soft wa r e. However , t he D ec or a t or pat t er n pr ovides a sta nda r di z ed wa y of i mp l
ement i ng such syst ems t ha t
l ea ds t o a ma na gea ble s olut i on.

T hei dent if ica t i onofr ecur r ing

pr obl ems a s wel la s t hecr ea t iona ndca t a logi ngofdes i gnpa t t er ns for s ol vi n g
t hem is a n ongoi ng c onsi der a t ions of good des i gn pr inc ipl es such a s mi ni mi z ing c
oup li ng a nd ma xi mi zi ng
cohes i on pla y a n i mp or t a nt r ol e i n t he devel op ment of des i gn pa t t er ns.

T he

soft wa r e devel op ment pa cka ges suc h a s t he Ja va pr ogr a mmi ng envir onment s pr
ovi ded b y Or a cl e a nd t h e
. NET Fr a mewor k pr ovi ded by M icr os oft . I ndeed, ma
ny of t he t emp la t es f ou nd i n t hes e t ool kit s a r e
ess ent ia l ly des i gn pa t t er n skel et ons t ha t l ea d t o r ea dy
-
ma de, hi gh
-
qua l it y solut i ons t o des ign pr ob l ems.

In cl os i ng, we shou l d ment i on t ha t t he emer genc e of design pa t t er ns in soft wa r e

engi neer i ng is a n exa m
pl e
of how di ver s e fi el ds ca n c ont r ibut e t o ea c h ot her . The or igi ns of des ign pa t t er
ns l i e i n t he r es ea r ch of
C hr ist op her Al exa nder i n t r a dit i ona l a r chit ect ur e. His goa l wa s t o i dent if y f ea
t ur es t ha t cont r ibut e t o hi gh
-
qua l it y a r chit ect ur a l des i gns f or bui
ldings or buil ding c omp l ex es a nd t hen t o devel op des i gn pa t t er ns t ha t
i nc or por a t ed t hos e f ea t ur es. T oda y, ma ny of his idea s ha ve b een i ncor p or a t ed
int o s oft wa r e des i gn a nd his
wor k c ont i nu es t o b e a n i nspir a t ion f or ma ny s oft wa r e engi neer s pr oc ess i n
soft w
a r e engi neer i ng.

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33. 33.

140.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Des ig n Patte r ns E xamp les

Fac tory des ig n Patter n:

T he F a ct or y D es i gn P a t t er n (F i gur e 102) is a c ommo nl y used des i gn pa t t er n

wher e we need t o cr ea t e
Loos el y C oupl ed S yst em. Ba si ca ll y, it comes under
C rea t i ona l P a t t er n a nd it is used t o cr ea t e i nst a nc e a nd
r eus eit . F a ct or yP at t er nisba sedonr ea lt i mefa ct or yc onc ept . Asweknow, a fa ct or
yisusedt oma nufa ct ur e
somet hi nga sper t her equir ement a ndifnewit emsa r eaddedi nt hema nufa ct ur ingpr oc
ess ,

t hefa ct or yst ar t s
ma nufa ct ur ingt hos eit emsa swell. F a ct or ycla sspr ovidesa bstr a ct ionbet weenC l i ent
a ndC arwhencr ea t ing
t hei nst a nc e oft heC a r[Honda , BMWet c]incr ea si ngl ypower fult oolfor soft wa r eengi
neer sist hegr owi ng
col l ect i on of des i gn
Fi gure
102
: Fact ory
Desi gn Pat t ern

S hop p i ng Cart Des ig n Patter n:

It ha s been s hown i n t he F i gur e 103.

Us e when t he us er ca n possib l y buy mor e t ha n one pr oduct .

Us e when t he us er ca n poss ib l y buy mor e t ha n one

i nst a nc e of a pr oduct .

Us e when t he us er ma y wa nt t o r et ur n la t er t o car r y on shoppi ng

Us e when t he us er ma y wa nt t o r et ur n a t a la t er t i me t o conduct pa yment

Do not us e when you onl y ha ve one pr odu ct t o sel l.

Do not us e when your sit e is a rr a nged i n a wa y
, so t ha t it does not ma ke s ens e f or t he user t o buy
mor e t ha n one pr oduct a t a t ime (f or inst a nc e f or App li ca t ion S er vic e P r ovi der s
(AS P s) a llowi ng
a user t o upgr a de his s er vic e).

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Fi gure
103
: Shoppi ng C art Desi gn Pat t ern

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Mod ule 141

34. 34.

141.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: S cope o f Q ual ity Ass ur ance

In t he ea r ly yea r s of comput i ng, t he pr obl em of pr oduc i ng qua l it y soft wa r e focus

ed on r emovi n g
pr ogr a mmi ng er r or st ha t occur r ed dur i ngi mp l em ent a t i on. La t er int hiss ect i on
we wi ll discuss t hepr ogr ess
t ha t ha s been ma de in t his dir ect i on. However , t oda y, t he sc op e of s oft wa r e qua
lit y c ont r ol ext ends fa r
beyond t he debu ggi ng pr oc ess , wit h bra nc hes inc l uding t he i mpr ovement of soft wa
r e engi neer i ng
pr oc edur es, t he devel op ment o
f t r a ini ng pr ogr a ms t ha t i n ma ny ca ses l ea d t o c er t if ica t i on, a nd t h e
est a bl ishment of st a nda r ds on whi c h sou nd soft wa r e engi neer i ng ca n be ba s ed. I
n t his r ega r d, we ha ve
a lr ea dy not ed t he r ol e of or ga ni za t i ons suc h a s IS O, IEEE, a nd AC M in i mpr oving
pr of e
ssi ona l is m a nd
est a bl ishi ng st a nda r ds for a ss ess i ng qua l it y c ont r ol wi t hi n s oft wa r e devel op
ment c ompa ni es. A sp ec if i c
exa mp l e is t he IS O 9000 ser i es of st a nda r ds, whi ch a ddr ess nu mer ous i ndust r ia l
a ct i vit i es suc h a s des i gn,
pr oduct i on, inst a l la t ion, a nd s e
r vic i ng. Anot her exa mpl e is IS O/ IEC 15504, whic h is a set of st a nda r ds
devel op ed joi nt ly b y t he IS O a nd t he I nt er na t i ona l Elec t r ot ec hnica l C om miss i
on (IEC ).

Ma ny ma j or soft wa r e cont r a ct or s now r equ ir e t ha t t he or ga niza t i ons t hey hir e

t o devel op soft wa r e me
et
such st a nda r ds. Asar esult , soft wa r e devel op ment compa ni es a r e est a blishi ng
softw are q uali ty ass ur ance
(S Q A)
gr oups, whic ha r ec ha r gedwit hover s eei nga ndenf or ci ngt hequa l it yc ont r ols yst
emsa dopt edb yt he
or ga niza t i on. T hus, in t he ca se of t he
t ra dit i ona l wa t er fa ll model, t he S QA gr oup wou l d be cha r ged wit h
t he t a sk of a ppr ovi ng t he s oft wa r e r equ ir ement s spec if i ca t ion b ef or e t he des i
gn st a ge bega n or a ppr ovi ng
t he desi gn a nd it s r ela t ed docu ment s befor e i mp l ement a t ion wa s init ia t ed.

S ever a l t he

st epi nt hedevel op ment pr oc essbea ccur a t el ydocu ment edf or futur er ef er enc e.
However , t hisgoa lc onfl i ct s
wit h hu ma n na t ur e. An iss u e is t he t empt a t ion t o ma ke

decis i ons or cha nge dec isi ons wit hout upda t i ng t h e
r ela t eddocu ment s. T her esult ist hec ha nc et ha t r ec or dswi llb ei nc or r ect a ndhenc
et heir usea t fut ur est a ges
wi ll b e mis l ea di ng. H er ei n li es a n i mp or t a nt benef it of C AS E t ools. T hey ma ke
suc h t a sks a s
r edr a wi ng
dia gr a msa ndupda t ing da t adict i ona r ies muc h ea si er t ha nwit h ma nua l met hods. C
ons equ ent l y, upda t esar e
mor el i kel yt obe ma dea ndt hef i na ldocu ment a t i onis mor eli kel yt obea ccur a t e.(T
hisexa mpl eisonl yone
ofma nyi nst a nc esinwhic hs oft wa r
eengi neer ingmust c op ewit ht hefa ult sofhu ma nna t ur e. Ot her si nc lu de
t he i nevit a bl e p er sona l it y c onf l ict s, jea lous i es, a nd ego cla shes t ha t a r ise when
p eopl e wor k t oget her . )

Anot her qua lit y

-
or i ent ed t heme is t he us e of r evi ews in whic h va r ious pa r t ies i
nvol ved i n a soft wa r e
devel op ment pr oj ect meet t ocons i der a spec if ict opi c. R evi ewsoc cur t hr oughout t
hesoft wa r edevel op ment
pr oc ess , t a king t he for m of r equ ir ement s r evi ews, desi gn r evi ews, a nd i mp l
ement a t i on r evi ews. T hey ma y
a ppea r a s a pr ot ot yp e demo
ns t r a t ion i n t he ea r l y s t a ges of r equir ement s a na lys is , a s a s tr uct ur ed
wa l kt hr ou gha mong memb er soft hesoft wa r edes i gnt ea m, or a scoor di na t iona
mongpr ogr a mmer swhoar e
i mp l ement i ng r ela t ed por t ions of t he desi gn. S uch r evi ews, on a r ecur r ing ba sis,
pr o
vi de c ommu ni ca t io n
cha nnels t hr ou gh whic h misu nder st a ndi ngs ca n be a voi ded a nd er r or s ca n be cor r
ect ed b ef or e t hey gr ow
i nt o disa st er s. T he si gnif ica nc e of r evi ews is ex emp l if i ed by t he fa ct t ha t t hey a r
e spec if ica l l y a ddr ess ed i n
t he IEEE S t a nda r d for S of
t wa r e R evi ews, known a s IEEE 1028.
st a kehol der s a nd t he s oft wa r e devel op ment t ea m a t whic h t he f i na l s oft wa r e r
equ ir ement s sp ec if ica t i on i s
a ppr oved.
I ndeed, t his a ppr ova l ma r ks t he end of t he f or ma l r equ ir ement s a na l ysis p ha se a
nd is t he ba sis
on whi ch t he r ema i ni ng devel op ment wi l l pr ogr ess . However , a ll r evi ews a r e si
gni fi ca nt , a nd f or t he sa ke
of qua lit y c ont r ol, t hey shou l d be docu ment ed a s par t of

t he ongoing r ec or d ma i nt ena nc e pr oc ess .

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Mod ule 142

35. 35.

142.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware T esti ng

Wher ea s soft wa r e qua l it y a ss ur a nce is now r ec ogniz ed a s a subject t ha t per mea

t es t he ent ir e devel op ment
pr oc ess , t est i ng a nd ver i fi ca t ion of t he pr ogr a ms
t hems el ves c ont i nu es t o b e a t opic of r es ea r ch. In modu l e
107, we discuss ed t ec hni qu es for ver if yi ng t he c or r ect ness of a lgor it hms i n a ma t
hema t i ca ll y r igor ous

such
t est i ng is i nexa ct a t best . We ca nnot gua r a nt ee t ha t a piec e of soft wa r e is cor r
ect via t est ing u nl ess we r un
enou gh t est s t o exha ust a ll poss ibl e s c ena r ios. But , even i n si mp l e pr ogr a ms, t
her e ma y b e bi l li ons of
diff er ent pa t hst ha tcouldpot ent ia l l y

bet r a ver sed. T hus,t est i nga llposs iblepa t hswit hinacomp l expr ogr a m
is a n i mp oss ib l e t a sk.
On t he ot her ha nd, soft wa r e engi neer s ha ve devel op ed t est i ng met hodologi es t ha t
i mpr ove t he odds of
r evea l i ng er r or s i n soft wa r e wit h a l i mit ed nu mb er of t est s.

One of t hes e is ba sed on t he obs er va t i on t ha t

er r or sins oft wa r et endt ob ec lu mp ed. T ha t is, exp er i enc eha sshownt ha t a sma l lnu
mb er ofmodu l eswit hi n
a la r ge soft wa r e syst em t end t o be mor e pr obl ema t i c t ha n t he r est . T hus, by ident
if yi ng t hes e modu l es
a nd

i n a unif or m, less
-
t hor ou gh ma nner . T his is a n inst a nc e of t he pr opos it i on known a s t he
Pare to pri nc ip le,
i n r ef er enc e t o t he ec onomist a nd

pr inc ip l e st a t es t ha t r esult s ca n oft en b e i ncr ea sed most r a pidl y by a pplyi ng e

ff or t s in a conc ent r a t ed a r ea .

Anot her soft wa r et est i ng met hodol ogy, ca ll ed

bas ispat htest i ng,
ist odevel opa set oft est da t at ha tinsur es
t ha t ea ch i nst r uct ion i n t he soft wa r e is ex ecut ed a t l ea st onc e. T ec hniqu es usi
ng a n ar ea of ma t hema t ics
knowna s
gr a pht heor y ha veb een devel op edf or i dent if yi ngsuc hs et s oft est da t a . T hus, a lt
hou ghit ma yb e
i mp oss ibl e t o ensur e t ha t ever y pa t h t hr ough a soft wa r e syst em is t est ed, it is
poss ibl e t o ensur e t ha t ever y
st a t ement wit hi n t he s yst em is ex ecut ed a t lea st
onc e du r ing t he t est i ng pr oc ess .

T ec hni qu es ba sed on t he P a r et o pr i nc ip l e a nd ba sis pa t h t est i ng r el y on knowl

edge of t he i nt er na l
comp osit i on of t he soft wa r e being t est ed. T hey t her ef or e fa ll wit hi n t he ca t egor y
ca ll ed
gl ass
-
box test i ng,

mea ning t ha t t he

soft wa r e t est er is a wa r e of t he i nt er i or st ruct ur e of t he s oft wa r e a nd us es t his

knowl edg e
when des i gni ng t he t est . In cont r a st is t he ca t egor y ca ll ed
bl ac k
-
bo x testi ng,
whic h r ef er s t o t est s t ha t do

it i on. Inshor t , bla ck

-
b oxt est i ng isper f or med fr o m

-
b ox t est i ng, one is not c onc er ned wit h how t he soft wa r e goes a bout it s
t a sk but mer el y wit h whet her t he soft wa r e p er for ms c or r ect l y in t er ms of a ccur
a cy a nd t i mel i ness .

An exa mp l e of bla ck
-
b ox t est i ng is t he t ec hni qu e, ca ll ed
bo und ary val ue analysis,
t ha t consist s of
i dent i f yi ngr a ngesofda t a , ca ll ed
eq uiv ale nce cl asses,
over whic ht hes oft wa r eshou l dp er for m i na si mi la r
ma nner a ndt hent est i ngt hes oft wa r eonda t a clo
s et ot he edge oft hos er a nges. F or exa mp l e, ift hes oft wa r e
is supposed t o a cc ept input va lu es wit hi n a spec if i ed r ange, t hen t he soft wa r e wou
l d be t est ed a t t he l owest
a nd hi ghest va lu es i n t ha t r a nge, or if t he soft wa r e is suppos ed t o coor di na t e mu
lt ip l
e a ct ivit i es, t hen t h e
soft wa r e wou ld b e t est ed on t he la r gest poss ib l e c ol l ec t ion of a ct ivit i es. T he
under l yi ng t heor y is t ha t by
i dent i f yi ng equ i va l enc e cla ss es, t he nu mb er of t est ca ses ca n be mi ni miz ed b
eca use c or r ect op er a t ion f or a
f ew exa mpl es wit hi
n a n equ iva l enc e c la ss t ends t o va l i da t e t he soft wa r e f or t he ent ir e c la ss . Mor
eover , t he
best c ha nc e of i dent if yi ng a n er r or wit hin a cla ss is t o use da t a at t he cla ss
edges.

Anot her met hodol ogyt ha t fa llswit hi nt hebla ck

-
b oxca tegor yis
bet atesti ng
in
whic ha pr el i mi na r yver sio n
of t he s oft wa r e is gi ven t o a s egment of t he i nt ended a udi enc e wit h t he goa l of l ea
r ni ng how t he s oft wa r e
per f or msi nr ea l
-
li f es it ua t i ons b ef or et hefi na lver s i onof t hepr oduct is s oli dif i eda ndr el ea s edt ot
hema r ket .
(S i mi la

al p ha test i ng.
) T he a dva nt a ges of bet a t est i ng
ext end fa r beyond t he t r a dit i ona l disc over y of er r ors. Gener a l cust omer f eedba ck
(b ot h p osit ive a n d
nega t i ve) is obt a ined t ha t ma y a ss ist in r ef i ni ng ma r ke
t st r at egi es. M or eover , ea r ly dist r ibut i on of b et a

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soft wa r e a ss ist s ot her soft wa r e devel op er s in des i gni ng compa t ibl e pr odu ct s. F
or exa mp l e, i n t he ca se of a
new op er a t i ng syst em f or t he P C ma r ket , t he dist r ibut i on of a bet a ver sion enc
our a ges t he devel op m
ent of
compa t ibl eut i l it ysoft wa r esot ha t t hefi na lop er a t ingsys t emult i ma t elya ppea r
sonst or eshel vessurr ounded
bycompa nionpr oduct s. Mor eover , t heex ist enc eofbet a t est ingca ngener a t eafeel i
ngofa nt ic ipa t ionwit hin
t he ma r ket pla c e

a n a t mospher e
t ha t incr ea s es publi cit y a nd sa les.

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Mod ule 143

36. 36.

143.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: Doc u me nt at io n

A soft wa r e syst em is of lit t l e use unl ess peopl e ca n l ea r n t o use a nd ma i nt a in it .

Henc e, docu ment a t ion is
a n i mp or t a nt par t of a fina l soft wa r e pa cka ge, a nd it s
devel op ment is, t her ef or e, a n i mp or t a nt t opic i n
soft wa r e engi neer i ng.

S oft wa r e docu ment a t i on s er ves t hr ee pur pos es, l ea di ng t o t hr ee ca t egor i es of

docu ment a t i on: us er
docu ment a t ion, syst em docu ment a t i on, a ndt ec hni ca ldocu ment a t i on. T hepur pos
e of
us e rdoc u me nt at io n
is t o expla in t he f ea t ur es of t he soft wa r e a nd descr ib e how t o use t hem. It is int
ended t o be r ea d by t he us er
oft hesoft wa r ea ndist her ef or e expr ess edi nt het er mi nol ogy oft hea pplica t i on. T oda
y, user docu ment a t i on
is r ec ogni z ed a s a
n i mp or t a nt ma r ket i ng t ool. Good user docu ment a t ion c omb i ned wit h a wel l
-
des i gne d
user int er fa c e ma kes a soft wa r e pa cka ge a cc ess ib l e a nd t hus i ncr ea ses it s sa l es.
R ec ogni zi ng t his, ma ny
soft
-

wa r edevel op er shir et ec hnica lwr it er st opr odu c et hispar toft

heir pr oduct , or t heypr ovi depr el i mi na r y
ver si onsoft heir pr oduct st oindep endent a ut hor ssot ha thow
-
t obooksar ea va ila bl ei n
bookst or es

whent h e
soft wa r e is r el ea s ed t o t he pub li c. Us er docu ment a t i on tr a dit i ona ll y t a kes t he
f or m of a phys ica l b ook or
bookl et , butinma nyca sest hesa mei nf or ma t i onisi nc lu deda spar toft hesoft wa r eit
self. T hisa llowsa user
t o r ef er t o t he docu ment a t i on whil e usi ng t he s oft wa re. In t his ca se t he inf or ma
t ion ma y b e br oken i nt o
sma llu nit s, somet i mesca l l edhelppa cka g
es, t ha t ma ya ppea r ont hedisp la yscr eena ut oma t ica l l yi ft heus er
da l li es t oo l ong bet ween c om ma nds.

T he pur pos e of
s ys te m doc u me nt at io n
soft wa r eca nb ema i nt a i nedla t er i nit sl if ec ycl e. A
ma j or comp onent ofs yst emdocu ment a t ionist hes our c e
ver si on of a l l t he pr ogr a ms i n t he s yst em. It is i mp or t a nt t ha t t hes e pr ogr a ms
b e pr es ent ed i n a r ea da bl e
for ma t , whi c h is why soft wa r e engi neer s suppor t t he use of wel l
-
des i gned, hi gh
-
l evel pr ogr a mmi n g

la ngua ges, t heus e ofc omment st a t ement sf or a nnot a t i nga pr ogr a m, a nda modu la r
des i gnt ha t a ll ows ea ch
modu l e t o b e pr es ent ed a s a coher ent u nit . I n fa ct , most compa ni es t ha t pr oduc
e s oft wa r e pr oduct s ha v e
a dopt ed convent i ons for t heir emp loyees t o fol l
ow when wr it i ng pr ogr a ms. T hes e i nc lu de i ndent a t i on
convent i ons for or ga ni zi ng a pr ogr a m on t he wr it t en pa ge; na mi ng convent i ons t
ha t est a blis h a dist i nct i on
bet ween na mes of diff er ent pr ogr a m c onst r uct s such a s va r ia bles, const a nt s, obj
ect s, a nd cla ss es;
a nd
docu ment a t ion c onvent i ons t o ensur e t ha t a ll pr ogr ams a r e suffic i ent ly docu
ment ed. S uch convent i ons

ma i nt ena nc e pr oc ess .

Anot her comp onent of s yst em docu ment

a t ion is a r ec or d of t he des i gn docu ment s i nclu di ng t he s oft wa r e
r equir ement ssp ec if ica t i ona ndr ec or dsshowinghowt he sesp ec if ica t i onswer eobt a
i neddur ingdes i gn. T his
i nf or ma t ion is useful dur i ng soft wa r e ma i nt ena nc e b eca use it i ndi ca t es why t he
soft wa
r e wa s i mp l ement ed
a s it wa s

inf or ma t ion t ha t r educ es t he c ha nc e t ha t cha nges ma de dur ing ma i nt ena nc e wi

ll disr upt t he
i nt egr it y of t he s yst em.

T he pur pos e of
te c hni c al doc u me nt at io n
is t o des cr i be ho w a s oft wa r e s ys t em s hou l d b e i ns t a l l ed a nd
ser vic ed (su
c h a s a djust i ng op er a t ing pa ra met er s, inst a ll i ng upda t es, a nd r epor t i ng pr obl
ems ba ck t o t h e

mec ha ni cs i n t he a ut omob il e i ndust r y. T his docu ment a t i on d

oes not discuss how t he ca r wa s des i gned a nd
const r uct ed (a na l ogous t o syst em docu ment a t i on), nor does it exp la i n how t o dr i
ve t he ca r a nd op er a t e it s

comp onent s, for exa mp l e, how t o r ep la c e t he t r a ns miss i on or how t o t r a ck

down a n i nt er mit t ent el ect r ica l
pr obl em.

T hedist i nct i onb et weent echnica ldocu ment a t i ona ndus er docu ment a t i onisblur r
edi nt heP C a r ena beca use
t heuser isoft ent heper sonwhoa ls
oi nst a llsa ndser vic es t hesoft wa r e. However , inmu lt ius er envir onment s,
t he dist i nct i on is sha r per .T her ef or e, t ec hni ca l docu men t a t ion is i nt ended for t
he syst em a dmi nist r a t or who

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is r esp onsib l e f or ser vi ci ng a l l t he soft wa r e u nder his or her jur is dict i o

n, a ll owi ng t he us er s t o a cces s t he
soft wa r e pa cka ges a s a bstr a ct t ools.

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Mod ule 144

37. 37.

144.

S oftware E ngi nee ri ng: H uman M ac hi ne I nt er face

One of t he t a sks dur i ng r equ ir ement s a na l ysis is t o def i ne how t he pr op os ed s oft
wa r e syst em wi l l i nt er a ct
wit h it s
envir onment . I n t his s ect i on we c ons i der t opic s a ssocia t ed wit h t his int er a ct i on
when it i nvol ves
com mu nica t i ng wit h hu ma ns

a subject wit h pr of ou nd signif ica nc es. Aft er a ll, hu ma ns shoul d b e a ll owe d

t o use a soft wa r e syst em a s a n a bst ra ct t ool. T his t ool s
houl d be ea sy t o a pply a nd desi gned t o mi ni mi z e
(i dea l l y eli mi na t e) c om mu nica t i on er r or s bet ween t he syst em a nd it s hu ma n
us er s. T his mea ns t ha t t he

th
e soft wa r e syst em.

t o ma ke a st r onger i mpr ess ion on a user t ha n a ny ot her syst em c ha r a ct er ist ic.

Aft er a ll, a huma n t ends t o
vi ew a syst em in t er m
s of it s usa bilit y, not in t er ms of how cl ever l y it per f or ms it s int er na l t a sks. Fr om
a

be t he det er mi ni ng fa ct or in t he succ es s
or fa ilur e of a soft wa r e engineer i ng pr oj ect .

F or t hes er ea sons, t hehu ma n

-
ma c hi nei nt er fa c eha sbec omea ni mp or t a nt conc er ni nt her equ ir ement sst a ge
of soft wa r e devel op ment pr oj ect s a nd is a gr owi ng subfi el d of so
ft wa r e engi neer i ng. I n fa ct , some woul d
a r gue t ha t t he st udy of hu ma n
-
ma chi ne i nt er fa ces is a n ent ir e f i el d i n it s own r ight .

Ab enef ic ia r yofr es ea r chi nt hisfi el dist hes ma r t phone i nt er fa ce. Inor der t oat ta int
he goa l ofa conveni ent
poc ket
-
s iz ed devi
c e, el ements of t he t r a dit iona l hu ma n
-
ma c hi ne i nt er fa ce (fu l l
-
si z ed keyboa r d, mous e,
scr ol l bar s, menus) ar e bei ng r epla c ed wit h new a ppr oaches; such a s gest ur es per
for med on a t ouch scr een,
voic ec om ma nds, a nd vir t ua lkeyb oa r dswit ha dva nc ed a ut o
-
comp l et i
on of wor dsa ndp hr a ses. Whi l et hes e
r epr es ent si gnif ica nt pr ogr ess , most sma r t phone us er s wou l d a r gue t ha t t her e
is pl ent y of r oom f or fur t her
i nnova t i on.

R es ea r ch i n hu ma n
-
ma c hi ne i nt er fa c e des i gn dr a ws hea vi l y fr om t he ar ea s of engi neer ing ca ll e d
ergo no
mi cs,
whic hdea lswit hdes i gnings yst emst ha t ha r moniz e wit ht hephys ica la bilit i esofhu ma
ns, a nd
cog net ics,
whic h dea ls wit h des i gni ng syst ems t ha t harmoni z e wit h t he ment a l a bilit i es of hu
ma ns. Of t he
t wo, er gonomics is t he bet t er under st ood, la r gel y beca use hu ma ns ha ve b een i nt
er a ct ing physi ca ll y wit h
ma c hi nes for cent ur i es. Exa mpl es ar e fou nd in a nc i ent t ools
, wea ponr y, a nd t r a nspor t at ion syst ems. Much
of t his hist or y is self
-
evi dent ; however , a t t i mes t he a ppli ca t ion of er gonomics ha s been cou nt er i nt uit i
ve.
An oft en
-
cit ed exa mpl e is t he des i gn of t he t yp ewr i t er keyb oa r d ( now r ei nca r na t ed a s t
he comput er
keyb o

syst em of l ever s used i n t he ea r ly ma c hi nes would not ja m. Ment a l int er a ct i on wit

h ma c hines, in c ont r a st,
isar ela t ivel ynewp henomenon, a ndt hus, itisc
ognet ics t ha toff er st hehi gher pot ent ia lfor fr uit fulr es ea r ch
a nd enli ght eni ng i nsi ght s. Oft en t he f i ndi ngs a r e i nt er est ing i n t heir subt l et y. F
or exa mp l e, hu ma ns f or m
ha bit s

a tr a it t ha t, on t he sur fa c e, is good b eca us e it ca n i ncr ea se eff ic i ency.

But

h
a bit s ca n a ls o l ea d t o
er r or s, even when t he des i gn of a n i nt er fa c e i nt ent i ona l l y a ddr ess es t he pr ob l
em. C ons ider t he pr oc ess of a
hu ma n a ski ng a t ypica l op er a t ing syst em t o del et e a fil e. T o a voi d uni nt ent i ona l
del et i ons, most int er fa c es
r espond t o such a

r equ est by a sking t he us er t o conf ir m t he r equ est

a ny pr ob l em of uni nt ent i ona l del et i ons. However , a ft er using t h

e syst em f or a n ext ended p er i od, a hu ma n

c ea ses t o b e a t wo
-
st ep pr oc ess c ons ist i ng of a del et e com ma nd f ol l owed b y a t hou ght fu l r esp ons e
toa
qu est i on
. Inst ea d, it bec omes a one
-

t ha t a nincor r ect del et er equ est ha sbeensubmit t ed, t herequ est ha sa lr ea dybeenc onf
ir meda ndt he del et i on
ha s occur r ed.

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T he f or ma t i on of ha bit s ma y a ls o c
a use pr ob l ems when a hu ma n is r equ ir ed t o us e sever a l a ppli ca t io n
soft wa r e pa cka ges. T he i nt er fa ces of suc h pa c ka ges ma y b e s i mi la r yet diff er ent
. S i mila r user a ct ions ma y
r esult i n diff er ent syst emr esp ons es or si mi la r syst emr espons es ma yr equir edif f er
e
nt user a ct ions. Int hes e
ca ses ha bit s devel op ed in one a ppli ca t ion ma y l ea d t o er r or s in t he ot her a pplica t
i ons.

Anot her hu ma n c ha r a ct er ist ic t ha t c onc er ns r es ea r cher s i n hu ma n

-
ma c hi ne int er fa c e des i gn is t he
t o become mor e f ocus ed a s t he l evel of conc ent r a t io n
i ncr ea ses. As a hu ma n b ec omes mor e engr oss ed i n t he t a sk a t ha nd, br ea ki ng t
ha t f ocus b ec omes mor e
diff icu lt . In1972, a commer cia la ir cr a ft cra shedb eca uset hep il ot sb eca mes oa bsor b
ed wit ha la ndi ng
gea r
pr obl em (a ct ua ll y, wit h t he pr oc ess of cha ngi ng t he la ndi ng gea r indica t or li ght
bulb) t ha t t hey a ll owed t h e
pla ne t o f l y i nt o t he gr ou nd, even t hough wa r ni ngs wer e s oundi ng i n t he c oc kp
it .

Less cr it ica l exa mp l es a ppea r r out inel y i n P C int er fa c es. F or

pr ess ed). However , if t he key is a cc ident a ll y pr ess ed, a hu ma n r ar ely not i c es t he

st a t us of t he l i ght unt i l

st ra nge c ha r a ct er s begi n t o a ppea r on t he displa y sc r een. Even t hen, t he us er oft

en puzz l es over t he
pr edica ment f or a whi l eu nt i lr ea li zi ngt heca use oft he pr obl em. I na sens e, t hisis not
sur pr ising

t he li ght

of vi ew. However , user s oft en fa il t o not ic e i ndica t or s pla ced

dir ect l y i n t heir line of sight . F or exa mpl e, user s ca n become s o enga ged i n a ta sk t
ha t t hey fa il t o obs er v e
cha ngesi nt hea pp ea r a nce oft hecur sor ont he displa yscr een, event hou ght heir t a
skinvol ves wa t chi ngt h e
cur sor .
ca pa cit y t o dea l wit h mu lt ip l e fa ct s si mu lt a neousl y. I n a n a rt icl e i n
Psy chol ogi cal Revi e w
i n 1956, G eor ge
A. Mil l er
r epor t ed r es ea r ch indica t i ng t ha t t he hu ma n mi nd is ca pa ble of dea li ng wit h
only a bout seve n
det a i ls a t onc e. T hus, it is i mp or t a nt t ha t a n int er fa ce be des i gned t o pr es ent
a l l t he r el eva nt i nf or ma t i on
when a dec isi on is r equ ir ed ra t her t ha n t or el y on t he

des i gn t o r equir e t ha t a hu ma n r eme mb er pr ec is e det a ils fr om pr evi ous scr een i

ma ges. Mor eover , if a n
i nt er fa ce r equ ir es ext ens i ve na vi ga t ion a mong scr een i ma ges, a hu ma n ca n get l
ost i n t he ma z e. T hus,
t he
cont ent a nd a rr a ngement of scr een i ma ges bec omes a n i mp or t a nt desi gn iss u e.
Alt hou gh a pplica t i ons of
er gonomi cs a nd cognet ics gi ve t he f i el d of hu ma n
-

ma c hi ne i nt er fa c e des i gn a uni qu e f la vor , t he f i el d a lso

enc ompa ss es ma ny of t he mor e t r a dit i ona l t op
ics of soft wa r e engi neer i ng. In pa r t icula r , t he s ea r ch f or
met r ics is just a s imp or t a nt in t he f i el d of i nt er fa ce des i gn a s it is in t he mor e t r
a dit i ona l a r ea s of soft wa r e
engi neer i ng. I nt er fa ce c ha r a ct er ist icst ha t ha veb eensubj ect edt o mea sur ement i
nc lu
det het i mer equir edt o
l ea r n a n int er fa ce, t he t i me r equ ir ed t o per f or m t a sks vi a t he i nt er fa c e, t he r
a t e of user
-
i nt er fa ce er r or s, t he
degr ee t o whi c h a user r et a ins pr ofic i enc y wit h t he i nt er fa ce a ft er per iods of
nonus e, a nd even such
subj ect ive t r a it s
a s t he degr ee t o whic h us er s li ke t he int er fa c e.

T he
G O MS

met r icsi nt he fi el d of hu ma n
-

e
t a sksint er msofus er goa ls(sucha sdel et ea wor dfr om at ext ), oper a t or s(sucha sclic kt
he mous ebut
-

t on),
met hods (suc h a s doubl e
-
c li c k t he mous e but t on a nd pr ess t he del et e key), a nd sel ect i on r ul es (such a s
choos e b et ween t wo met hods of a ccomp lis
hi ng t he same goa l). T his, in fa ct , is t he or igi n of t he a cr ony m
GOMS

goa ls, op er a t or s, met hods, a nd sel ect i on r ul es. In shor t , GOMS is a met hodol ogy
t ha t a ll ows t h e
a ct ions of a huma n usi ng a n int er fa c e t o b e a na l yz ed a s sequ enc es of el ementa r y
st eps (pr e
ss a key, mov e
t he mous e, ma ke a dec is i on). T he per f or ma nc e of ea ch el em ent a r y st ep is a ss
igned a pr ec is e t i me p er i od,
a ndt hus, bya ddi ngt het i mesa ss i gnedt ot hest epsi na t ask, GOMS pr ovi desa mea nsofc
ompa r ingdiff er ent
pr opos ed i nt er fa c es i n t er ms
of t he t i me ea c h woul d r equir e when p er for mi ng si mi la r t a sks.

Under st a ndi ng t he t ec hni ca l det a i ls of syst ems suc h a sGOMS is not t he pur pos e of
our cur r ent st udy. T he
point i nour ca seist ha t GOMSisfoundedonf ea t ur esof hu ma nb eha vi or (movi ngha nds,
ma
ki ngdec is i ons,
a nd s o on). I n fa ct , t he devel op ment of GOMS wa s or igina ll y c ons i der ed a t op ic i
n ps yc hol ogy. T hus,

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GOMS r eemp ha si z es t he r ol e t ha t hu ma n c ha r a ct er ist ics pla y i n t he f i el d of hu

ma n
-
ma c hi ne int er fa c e
des i gn, even i n t he t opi cs t ha t a r e car r y
over s fr om t r a di t iona l s oft wa r e engi neer ing.

T hedes i gnofhu ma n
-
ma c hinei nt er fa cespr omis est ob ea na ct ivef i el dofr es ea r chi nt hefor es eea b l efutur
e.

in
t he us e of t hr ee
-
di mens i ona l i nt er fa c es t ha t ar e now on t he hor iz on. Indeed, b eca us e t hes e i nt
er fa ces
pr omis et oc omb i nea udi oa ndt a ct il ec ommu nica t i on wit ht hr ee
-

di mens i ona lvisi on, t hesc op e ofp ot ent ia l

pr obl ems is enor mous.

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Mod ule 145

38. 38.

145.

S oftware
E ngi nee ri ng: S oft ware O w ne rs hip and L i ab i l ity
Most wou l da gr eet ha t acompa nyor indi vi dua lshoul dbea ll owedt or ec oup, a ndpr ofit
fr om, t heinvest ment
needed t o devel op qua l it y s oft wa r e. Ot her wis e, it is u nli kel y t ha t ma ny woul d b
e wi ll i ng t o under t a ke
t he
t a sk of pr oduc i ng t he s oft wa r e our soci et y des ir es. In s hor t , soft wa r e devel op er
s need a l evel of owner ship
over t he soft wa r e t hey pr oduc e.

Lega l eff or t s t o pr ovi de su ch owner ship fa l l under t he ca t egor y of

i nte l lec t ual pro per ty
la w, mu ch of
whic h is ba sed on t he wel l
-
est a blis hed pr inc iples of cop yr i ght a nd pa t ent la w. Indeed, t he pur pos e of a
cop yr i ght or pa t ent is t o a ll ow t he devel op er of a pr oduct t o r el ea s e t ha t pr
oduct (or por t i ons t her eof) t o
i nt ended pa rt ies whi l e pr ot ect i
ng his or her owner s hip ri ght s . As s uch, t he devel op er of a pr odu ct (whet her
a n indi vi dua l or a cor por at ion) wil l a ss er t his or her owner ship by i nc ludi ng a
copyr i ght st a t ement i n a l l
pr oduc ed wor ks; i nclu di ng r equir ement speci fi ca t i ons, desi gn docu ment s,
sour ce c ode, t est pla ns, a nd i n
some visib l e pla c e wit hi n t he f ina l pr oduct . A cop yr i ght not i c e c l ea r ly i dent if i
es owner s hip, t he p er sonnel
a ut hor iz ed t o use t he wor k, a nd ot her r est r ict i ons. F urt her mor e, t he r i ght s of t
he devel op er a r e for ma l l y
expr ess ed
i n l ega l t er ms i n a
software l ice nse.
A soft wa r e li c ens e is a lega l a gr eement bet ween t he owner a nd us er of a soft wa r e
pr oduct t ha t gr a nt s t he
user cer t a inper miss i onst ouset hepr oduct wit hout t ra nsf er r ingowner shipr ight st ot
heint el l ect ua lpr op er t y.
T
hes e a gr eem ent s sp ell out , t o a fi ne l evel of det a il, t he r i ght s a nd obl i ga t i ons of
b ot h pa r t ies. T hus, it is
i mp or t a nt t o ca r eful l y r ea d a nd under st a nd t he t er ms of t he soft wa r e l ic ens e
b ef or e i nst a ll i ng a nd usi ng a
soft wa r e pr oduct .

Whi l e c op yr i ght s a nd
s oft wa r e li c ens e a gr eement s pr ovi de l ega l a venu es t o i nhib it out r i ght c opyi ng
a nd
una ut hor iz ed us e of s oft wa r e, t hey a r e gener a l l y i nsuff ic i ent t o pr event a not
her pa rt y fr om i ndep endent l y
devel op i ng a pr oduct wit h a nea r ly i dent ica l fu nct i on. It is sa d t ha
t over t he yea r s t her e ha ve b een ma ny
oc ca sions wher e t he devel op er of a tr uly r evolut i ona r y soft wa r e pr oduct wa s una
ble t o ca pit a liz e fu l ly o n
his or her i nvent i on (t wo not a bl e exa mp l es a r e spr ea dsheet s a nd web br ows er s).
In most of t hes e ca ses,
a not her c
ompa ny wa s succ ess ful i n devel op i ng a comp et it i ve pr oduct t ha t secur ed a domi
na nt s ha r e of t h e
ma r ket . A l ega l pa t h t o pr event t his i nt r usion by a compet it or is fou nd i n pa t ent
la w.

P a t ent la ws wer e est a blis hed t o a llow a n invent or t o benefit comm er c ia l l y

fr om a n invent i on. T o obta in a
pa t ent , t hei nvent or must dis cl os et hedet a i lsoft he i nvent i ona nddemonst r a t et ha t
itisnew, usefu l, a ndnot
ob vi ous t o ot her s wit h s i mi la r ba ckgr ounds (a r equir em ent t ha t ca n b e qu it e c
ha l l engi ng f or soft wa r e). If a
pa t en
t is gr a nt ed, t he invent or is gi ven t he r ight t o pr event ot her s fr om ma king, using,
sell i ng, or imp or t i ng
t he invent i on f or a li mit ed p er i od of t i me, whic h is t yp i ca ll y 20 yea r s fr om t he
da t e t he pa t ent a pplica t i on
wa s fil ed.

One dr a wba ck t o t he us e of pa t
ent s is t ha t t he pr oc ess t o obt a i n a pa t ent is exp ens i ve a nd t i me
-
c onsu mi ng,
oft en i nvol vi ng s ever a l yea r s. Dur ing t his t i me a soft wa r e pr odu ct cou l d bec
ome obs ol et e, a nd unt il t h e
pa t ent is gr a nt ed t he a pplica nt ha s only qu est i ona bl e a ut hor it y t o ex clu de
ot her s fr om a ppr opr ia t ing t he
pr oduct .

T he i mp or t a nc e of r ec ogni zi ng c op yr i ght s, soft wa r e l ic ens es, a nd pa t ent s is

pa ra mou nt i n t he s oft wa r e
engi neer i ng pr oc ess . When devel op i ng a soft wa r e pr oduct , soft wa r e engi neer s
oft en c hoos e t o i nc or por a t e
soft wa r e fr om ot her pr odu ct s, whet her it be a n ent
ir e pr oduct , subs et of comp onent s, or even por t i ons of
sour c ec odedownl oa dedover t heI nt er net . However , fa i lur et ohonor i nt ell ect ua lpr
op er t yr i ght sdur i ngt his
pr oc ess ma yl ea dt ohu gel ia bil it i esa ndc ons equ enc es. F or exa mp l e, in2004, alit t l e
-
known
c ompa ny, NPT
Inc. , success fu l l y won a la wsuit a ga inst R es ea r ch
in

M ot i on (R IM
t he ma ker s of t he B la c kB er r y

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ju dgment i nc lu ded a n i nju nct i on t o sus pend ema i l

ser vic es t o a ll B la ckB er r y user s in t he Unit ed S t a t es !
R IM event ua l l y r ea c hed a n a gr eement t o pa y NP Ta t ota l of $612. 5 mi ll i on, t her
eby a ver t i ng a shut down.

F ina l l y, wes hou l da ddr esst heissu eoflia bil it y. T opr ot ect t hems el vesa ga inst l ia
bilit y, soft wa
r edevel op er s
oft eni nc lu dedisc la i mer si nt hesoft wa r eli c ens est ha t sta t et hel i mit a t i onsoft heir
lia bil it y. S uchsta t ement s

com mon. C our t s, however , r

ar el y r ec ogni z e a disc la i me r if t he pla i nt iff ca n show negli genc e on t he pa rt of
t he def enda nt .
T hus,

lia bil it y ca ses t end t o focus on whet her t he def enda nt used a level of ca r e compa t
ibl e
wit ht hepr oduct b ei ngpr odu c ed. Al evelofca r et ha t mi ght bedee m
eda cc ept a bl ei nt heca s eofdevel opi ng
a wor d pr ocess i ng syst em ma y be c onsi der ed negl i gent when devel op i ng soft wa r e
t o cont r ol a nucl ea r
r ea ct or . C ons equ ent l y, one of t he b est def ens es a ga i nst soft wa r e l ia bil it y cla i
ms is t o a pply sou nd soft wa r e
engi neer

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Mod ule 146

39. 39.

146.

Dat a Abstr ac tio n: Arr ays and Aggreg at es

R eca l l t ha t a n
arr ay
ofa r ra yist he one
-
di mensi ona la r ra y, asingl er ow of el ement s wit h ea c hpos it i on i dent i fi edb ya n i
ndex. A
one
-
di mens iona l a rr a y wit h 26 el ement s coul d b e used t o st or
e t he nu mb er of t i mes ea c h a lpha bet l et t er
oc cur s in a pa ge of t ext , for exa mpl e. A t wo
-
di mensi ona l a rr a y consist s of mu lt ipl e r ows a nd c olu mns i n
whic h p osit i ons a r e ident if i ed b y pa ir s of i ndic es

t he f ir st index i dent if i es t he r ow a ss ocia t ed wit h t h e

pos
it i on;

t he sec ond i ndex i dent if i es t he c olu mn. An exa mp l e wou l d be a r ect a ngu la r arr a
y of nu mb er s
r epr es ent i ngt he mont hl ysa l esma deb ymemb er sofasa lesfor c e

t he ent r i esa cr ossea chr owr epr es ent i ng

t he mont hl ysa l es ma debya par t icula rmemb er a ndt he

ent r i esdown ea c hcolu mnr epr es ent i ngt hesa l esby

ea c h memb er for a par t icula r mont h. T hus, t he ent r y in t he t hir d r ow a nd f ir st
colu mn wou l d r epr es ent t he
sa les ma de b y t he t hir d sa lesp er son i n Ja nua r y.

Inc ont r a st t oa na rra y, r eca l lt ha t a n

aggreg ate
typ e
isabloc kof da t ait emst ha t mi ght beofdiff er ent t yp es
a nd siz es. T he it ems wit hin t he bl oc k a r e usua ll y ca ll ed
fie l ds.
An exa mp l e of a n a ggr ega t e t yp e woul d b e
t hebloc kofda t a r ela t i ngt oa single emp l oyee, t he fi el dsof whi c h mi ght bet he emp l o

of t yp e cha r a ct er ), a ge ( of t yp e i nt eger ), a nd skil l r a t ing (of t yp e fl oa t ). F iel ds

i n a n a ggr ega t e t yp e a r e
usua lly a cc ess ed by f i el d na me, r a t her t ha n by a nu mer i ca l i ndex nu mb er .

Mod ule 147

40. 40.

147.

Dat a Abstr ac tio n: L ist, S tac ks and Q ue ues

Anot her ba sic da t a st ruct ur e is a

list,
whic h is a col l ect i on whos e ent r i es a r e a rra nged s equ ent ia l l y (F igur e
104a ).T he b egi nni ng of a list is ca ll ed t he
he ad
of t he l ist . T he ot her end of a list is ca ll ed t he
t ai l.

Al most a ny c oll ect i on of da t a ca n be

envisi oned a s a list . F or exa mp l e, t ext ca n be envis i oned a s a list of
symb ols, a t wo
-
di mens i ona l a rra y ca n be envisi oned a s a list of r ows, a nd mus ic r ec or ded on a C D
ca n be
envisi oneda salist ofsou nds. Mor et ra dit i ona lexa mp l esinc lu degu est list s, sh
opp i nglist s, cla ss enr ol l ment
list s, a nd i nvent or yl ist s. Act i vit i esa ssoc ia t ed wit ha lis t va r ydep ending ont hes it
ua t ion. Ins omeca s es we

cha nge t he a r ra ngem ent of t he ent r i es i n a list , or per ha ps sea r ch t o s ee if a par t

icula r it em is i n a list . W e
wi ll i nvest i ga t e suc h op er a t ions la t er in t his cha pt er .

By r est r ict i ng t he ma nner in whic h t he ent r i es of a list ar e a ccess ed, we obt a i n t

wo sp
ec ia l t yp es of l ist s
known a s sta cks a nd qu eu es. A
stac k
is a list in whi c h ent r i es a r e ins er t ed a nd r emoved onl y a t t he hea d.
An exa mp l e is a st a ck of books wher e physi ca l r est r ict i ons di ct a t e t ha t a ll a ddit i
ons a nd del et i ons occur a t
t he t op (F igur e 104b
). F ol l owi ng c ol l oqu ia l t er mi nol ogy, t he hea d of a sta ck is ca ll ed t he
top
of t he st a ck.
T he t a il of a sta ck is ca ll ed it s
botto m
or
base.
Ins er t ing a new ent r y a t t he t op of a sta ck is ca ll ed
p us hi ng
a n ent r y. R emovi ng a n ent r y fr om t he t op of a st a ck i s
ca ll ed
po pp i ng
a n ent r y. Not e t ha t t he la st ent r y
pla c ed on a sta ck wi l l a lwa ys be t he fir st ent r y r emoved

a n obs er va t i on t ha t lea ds t o a st a ck bei ng kn own

a sa
last
-
i n, first
-
o ut,
or
L IFO

T his LIF O cha r a ct er ist ic mea ns t h

a t a st a ck is idea l for st or ing it ems t ha t must be r et r ieved i n t he r ever s e
or der fr om whic h t hey wer e st or ed, a nd t hus a sta ck is oft en us ed a s t he under p i
nni ng of ba ckt r a cki ng
a ct ivit i es. (T he t er m
b ac ktr ac ki ng
r ef er s t o t he pr oc es s of ba cki ng out of a s
yst em i n t he opp osit e or der

r ecur si ve pr oc ess . A
s ea c h new a ct i va t i on is st ar t ed, t he pr evi ous a ct iva t i on must be set a side. Mor
eover ,
a s ea ch a ct i va t ion is comp l et ed, t he la st a ct iva t ion t ha t wa s set a side must be r
et r i eved. T hus, if t h e
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a ct iva t i ons a r e pushed on a st a ck a s t hey a r e s et a si de, t hen t he

pr op er a ct iva t i on wil l b e on t he t op of t h e
st a ck ea c h t i me a n a ct i va t ion needs t o b e r et r i eved.
A
q ue ue
is a list i n whic h t he ent r i es a r e r emoved onl y a t t he hea d a nd new ent r i es a r e i
ns er t ed onl y a t t he
t a il. An exa mp l e is a line, or qu eu e, of p eopl e w
a it i ng t o buy t ic ket s a t a t hea t er (F igur e 104c)

t he p er so n
a t t he hea d of t he qu eu e is ser ved whil e new a r r iva ls st ep t o t he r ea r (or t a il) of t
he qu eu e. A qu eu e is a
first
-
i n, fi rst
-
o ut,
or
FI FO

a r er emovedfr oma
qu eu e i n t he or der in whi c h t hey wer e st or ed.

Queu es a r e oft en used a s t he under l yi ng st r uct ur e of a buffer , whic h is a st ora ge a r

ea for t he t emp or a r y
pla c ement of da t a bei ng t r a nsfer r ed fr om one l oca t ion t o a not her . As t he it ems
of da t a

ar r ive a t t he buff er ,
t heya r epla ceda t t het a iloft hequ eu e. T hen, whenit comest i met ofor wa r dit emst ot
heir fina ldest i na t i on,
t heya r ef or wa r dedi nt he or der i n whic ht heya ppea r a tt he hea d oft he qu eu e. T hus,
it emsa r ef or wa r dedi n
t he sa me or de
r i n whic h t hey a r r ived.

Fi gure
104
: L i st s, st acks, and queues

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Mod ule
148
41. 41.

148.

Dat a Abstr ac tio n: T rees

A
tr ee
isa col l ect i on whos e ent r i es ha vea hi er a r chica lor ga niza t i onsi mi la r t ot ha t ofa n
or ga niza t i onc ha r t
ofa t ypica lcompa ny(F igur e105). T hepr esi dent isr epr es ent eda t t het op, wit hli nesbr
a nchi ngdownt ot he
vic e
pr esi dent s, who ar e foll owed by r egi ona l ma na ger s, a nd so on. T o t his int uit i ve def
i nit i on of a tr ee
st r uct ur ewei mp os eonea ddit i ona lconst r a int , whi c h(i nt er msofa nor ga niza t i
oncha r t )ist ha tnoi ndi vi dua l
i n t he c ompa ny r epor t s t o t wo diff er ent supe
r i or s. T hat is, diff er ent bra nc hes of t he or ga ni za t ion do not
mer ge a t a lower l evel. (W e ha ve a lr ea dy s een exa mp l es of t r ees i n C ha pt er 6
wher e t hey a ppea r ed i n t he
for m of pa r se tr ees. )
Fi gure
105
: An example of anorganizati on chart

Ea ch pos it i on in a t r ee is ca l l ed a
nod e
(F i gur e 106). T he node a t t he t op is ca l l ed t he
root node
( if w e
t ur ned t he dr a wi ng upsi de down, t his node wou l d r epr es ent t he ba se or r oot of t
he t r ee). T he nodes a t t he
ot her ext r emea r e

ca l l ed
t er mi nal no des
( or somet i mes
le af no des
). W e oft enr ef er t ot he nu mb er ofnodes
i n t he l ongest pa t h fr om t he r oot t o a l ea f a s t he
de pt h
of t he t r ee. I n ot her wor ds, t he dept h of a t r ee is t h e
nu mb er of hor iz ont a l la yer s wit hi n it .

Fi gure
106
: T ree t er
mi nol ogy
At t i mes wer ef er t ot r eest r uct ur esa st hough ea c h nodegi vesbir t ht ot hos e nodesi
mm edia t el yb el ow it . In

r t o it s i m media t e desc enda nt s a s

it s
chi ld re n
a nd it s i mmedia t e a nc est or a s it s
pare nt.
Mor eover , we spea k of nodes wit h t he sa me pa r ent
a s bei ng
si b li ngs.
A t r ee i n whic h ea c h pa r ent ha s no mor e t ha n t wo c hil dr en is ca ll ed a
bi nary tree.

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Ifwes el ect a ny nodei na t r ee, we fi ndt ha t t ha t nodet oget her wit ht he nodesb el ow it a
lso
ha s

t hest r uct ur e
ofa t r ee. W eca l lt hes es ma l l er st r uct ur es
subtre es.
T hus, ea chc hi l d nodeist her oot ofa subtr eeb elowt he

is ca ll ed a
br anc h
fr om t he pa r ent . In a bina r y t r ee, we oft en sp ea k of a

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Mod ule 149

42. 42.

149.

Dat a Abstr ac tio n: Po i nte rs

nu mer ic va lu es, t hes e a ddr ess es t hems el ves ca n b e encoded a nd st or ed i n memor
y c el ls. A
po i nter
is a
st or a gea r ea t ha t cont a i nssuc ha nenc odeda ddr ess . In
t heca s eofda t a str uct ur es, poi nt er sar eusedt or ec or d
t hel oca t i onwher eda t ait emsa r est or ed. F or exa mp l e, ifwe must r ep ea t edl ymovea
nit emofda t afr omon e
l oca t i ont oa not her , we mi ght des i gna t ea fix edl oca t i ont os er vea sa poi nt er . T
hen, ea cht
i me we movet h e
it em, we ca n upda t e t he p oi nt er t o r ef l ect t he new a ddr ess of t he da t a . Lat er ,
when we need t o a ccess t h e

W e ha ve a lr ea dy encou nt er ed

t he conc ept of a point er i n our st udy of C P Us in t he modu l e 36 . T her e we

fou nd t ha t a r egist er ca ll ed a pr ogr a m c ou nt er is used t o hol d t he a ddr ess of t
he next i nst r uct i on t o b e
ex ecut ed. T hus, t hepr ogr a mc ount er pla yst her ol eofa point er . Infa ct , a no
t her na mef or a pr ogr a mc ou nt er
is
i nst r uctio n poi nt er.

me mor y a lpha bet ica l l y by t it l e. Alt hou gh conveni ent in ma ny a pplica t ions, t his a
rra ngement ma kes i
t
diff icu lt t o fi nd a l l t he novels b y a pa rt icula r aut hor

t hey a r e sca t t er ed t hr ou ghout t he list . T o sol ve t his

pr obl em, we ca n r eser ve a n a ddit i ona l memor y c el l wit hi n ea c h bloc k of c ells r
epr es ent i ng a novel a nd use
t his c el l a s a poi nt er t o a not her bloc
k r epr es ent i ng a book by t he sa me a ut hor . In t his ma nner t he novel s
wit h c ommon a ut hor ship ca n be li nked i n a loop (F igu r e 8. 4). Once we fi nd one novel
by a gi ven a ut hor ,
we ca n f i nd a ll t he ot her s by f oll owi ng t he p oi nt er s fr om one b ook t o a not her .

Ma ny m
oder n pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges i nc lu de p oi nt er s as a pr imit i ve da t a t ype. T ha t
is, t hey a ll ow t he
decla r a t ion, a ll oca t i on, a nd ma nipula t i on of poi nt er s i n wa ys r emi nisc ent of i nt
eger s a nd c ha r a ct er str ings.
Us i ng suc h a la ngua ge, a pr ogr a mmer ca n desi gn ela bo

wher e poi nt er s ar e used t o l i nk r ela t ed it ems t o ea c h ot her .

Fi gu r e
107
: N ovel s arranged byt i tl e but l i nked according t o aut horshi p

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Mod ule 150

43. 43.

150.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: T he S ig ni fi c anc e of D at ab ase S yste ms

T he t er m
d at abas e
r ef er s t o a col l ect i on of da t a t ha t is mult i di mens i ona l in t he s ens e t ha t int er na
l l inks
bet ween it s ent r i es ma ke t he i nf or ma t ion a cc ess ibl e fr om a va r i et y of p er spect i
ves. T his is i n cont r a st t o a
t ra dit i ona l f il e s yst em, somet i mes ca ll ed a
flat fi le,
whi
c h is a one
-
di mensi ona l st or a ge syst em, mea ni ng
t ha t it pr es ent sit si nf or ma t ionfr oma si ngl ep oi nt of vi ew. Wher ea sa fla tfil ec ont a i
ni ngi nf or ma t i ona bout
comp os er s a nd t heir c omp os it i ons mi ght pr ovi de a l ist of c omp osit i ons a rra
nged b y c omp os er , a da t
a ba se
mi ght pr es ent a ll t he wor ks by a singl e comp os er , a ll t he c omp os er s who wr ot e a
pa rt icula r t yp e of mus ic,

Hist or i ca ll y, a s comput ing ma c hi ner y f ou nd br oa der uses i n i nf or ma t io

n ma na gement , ea ch a ppli ca t io n
t endedt ob ei mp l ement eda sasepa ra t esyst em wit hit s ownc ol l ect i on ofda t a . P a yr
oll wa spr ocess edusi ng
t hepa yr ol lfi l e, t hep er s onneldepa r t ment ma i nt a inedit sownempl oyeer ec or ds, a
ndi nvent or ywa sma na ge d
via a n inven
t or y fi l e. T his mea nt t ha t muc h of t he i nf or ma t i on r equ ir ed by a n or ga niza t i
on wa s dupl ica t e d
t hr ou ghout t he c ompa ny, whil e ma ny diff er ent but r el a t ed it ems wer e st or ed i n
s epa r a t e syst ems. I n t his
set t i ng, da t a ba se syst ems emer ged a s a mea ns of i nt egr at in
g t he i nf or ma t i on st or ed a nd ma i nt a i ned b y a
pa rt icula r or ga ni za t ion (F i gur e 108). Wit h such a syst em, t he sa me sa l es da t a
coul d b e used t o pr oduc e
r est oc ki ng or der s; cr ea t e r epor t s on ma r ket t r ends, dir ect a dver t is ement s, a
nd pr oduct a nnou nc em ent s t o
cust
omer s who a r e most li kel y t o r esp ond fa vor a bly t o suc h i nf or ma t i on; a nd gener
a t e b onus c hec ks f or
me mb er s of t he sa l es for c e.

Fi gure
108
: A f il e vers us a database organi zati on

S uchi nt egr a t edpoolsof

i nf or ma t i onpr ovi deda va lua bler esour c ewit hwhic hma na gem ent decis i onsc oul d
be ma de, a ss umi ng t he i nf or ma t ion c ou ld b e a cc ess ed i n a mea ni ngful wa y. In t
ur n, da ta ba se r esea r ch
focus edon devel opingt ec hniqu esby whic ht he i nf or ma t ion i na da t a ba secou ld

b ebr ou ght t ot he dec isi on

-

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ma ki ng pr oc ess . Much pr ogr ess ha s been ma de i n t his r ega r d. T oda y, da t a ba se t

ec hnol ogy, comb i ned wit h
da t a mi ning t ec hniqu es, is a n i mp or t a nt ma na gement t ool, a llowi ng t he ma na
gement of a n or ga ni za t ion t o
ext r a ct per t inent i nf or
ma t ion fr om enor mous a mou nt s of da t a cover i ng a l l a spect s of t he or ga ni za t ion
and
it s envir onment .

Mor eover , da t a ba se syst ems ha ve b ec ome t he u nder l yi ng t ec hnol ogy t ha t

suppor t s ma ny of t he mor e
popula r sit es on t he W or l d W i de W eb. T he u nder l yi ng t heme of
sit es suc h a s Googl e, eBa y, a nd Ama z on

i nt er r oga t es a da t a base, or ga niz es t he r esu lt s i n t he f or m of a W eb pa ge, a nd s

ends t ha t pa ge t o t he c l i ent .
S uch
Web i nt er fa c es ha ve popu la r iz ed a new r ol e f or da ta base t ec hnol ogy in whic h a
da ta base is no l onger
da t a base t ec hnol ogy wit h Web i nt er fa c es, t he Int er net ha
s bec ome a ma j or wor l d
-
wi de i nf or ma t i on sour c e.

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Mod ule 151

44. 44.

151.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Role o f S c he ma

Amongt he disa dva nt a gesoft hepr ol if er a t i onofda t a ba set ec hnol ogyist hepot ent ia
lofsens it i ve da t abei ng

or sa les r ec or ds.
T hus ,

t he a bil it y t o cont r ol a cc ess t o t he i nf or ma t ion i n t he da t a ba se is a s imp or t a nt

as t he
a bilit y t o sha r e it .

T opr ovi de diff er ent us er sa ccess t odiff er ent i nfor ma t i on wit hi na da t aba se, da ta
basesyst emsoft enr el y on
schema s a nd subs chema s. A
sc he ma
is a

descr ipt i on of t he ent ir e da t a base st r uct ur e t ha t is used b y t he

da t a base soft wa r e t o ma i nt a i n t he da t a ba se. A
subs c he ma
is a descr ipt i on of onl y t ha t por t ion of t he

a t a ba se wou l d
i ndi ca t et ha t ea c hst udent r ec or dc ont a inssuc hit emsa sthecur r ent a ddr ess a
ndphonenu mb er oft ha t st udent

t ot her ec or d oft hest

ma i nt a inedt ha t ult i ma t elyconnect edt hei nf or ma t i ona bout a st udent t o

t heemp l oy ment his t or yofa fa cult y
me mb er .

ult y
r ec or ds does not i nc lude emp l oyment hist or y. Under t his subschema , t he r egist r ar
could f ind out whi c h

t ha t fa cult y memb er . In cont r a st ,t he su

bschema for t he pa yr ol l depa r t ment wou l d pr ovide t he emp l oyment
hist or y of ea c h fa cult y memb er but woul d not i nc lu de t he li nka ge b et ween st
udent s a nd a dvis er s. T hus t he

s of t he st udent s
a dvis ed by t ha t per son.

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Mod ule 152

45. 45.

152.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Dat ab ase M anage me nt S yste ms

A t ypi ca l da t a base a pplica t i on i nvol ves mult ipl e soft wa r e la yer s, whic h we wil l
gr oup i nt o t wo ma j or
la yer s

a n a pplica t i on la yer a nd a da ta ba se
ma na gement la yer (F i gur e 109). T he a ppli ca t ion s oft wa r e
ha ndl es t he c ommu ni ca t ion wit h t he us er of t he da t a ba se a nd ma y b e qu it e c
ompl ex, a s exemp li fi ed b y
a pplica t i onsi nwhic hus er sa ccess a da t a ba sebymea nsofa websit e. I nt ha t ca set
heent ir ea ppli ca
t ionla yer
cons ist s of c l i ent s t hr ou ghout t he I nt er net a nd a ser ver t ha t uses t he da t a ba se
t o fi l l t he r equ est s fr om t he
cl i ent s.

Fi gure
109
: T he concept ual l ayers of a dat abase i mpl ement at i on

Not e t ha t t he a pplica t i on soft wa r e does not dir ect l y ma nipula t e t he da t a

-

ba se. T he a ct ua l ma nipu la t i on of
t he da t a base is a ccompl is hed b y t he
dat ab ase man age me nt sys te m (DB MS ).
Onc e t he a pp li ca t io n
soft wa r e ha s det er mined wha t a ct ion t he user
is r equ est i ng, it uses t he DBMS a s a n a bstr a ct t ool t o obt a i n
t he r esu lt s. If t he r equ est is t o a dd or del et e da t a , it is t he DBMS t ha t a ct ua ll y
a lt er s t he da t a ba se. If t he
r equ est is t o r et r i eve i nf or ma t i on, it is t he D BMS t ha t per f or ms t he r equ ir ed s
ea r c
hes.

T hisdic hot omyb et weent hea pplica t i ons oft wa r ea ndt heD BMS ha ssev
-

er a lb enef it s. Oneist ha t it a ll ows

for t he c onst r uct ion a nd use of a bst ra ct t ools, whi c h we ha ve r ep ea t edl y fou nd t o
be a ma j or simp li f yi ng
conc ept i n s oft wa r e desi gn. If t he det a
ils of how t he da t a base is a ct ua ll y st or ed a r e is ola t ed wit hi n t he
DBMS , t he des i gnoft hea ppl ica t i onsoft wa r eca nb egr ea t l ysi mp li fi ed. F or i nst a nc
e, wit ha wel l
-
des i gned
DBMS , t he a ppli ca t ion soft wa r e does not ha ve t o be conc er ned wit h whet her t he
d
a t a bas e is s t or ed on a
singl e ma c hi ne or sca t t er ed a mong ma ny ma c hi nes wit hi n a net wor k a s a
distri b ut ed d atab ase.
I ns t ea d,
t he DBMS wou l d dea l wit h t hes e iss u es, a llowi ng t he a ppli ca t ion soft
-

wa r e t o a cc ess t he da t a ba se wit hout

conc er n f or wher e t he da t a

isa ct ua lly st or ed.

A s ec ond a dva nt a ge of s epa ra t ing t he a pplica t i on soft wa r e fr om t he D BMS is t ha

t such a n or ga niza t i on
pr ovi des a mea ns for cont r ol l ing a cc ess t o t he da t a ba se. By di ct a t ing t ha t t he
DBMS per for ms a ll a ccess t o
t he da t a ba se, t he D BMS ca n
enf or c e t he r est r ict i ons i m pos ed by t he va r ious subs chema s. In pa r t icula r , t he
DBMS ca nuset heent ir eda t a ba seschema for it sint er na lneedsbut ca nr equir et ha t t
hea ppli ca t i ons oft wa r e
emp l oyed b y ea ch us er r ema i n wit hin t he bou nds des cr i bed by t ha t use

S t illa not her r ea sonf or sepa r a t ingt heus er i nt er fa c ea nda ct ua lda t ama nipu la t
ioni nt ot wodi ff er ent soft wa r e
la yer s is t o a chi eve
d at a i nd epe nd e nce

t he a bi lit y t o cha ng e t he or ga niza t i on of t he da t a ba s e it s el f

wit hout c ha ngi ng t he a ppli ca
t ion s oft wa r e. F or exa mp l e, t he p er sonnel depa r t ment mi ght need t o a dd a n

a r e dea lt dir ect ly wit h

dea l i ng wit h t he da t a ba se. As a r esult , t he c ha nge i nst iga t ed by t he p er s onnel

depa r t ment mi ght ca us e

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cha nges t o t he pa yr ol l pr

news l et t er .

T he s epa r a t ion b et ween a pplica t i on soft wa r e a nd a DBMS r emoves t he need f or

such r epr ogr a mmi ng. T o
i mp l ement a cha nge i n t he da t a ba ser equir ed by a singl e us er , one n
eeds t o cha nge onl y t he over a l l schema
a ndt hesubs chema soft hos euser sinvol vedi nt hec ha nge. T hesubs chema sofa llt heot
her user sr ema int h e
sa me, so t heir a pplica t ion soft wa r e, whi ch is ba sed on t he una lt er ed subs chema s,
does not need t o b e
modif i ed.
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Mod ule 153

46. 46.

153.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Rel atio nal D at ab as e mo de l

W e ha ve r ep ea t edl y seen how a bstr a ct ion ca n be used t o hide i nt er na l compl exit i
es. Da ta ba se ma na gement

a ll owing t he us er of t he da t a ba se t o i ma gi ne t ha t t he

i nf or ma t i on st or ed i n t he da t a ba se is arr a nged in a
mor e useful for ma t . In pa rt icula r , a DBMS cont a ins r out ines t ha t tr a nsla t e comma
nds st a t ed i n t er ms of a
conc ept ua lvi ew oft heda t a ba seint ot hea ct i onsr equ ir edbyt hea ct ua lda tast ora
gesyst em. T his
conc ept ua l
vi ew of t he da t a ba se is ca ll ed a
dat abas e mo de l.

R ela t iona l da t a base model por t r a ys da t a a s bei ng st or ed i n r ect a ngula r t a bles,

ca ll ed
re l at io ns,
whic h a r e
si mi la rt ot hefor ma t inwhi c hinf or ma t i onisdisp la yedbyspr ea dsheet pr ogr a ms. F
orexa m
p l e, t her ela t i ona l
model a l l ows i nf or ma t i on r ega r di ng t he empl oyees of a fir m t o b e r epr es ent ed b
y a r ela t ion suc h a s t ha t
shown i n F igur e 110.

Ar owi na r ela t i onisca ll eda

tup l e

-
110
, t uples cons ist of t he i nf or ma t i on a bout a pa rt icula r employee. C olu mns i n a r
ela t i on a r e r ef er r ed t o a s
att r ib utes
b eca us e ea ch ent r y i n a colu mn descr ib es some c ha r a ct er ist ic, or a t tr ibut e, of t
he ent it y
r epr es ent ed by t he c or r espondi ng t upl e.

Fi gure
110
:A
rel ati on contai ni ng empl oyee i nf ormat i on

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Mod ule 154

47. 47.

154.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Is sues of Re l at io nal Desig ns

Api vot a lst epindesi gni ngar ela t i ona lda t a ba seist odesignt her ela t ions ma ki ng
upt heda t a ba se.Alt hou gh
t his mi ght a ppea r t o be a simp l e t a sk, ma ny subt l et i es a r e wa it i ng t o t ra p t he
unwa r y des i gner .

S uppose t ha t i n a ddit i on t o t he i nf or ma t i on c ont a ined i n t he r ela t i on of F i gur

e 110, we wa nt t o i nc lu de
i nf or ma t ion a bout t he j obs hel
d by t he empl oy ees . We mi ght wa nt t o inc lud e a job his t or y a s s ocia t ed wit h
ea c hemp loyeet ha t consist sofsucha t tr ibut esa sjobt it le(s ecr et a r y,offi c e ma na ger ,
floor super vis or ), ajob
i dent i fi ca t ion c ode (u niqu e t o ea ch j ob), t he ski ll c ode a ssocia t ed
wit h ea c h job, t he depa r t ment i n whic h
t he j ob ex ist s, a nd t he p er iod dur i ng whic h t he empl oyee hel d t he j ob in t er ms of a
star t ing da t e a nd

posit i on
.)

Onea ppr oa cht ot hispr obl em ist o ext endt her ela t i oni nF igur e110t oinc lu det hes ea t
t r ibut esa sa ddit i ona l
colu mns i n t he t a bl e, a s shown i n F i gur e 111. Howev er , cl os e exa mi na t ion of t he
r esult r evea ls sever a l
pr oblems. One isa la ckof eff ic i enc yd
u et or edu nda nc y. T her ela t ion nol onger c ont a ins onet uplef or ea c h
emp l oyee but ra t her one t upl e for ea ch a ss ignment of an empl oyee t o a job. If a n
empl oyee ha s a dva nc e d
i nt hecompa nyt hr ou ghasequ enc eofs ever a ljobs, seve r a lt uplesi nt henewr ela t io
n must cont a i nt hesa me
i nf or ma t ion a bout t he emp loyee ( na me, a ddr ess , ident i fica t i on nu mb er , a nd S
oc ia l S ecur it y nu mb er ). F or
exa mp l e, t he p er sona l i nf or ma t ion a bout Ba ker a nd S mit h is r ep ea t ed b eca us e
t hey ha ve hel d mor e t ha n
one j ob. Mor eover , when a pa
r t icula r posit i on ha s been hel d b y nu mer ous empl oyees, t he depa r t ment
a ss ocia t ed wit h t ha t job a l ong wit h t he a ppr opr ia t e ski l l code must be r ep ea t ed
i n ea c h t upl e r epr es ent i ng
a na ssignment oft he j ob. F or exa mp l e, t he descr ipti on oft hef l oor ma na ger j ob

is duplica t edb eca us e mor e

t ha n one emp l oyee ha s hel d t his pos it i on.

Fi gure
111
: A rel ati on contai ni ng redundancy

Anot her , per ha ps mor e ser i ous, pr obl em wit h our ext ended r ela t i on sur fa ces
when

we cons i der del et i ng

i nf or ma t ion fr om t he da t a ba se. S uppose for exa mpl e t ha t Joe E. Ba ker ist he onl y
emp l oyee t o hol d t he job
i dent i fi ed a s D7. If he wer e t o l ea ve t he c ompa ny a nd be del et ed fr om t he da t a ba
se r epr es ent ed i n F igur e
111, we wou l d l os e t he
i nf or ma t ion a bout j ob D7. Aft er a ll, t he onl y t upl e c ont a ini ng t he fa ct t ha t job
D7
r equir es a skil l l evel of K2 is t he t upl e r ela t ing t o J oe B a ker .

You mi ght ar gue t ha t t he a bil it y t o er a se onl y a por t ion of a t uple c ou l d sol ve t

he pr obl em, but t his woul d

i n t ur n int r oduc e ot her comp l ica t i ons. F or inst a nc e, shoul d t he i nf or ma t i on r

ela t i ng t o job F 5 a lso be
r et a ined i n a pa r t ia l t uple, or does t his i nf or ma t i on r esi de els ewher e i n t he r
ela t i on? M or eover , t he
t empta t ion t o us e pa rt ia l t uples is a str ong i ndic
a t i on t ha t t he des i gn of t he da t a ba se ca n be i mpr oved.

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T he ca us e of a l l t hes e pr ob l ems is t ha t we ha ve c omb i ned mor e t ha n one c onc ept

i n a singl e r ela t ion. As
pr opos ed, t he ext endedr ela t i oni nF igur e111cont a i nsi nf or ma t i ondea li ng dir ect l
ywit h emp l oyee
s( na me,
i dent i fi ca t ion nu mb er , a ddr ess , S ocia l S ecur it y nu mber ), inf or ma t i on a bout t
he j obs a va ila bl e i n t he
compa ny (j ob i dent if ica t i on, job t it l e, depa r t ment , ski l l code), a nd i nf or ma t
ion r ega r di ng t he r ela t i onship
bet ween emp l oyees a nd j obs (st ar t da t e
, t er mina t i on da t e). On t he ba sis of t his obs er va t ion, we ca n sol ve
our pr obl ems b y r edes i gni ng t he syst em us i ng t hr ee r ela t ions
one f or ea c h of t he pr ec edi ng ca t egor i es.
W e ca n keep t he or i gi na l r ela t i on i n F igur e 110 (whic h we now ca ll t he EMP LOYEE
r ela t
i on) a nd ins er t
t he a ddit i ona l i nf or ma t i on in t he f or m of t he t wo new r ela t i ons ca ll ed JOB a nd
AS S IGNMENT , whic h
pr oduc es t he da t a ba se in F i gur e 112

Fi gure
112
: An empl oyee dat abase consi sti ng of three rel at i ons

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Mod ule 155

48. 48.

155.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Rel atio nal op er ators

Now t ha t you ha ve a ba sic under st a nding of how da t a ca n be or ga ni z ed in t er ms of

t he r ela t i ona l model, it
is t i me t o s ee how i nf or ma t i on ca n b e ext r a ct ed fr om a da t a ba se cons ist i ng of r
ela t ions. W e
b egi n wit h a
l ook a t some op er a t ions t ha t we mi ght wa nt t o per f or m on r ela t ions.

At t i mes we need t o s el ect c er t a i n t upl es fr om a r ela t i on. T o r et r ieve t he i nf or

ma t i on a bout a n emp l oyee,
we must sel ect t he t upl e wit h t he a ppr opr ia t e i dent if i ca t ion a t t r ibut
e va lu e fr om t he EMP LOYEE r ela t ion,
or t o obta i n a list of t he j ob t it l es i n a c er t a in depa r t me nt , we must s el ect t he t
up l es fr om t he JOB r ela t i on
ha vi ng t ha t depa r t ment a s t heir depa r t ment a t t r ibut e. T he r esu lt of such a pr
oc ess is a not her r ela t i on
cons is
t i ng of t he t upl es s el ect ed fr om t he pa r ent r ela t i on. T he out come of s el ect i ng i
nf or ma t i on a bout a
pa rt icula r emp l oyee r esult s in a r ela t i on c ont a i ni ng onl y one t up l e fr om t he
EMP LOYEE r ela t i on. T he
out c ome of sel ect i ng t he t upl es a ss ocia t ed wit h a cer ta in

depa r t ment r esult s i n a r ela t i on t ha t pr oba bly

cont a i ns sever a l t upl es fr om t he JO B r ela t ion.

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Mod ule 156

49. 49.

156.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: S elec t O per at io n

One op er a t ion we mi ght wa nt t o per f or m on a r ela t i on is t o sel ect t uples poss ess
i ng c er t a in
cha r a ct er ist ic s
a nd t o pla c e t hes e s el ect ed t upl es i n a new r ela t i on. T oexpr ess t his op er a t i on,
we a dopt t he synt a x

NE W <
-

S EL E CT fro m E M PL O YE E wher e E mp lI d = ' 34Y70'

T hes ema nt i csoft hisst a t ement ist ocr ea t ea newr ela t i onca l l edNEWc ont a ini ngt
hos e
t upl es(t her eshou l d
beonl yonei nt hisca s e)fr omt her ela t i onEMP LOYEEwhos eE mp lI da t t r ibut eequa ls34
Y70(F i gur e113).

Fi gure
113
: T he SEL ECT operat i on
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Mod ule
157
50. 50.

157.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: proj ect O per atio n

Inc ont r a st t ot heS ELEC Toper a t ion, whi c hext r a ct sr owsfr oma r ela t i on, t heP R
OJECTop er a t ion ext r a ct s
colu mns. S uppose, for exa mpl e, t ha t in sea r chi ng f or t he j ob t it l es i n a cer t a in
depa r t ment , we ha d a lr ea dy
sel ect ed t he t uples fr om t he JOB r ela t i on t ha t per t a ined t o t he t ar get depa r t
ment a nd pla c ed t hes e t upl es in
a new r ela t ion ca ll ed NEW1. T he l ist we a r e s eeki ng is t he JobT it l e c olu mn wit hi
n t his new r ela t ion. T he
P R OJECT oper a t ion a ll ows ust o ext r a ct t hi
s colu mn ( or colu mns if r equir ed) a nd pla c e t he r es u lt in a new
r ela t i on. We expr ess such a n op er a t ion a s

NE W2 <
-

PRO JE CT JobT itle fro m NE W1

T he r esult is t he cr ea t ion of a not her new r ela t i on (ca ll e d NEW2) t ha t cont a i ns t

he singl e c olu mn of va lu es
fr om t he

J obT it l e c olu mn of r ela t i on NEW1.

As a not her exa mp l e of t he P R OJEC T oper a t ion, t he st at ement

MAIL <
-

PROJE CT Name, Addr ess fro m E M PL OYE E

ca nb eusedt oobt a i na list ing oft he na mesa nda ddr ess es ofa l l emp l oyees. T hisl ist is
int he newl ycr ea t ed
(t wo
-
c olu mn) r ela t ion ca l l ed M AIL (F i gur e 114).

Fi gure
114
: T he PROJEC T operat i on

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Mod ule 158

51. 51.

158.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Joi n O pe ratio n

Anot her op er a t ionus edi nc onju nct i onwit hr ela t i ona lda ta basesist heJOINop er a t
ion. It isusedt oc ombi n e
diff er ent r ela t ions i nt o one r ela t i on. T he JOIN of t wo r ela t i ons pr odu c es a new r
ela t i on whos e a t t r ibut es
cons ist oft hea t t r ibut esfr omt he or i gi n
a lr ela t i ons(F i gur e115). T he na mes oft hes ea t t r ibut esa r et hesa me
a s t hos e i n t he or igi na l r ela t i ons ex c ept t ha t ea ch is pr ef ix ed by t he r ela t i on of
it s or igi n. (If r ela t i on A
cont a i ni ng a t t r ibut es V a nd W is JOIN ed wit h r ela t i on B cont a i ning a t t r ibut e
s X, Y, a nd Z, t hen t he r esu lt
ha sfivea t t r ibut esna medA. V, A. W, B. X,B. Y, a ndB. Z. )T hisna mi ngc onvent i onensur
est ha tt hea t tr ibut es
i n t he new r ela t i on ha ve u niqu e na mes, even t hou gh t he or i gi na l r ela t i ons mi ght
ha ve a t t r ibute na mes i n
com mon. T het u
pl es (r ows) oft he newr ela t i ona r epr oduc edbyc onca t ena t i ngt upl esfr omt het woor i
gi na l
r ela t i ons (s ee a ga i n F i gur e 115). Whi c h t upl es a r e a ctua ll y j oi ned t o f or m t upl
es i n t he new r ela t i on i s
det er mi ned b y t he condit i on u nder whic h t he JOIN is
const r uc
t ed?

One suc h condit i on is t ha t des i gna t ed

a t tr ibut es ha ve t he sa me va lu e. T his, in fa ct , is t he ca se r epr es ent ed i n F igur e
115, wher e we demonst r a t e
t he r esu lt of ex ecut i ng t he st a t ement

C<
-

JOI N A and B wher e A. W =B .X

Int hisexa mpl e, a t uplefr om

r ela t i onAs houl db ec onca t ena t edwit ha t upl efr omr ela t i onBi nexa ct l yt hos e
ca ses wher e t he a t t r ibut es W a nd X in t he t wo t upl es a r e equa l. T hus t he c onca t
ena t i on of t he t upl e (r , 2)
fr om r ela t i on A wit h t he t upl e (2, m, q) fr om r ela t i on B a ppea r s in t
he r esu lt beca use t he va lu e of a tt r ibut e
W i n t he fir st equa ls t he va lu e of a t t r ibut e X i n t he s ec ond. On t he ot her ha nd, t
he r esult of c onca t ena t in g
t he t upl e (r , 2) fr om r ela t i on A wit h t he t upl e (5, g, p) fr om r ela t i on B does not a
ppea r in t he fi na l r el
a t i on
beca use t hes e t uples do not sha r e c ommon va lu es in a t t r ibutes W a nd X.

Fi gure
115
: T he Joi n Operat i on

As a not her exa mp l e, F i gur e 116 r epr es ent s t he r esult of ex ecut i ng t he st a t

ement

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C<
-

JO IN A
and B wher e A. W <B .X

Not e t ha t t he t upl es i n t he r esu lt ar e exa ct l y t hos e i n whic h a t t r ibut e W in r ela

t ion

A is l ess t ha n a t tr ibut e X in r ela t i on B.

Let us now s ee how t he JOIN op er a t i on ca n b e us ed wi t h t he da t a base of F i gur e

112 t o obt a in a list i ng of
a ll emp l oyee i dent if ica t i on nu mb er s a long wit h t he de pa rt ment i n whic h ea ch
emp l oyee wor ks. Our fir st
obs er va t i on is t ha t t he i nf or ma t i on r equ ir ed is dist r ibut ed over mor e t ha n one r
ela t i on, a nd t hus t he pr oc ess
of r et r i evi ng t he i nf or ma t i on must ent a il mo
r e t ha n S ELEC T ions a nd P R OJECT ions. In fa ct , t he t ool w e
need is t he st a t ement

NE W1 <
-
JO IN ASS IG NME NT and JO B

w her e AS S IG NME NT . JobId = JOB . JobId

Fi gure
116
: Another exampl e of t he JOIN operati on

th
a t pr odu c es t he r ela t i on NEW1, a s shown i n F i gur e 117. Fr om t his r ela t ion, our
pr obl em ca n b e sol ved

mp lI d a nd JOB. Dept . In shor t , t he

i nf or ma t ion we need ca n b e obt a i ned fr om t he da t a ba se in F i gur e 112 by ex ecut i
ng t he s equ enc e

NE W1 <
-
JO IN ASS IG NME NT and JO B

w her e AS S IG NME NT . JobId = JOB . JobId

NE W2 <
-

S EL E CT fro m NE W1 w her e AS S IG NMENT . T er mD ate = ' *'

L IST

<
-

PRO JE CT ASS IG NME NT .E mp lId, JO B. Dept fro m NE W2

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Fi gure
117
: An appl i cat i on of t he JOIN operat i on
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Mod ule 159

52. 52.

159.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: O bjec t

O rie nte d Dat ab ases

Anot her da t a ba semodelisba sedont heob j ect

-
or i ent edpa ra digm. T hisa ppr oa chl ea dst oa nobj ect
-
or i ent e d
da t a base cons ist i ng of obj ect s t ha t a r e li nked t o ea c h ot her t o r efl ect t heir r ela
t ions hips. F or exa mp l e, a n
ob j ect
-
or i ent ed i mp l
ement a t i on of t he emp l oyee da t a base fr om t he pr evi ous sect i on c oul d c ons ist of t
hr ee
cla ss es (t yp es of ob j ect s) : E mp l oyee, Job, a nd Ass i gnment . An ob j ect fr om t he E
mp l oyee c la ss coul d
cont a i n such ent r i es a s Empl I d, Na me, Addr ess , a nd SS Num; a n obj ect fr om

t he cla ss Job coul d c ont a i n

such ent r i es a s JobId, JobT it l e, S ki llC ode, a nd D ept ; a nd ea c h ob j ect fr om t he c
la ss Ass i gnment c ou l d
cont a i n ent r i es such a s St ar t Da t e a nd T er mDa t e.

Ac onc ept ua lr epr es ent a t i onofsucha da t a ba seisshowni nF i gur e118wher et

hel i nksb et weent he va r ious
ob j ect s a r e r epr es ent ed b y l i nes c onnect i ng t he r ela t ed ob j ect s. If we focus on a
n obj ect of t yp e E mp l oyee,
we f i nd it l i nked t o a col l ect i on of obj ect s of t yp e Ass i gnment r epr es ent i ng t he
va r ious a ss ignment s t ha t
t ha t par t icul
a r emp l oyee ha s held. In t ur n, ea ch of t hese ob j ect s of t ype Ass i gnment is li nked t o
a n obj ect
of t yp e J ob r epr es ent i ng t he j ob a ss ocia t ed wit h t ha t a ssi gnment .
T hus,

a ll t he a s s ign ment s of a n emp l oy e e

ca nbefou ndbyfollowi ngt hel i nksfr omt heobject r epres ent i ngt ha t employee. S i mi la r
ly, a llt heemp l oyees
who ha ve hel d a par t icula r job ca n be fou nd by f ol lowi ng t he l i nks fr om t he ob j ect
r epr es ent i ng t ha t job.

Fi gure
118
: T he associ at i ons bet ween obj ect s i n an object
-
ori ent ed dat abase

T he l i nks bet ween obj ect s in a n obj ect

-
or i ent ed
da t a ba se ar e nor ma ll y ma i nt a i ned by t he DBMS , so t he
det a i ls of how t hes e li nks a r e i mp l ement ed a r e not a conc er n of t he pr ogr a
mmer wr it i ng a ppli ca t ion
soft wa r e. Inst ea d, whena newob j ect isa ddedt ot he da t a base, t hea pplica t i onsoft wa
r e mer el yspec if i
est h e
ot her obj ect s t o whi c h it shou ld b e li nked. T he DB MS t hen cr ea t es a ny li nka ge
syst em t ha t mi ght be
r equir ed t o r ecor d t hes e a ss ocia t i ons. In pa rt icula r , a DBMS mi ght li nk t he obj ect
s r epr es ent i ng t h e
a ss ignment s of a given emp l oyee in a ma nner si mi l
a r t o a li nked l ist .

Anot her t a sk of a n ob j ect

-
or i ent ed DBMS is t o pr ovi de per ma nent st or a ge f or t he obj ect s ent r ust ed t o it

a r equir ement t ha t mi ght seem ob vious but is i nher ent ly dist i nct fr om t he ma
nner i n whi c h ob j ect s ar e
nor ma l ly t r ea t ed. Nor ma l l y, w
hen a n ob j ect
-
or i ent ed p r ogr a m is ex ecut ed, t he object s cr ea t ed dur ing t h e

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t ra nsi ent . But obj ect s t ha t ar e cr ea t ed a nd a dded t o a dat a ba se must be sa ved

a ft er t he pr ogr a m t ha t cr ea t ed
t hem t er mi na t es. S uch ob j ect s a r e sa id t o b e
p ers iste n t.
T hus ,

cr ea t ing p er sist ent ob j ect s is a signif ica nt

depa r t ur e fr om t he nor m.

P r oponent s of ob j ect
-
or i ent ed da t a ba ses off er nu mer ous a r gument s t o show why t he obj ect
-
or i ent ed
a ppr oa ch t o da t a ba se desi gn is bet t er t ha n t he r ela t iona l a ppr oa ch. One is t ha t
t he obj ect
-
or i ent ed a ppr oa ch
a ll ows t he ent ir e soft wa r e sys
-

t em (a pplica t i on s
oft wa re, DBMS ,a nd t he da t a ba se it sel f) t o be des igned i n
t he sa me pa r a digm. T his is in c ont r a st t o t he hist or ica ll y c ommon pr a ct ic e of usi
ng a n i mp er a t i ve
pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ge t o devel op a ppl ica t i on soft wa r e for int er r oga t i ng a r ela
t i ona l da t a ba se. Inher e
nt i n
such a t a sk is t he cla sh b et ween i mp er a t i ve a nd r ela t i ona l par a digms. T his dist
inct i on is subt l e a t our l evel
of
st udy,

but t he di ff er enc e ha s been t he s our c e of ma ny soft wa r e er r or s over t he yea r s.

Even a t our level,
weca na ppr ec ia t et ha t a nobj ect
-
or i ent edda t a ba secomb i nedwit ha nobj ect ed
-
or i ent eda ppli ca t ionpr ogr a m
pr oduc es a homogeneous i ma ge of obj ect s com muni ca t i ng wit h ea ch ot her t hr ou
ghout t he s yst em. On t he
ot her ha nd, a r ela t i ona l da t a ba se c omb i ned wit h a n i m per a t ive a ppl ica t i on
pr ogr a m
con jur es a n i ma ge of
t wo inher ent l y di ff er ent or ga niza t i ons tr yi ng t o fi nd a common i nt er fa ce. T o a
ppr ec ia t e a not her a dva nt a g e
t ha t obj ect
-
or i ent ed da t a ba ses ha ve over t heir r ela t iona l c ou nt er pa rt s, cons i der t he pr obl
em of st or i n g
emp l oyee na mes i n a r ela t
i ona l da t a ba se. If a n ent ir e na me is st or ed a s a singl e a t tr ibut e in a r ela t i on, t he
n
i nquir i es r ega r di ng onl y sur na mes a r e a wkwa r d. However , if t he na me is st or ed
a s indi vidua l a t t r ibut es,
such a s fir st na me, mi ddl e na me, a nd sur na me, t hen t he nu mb er of a
t tr ibut es bec omes pr obl ema t i c beca us e
not a ll na mes c on
-

for m t o a spec if ic st r uct ur e

even when t he p opula t i on is r est r ict ed t o a singl e cu lt ur e.

Ina nobj ect
-

na me i n a va r iet y of f or ma t s. T hus, fr om out si de t hes e obj ect s, it woul d b e just

a s ea sy t o dea l wit h onl y
sur na mes a s wit h ent ir e na mes, ma i den na
mes, or ni c kna mes. T he det a i ls i nvol ved wit h ea c h p er spect i ve
wou l d b e enca psula t ed wit hi n t he ob j ect s. T his a bil it y t o enca psula t e t he t ec
hnica l it i es of di ff er ent da t a
for ma t s is a dva nt a geous i n ot her ca ses a s wel l. In a r el a t iona l da t a ba se, t he a t
tr ibut e
s i n a r ela t ion a r e pa rt
of t he over a ll desi gn of t he da t a ba se, a nd t hus t he t yp es a ss ocia t ed wit h t hes e a t
tr ibut es per mea t e t he ent ir e
DBMS . (Va r ia bles for t emp or ar y st or a ge must be dec l a r ed t o b e t he a ppr opr ia t
e t yp e, a nd funct i ons for
ma nipula t i ng da t a
of t he va r ious t yp es must b e des i gned. ) T hus, ext endi ng a r ela t iona l da t a ba se t o
i nc lu d e
a t tr ibut esofnewt yp es(a udi oa ndvi deo)ca nbepr obl ema t i c. Inpar t icula r ,a var iet
yoffu nct ionst hr ou ghout
t he da t a ba se des i gn mi ght need t o b e expa nded t o i nc or po
r at e t hes e new da t a t ypes. In a n object
-
or i ent e d

usedt or et r i evea nobj ect r epr es ent i nga mot i onpi ct ur ebeca uset hedist i nct i onsint
yp eca nb ehi ddenw
it hi n
t he obj ect s i nvol ved.
T hus,

t he ob j ect
-
or i ent ed a ppr oa ch a ppea r s t o be mor e c ompa t ibl e wit h t h e
const r uct i on of mu lt i media da t a ba ses

a fea t ur e t ha t isa lr ea dy pr ovi ng t o b e a gr ea t a dva nt a ge.

S t ill a not her a dva nt a ge t he obj ect

-
or i ent ed pa ra digm off er
s t o da ta ba se desi gn is t he pot ent ia l for st or ing
i nt el l i gent ob j ect s r a t her t ha n mer el y da t a .T ha t is, a n object ca n c ont a i n met
hods descr ib i ng how it shou l d
r espond t o mess a ges r ega r di ng it s cont ent s a nd r ela t ions hips. F or exa mp l e, ea
ch obj ect of t he c la
ss
E mpl oyee i n F i gur e 118 c oul d c ont a i n met hods for r ep or t i ng a nd up da t ing t he i
nf or ma t i on i n t he ob j ect a s
r omt heJobc la ss coul dha vea met hodf or r epor t ingt h e
spec if ics of t he j ob a nd p er ha ps a met hod f or r epor t i ng t hos e emp l oyees who ha
ve hel d t ha t par t icula r job.
T hus,

t ion. Inst ea d,
we c ou l d mer ely a sk t he a ppr opr ia t e emp l oyee obj ect t o r epor t it s job hist or y. T
his a bil it y t o const r uct
da t a bases whos e c omp onent s r espond i nt el l i gent l y t o inqu ir i es off er s a n ex cit i
ng a rr a y of poss ib i lit i es
beyond t hos e of mor e t r a dit i ona l

r ela t i ona l da t a bases.

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Mod ule 160

53. 53.

160.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Mai nt ai ni ng DB Int egr ity

Inexp ens i ve da t a ba se ma na gement syst ems f or per sona l use a r e r ela t ivel y s i mp
l e s yst ems. T hey t end t o
ha ve a si ngl e ob j ect i ve

t o shi el d t he us er fr om t he t ec hnica l det a ils of

t he da t a ba se i mp l ement a t ion. T he
da t a bases ma i nt a i ned b y t hes e s yst ems a r e r ela t i vel y sma ll a nd gener a l l y c ont
a i n i nfor ma t i on whos e l oss
or cor r upt ionwou l db ei nc onveni ent r a t her t ha ndisa st r ous. Whena pr obl emdoesa r
ise, t heus er ca nusua lly
cor r ect t he

er r oneous it ems dir ect ly or r el oa d t he da t a ba se fr om a ba ckup cop y a nd ma nua l

ly ma ke t he
modif i ca t ions r equir ed t o br ing t ha t copy up t o da t e. This pr ocess mi ght be i nc
onveni ent , but t he c ost of
a voidingt hei nc onvenienc et endst ob egr ea t er t ha nt hei nc o
nvenienc eit self. I na nyca s e, t heinc onvenienc e
is r est r ict ed t o onl y a few p eop l e, a nd a ny fi na ncia l l oss is gener a ll y l i mit ed.

In t he ca se of la r ge, mu lt ius er , commer c ia l da t a ba se syst ems, however , t he st a

kes a r e muc h higher . T he
cost of i nc or r ect or l o
st da t a ca n be enor mous a nd ca n ha ve deva st a t ing c ons equ enc es. In t hes e

pr obl ems such a s op er a t ions t ha t for some r ea son a r e onl y pa r t ia lly c ompl et ed
or diff
er ent op er a t ions t ha t
mi ght i nt er a ct ina dver t ent l y t o ca use ina ccur a t e i nf or ma t ion i n t he da t a ba se.

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Mod ule 161

54. 54.

161.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: T he Co mmi t/ Ro l lb ac k Protoco l

A si ngl e t r a nsa ct ion, such a st he t ra nsf er of funds fr om one ba nk a ccou nt t o a not

her , t he
ca nc el la t ion of a n
a ir li ner es er va t i on, or t her egist r a t ion ofa st udent i na uni ver sit yc our se, mi ght i
nvolve mult ip l est epsa t t he
da t a base l evel. F or exa mp l e, a tr a nsfer of funds bet we en ba nk a ccou nt s r equ ir es
t ha t t he ba la nc e i n one
a ccou nt b e decr emen
t ed a nd t he ba la nc e i n t he ot her be i ncr ement ed. B et ween suc h st eps t he i nf or
ma t i on
i nt heda t a basemi ght bei nc onsist ent . Indeed, fu ndsa r emiss i ngdur i ngt hebr i efp er i
oda ft er t hef ir st a ccou nt
ha sbeendecr ement edbut bef or et heot her ha sbeeni ncr emen

sea t on a flight , t her e mi ght be a n inst a nt when t he pa ssenger ha s no sea t or a n

inst a nt when t he pa ssenger
list a ppea r s t o be one pa ss enger gr ea t er t ha n it a ct ua lly is.

In t he ca s e of la r ge da t a ba ses t ha t ar e
subj ect t o hea vy tr a nsa ct ion l oa ds, it is hi ghl y l i kel y t ha t a r a ndom
sna pshot wi ll f i nd t he da t a ba se i n t he mi ddl e of s ome t r a nsa ct ion. A r equ est f or
t he ex ecut i on of a
t ra nsa ct ion or a n equ ip ment ma lfu nct i on wi l l t her efor e li kel y oc cur a t a t i me
when t he

da t a base is i n a n
i nc onsist ent st a t e.

Let us fir st consi der t he pr ob l em of a ma lfu nct i on. T he goa l of t he D BMS is t o

ensur e t ha t such a pr obl e m
wi ll not fr eez e t he da t a ba se i n a n i nc ons ist ent st a t e. T his is oft en a ccomp lis hed
b y ma i nt a i ning a l og
cont a i ni

B ef or e a t ra nsa ct ion is a l l owed t o a lt er t he da t a ba se, t he a lt er a t ion t o b e p er

for med is f ir st r ec or ded i n t h e
l og. T hus t he l og cont a i ns a per ma nent r ec

T he point a t whic h a ll t he st eps i n a t ra nsa ct ion ha ve b een r ec or ded i n t he l og is

ca ll ed t he
co mmi t point.
It isat t hispoi nt t ha t t heDBMS ha st he i nf or ma t ionit needst or ec onst r uct t het r a nsa
ct ion onit sownift ha t
shoul d b ec ome nec ess a r y. At t his poi nt t he DBMS becomes commi t t ed t o t he t ra
nsa ct ion i n t he sens e t ha t

In t he ca se of a n equ ip ment ma lfu nct i o

n, t he DBMS ca n use t he i nf or ma t i on i n it s log t o r econst r uct t he
t ra nsa ct ions t ha t ha ve b een c omp l et ed (c om mit t ed) si nc e t he la st ba ckup wa s
ma de.

Ifpr oblemss houlda r is eb ef or ea t ra nsa ct ionha sr ea chedit scommit p oint , t heDBMS

mi ght fi ndit s elfwit h
a par t ia lly ex ecut ed t ra nsa ct ion t ha t ca nnot be c omp l et ed. In t his ca se t he l og ca
n be used t o
roll b ac k
(undo) t he a ct i vit i es a ct ua ll y p er for med b y t he t r a nsa cti on. In t he ca se of a ma
lfu nct i on, for i nst a nc e, t h e
DBMS coul d r ec over by r ol li ng ba ck t hos e t
r a nsa ct ions t ha t wer e inc omp l et e ( non
-
c ommi t t ed) a t t he t i m e
of t he ma lfu nct i on.

R ol lba cks of t r a nsa ct ions a r e not r est r ict ed, howeve r , t o t he pr oc ess of r ecover
i ng fr om equip ment

e, a tr a nsa ct ion mi ght be

t er mi na t edb ef or eit ha scomp l et eda l lit sst epsb eca use ofa na t t empt t oa cc ess pr i
vi l egedi nf or ma t i on, or it
mi ght be i nvolved in a dea dl oc k i n whic h c omp et i ng t r a nsa ct ions fi nd t hems el
ves wa it i ng f or da ta bei ng
used b y ea ch ot h
er . In t hes e ca s es , t he DBM S ca n us e t he log t o r oll ba c k a t ra ns a ct ion a nd t hus
a vo i d a n
er r oneous da t a ba se du e t o i nc ompl et e t r a nsa ct ions.

T o emp ha siz e t he deli ca t e na t ur e of DBMS des i gn, we shoul d not e t ha t t her e a r e

subt le pr obl ems lur ki ng
wit hint her ol lba ckpr oc ess. T her ol l ingba ckofonet ra nsa ct ionmi ght a ffect da t a ba
seent r i est ha tha vebee n
used by ot her t ra nsa ct ions. F or exa mp l e, t h
e t r a nsa ct ion b ei ng r ol l ed ba ck mi ght ha ve up da t ed a n a ccou nt
ba la nc e, a nd a not her tr a nsa ct ion mi ght ha ve a lr ea dy based it s a ct ivit i es on t his
upda t ed va lu e. T his mi ght
mea n t ha t t hes e a ddit i ona l t ra nsa ct ions must a lso be r oll ed ba ck, whic h might a
dver s el y

a ffect st ill ot her

t ra nsa ct ions. T he r esu lt is t he pr obl em known a s
casc adi ng rol lb ac k.

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Mod ule 162

55. 55.

162.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: L oc ki ng

W e now cons i der t he pr obl em of a tr a nsa ct ion b ei ng ex ecut ed whil e t he da t a base

is in a sta t e of flux fr om
a not her t ra nsa ct ion, a sit uat iont ha t ca nl ea dt oi na dver t ent i nt er a ct ionb et weent
het r a nsa ct ionsa ndpr oduc e
er r oneous r esult s. F or inst a nc e, t he pr
obl em known a s t he
i ncorr ect s ummary prob le m
ca n a r ise if on e
t ra nsa ct ionisi nt hemi ddl eoft r a nsf er r ingfu ndsfr omonea cc ou nt t oa not her whena
not her t r a nsa ct iont r i es
t o comput e t he t ot a l dep osit s i n t he ba nk. T his cou l d r esu lt i n a t ot a l t ha t is eit
her t oo la r ge or t oo s ma l l
dep endi ng on t he or
der i n whic h t he t r a nsfer st eps ar e per f or med. Anot her poss ib il it y is known a s t
he
lost
upd ate pro b le m,
whic h is ex emp l if i ed by t wo t r a nsact i ons, ea ch of whic h ma kes a dedu ct i on fr om
t he

a t t he poi nt when t he ot her ha s just

r ea dt heba la nc ebut ha snot yet ca lcula t edt henewba la nc e, t henbot ht r a nsa ct ionswi
l lba set heir deduct ions
on t he sa me i nit ia l ba la nc e. In t ur n, t he ef f ect of one of t he deduct i ons wi l l not be
r efl ect ed i n t he da t a b
a se.

T o sol ve su ch pr obl ems, a DBMS coul d f or c e t r a nsa ct i ons t o ex ecut e i n t heir ent
ir et y on a one
-
at
-
a
-
t i me
ba sisbyhol di ng ea c hnewt r a nsa ct ion i na qu eu eunt i lt hos epr ec eding it ha ve c omp l
et ed. But a t ra nsa ct ion
oft en spends a lot of t i me wa it i ng for
ma ss st ora ge oper a t ions t o be p er for med. By i nt er
-

wea ving t he
ex ecut i on of t r a nsa ct ions, t he t i me dur i ng whi c h one t r a nsa ct ion is wa it ing ca n
be us ed b y a not her
t ra nsa ct ion t o pr oc ess da t a it ha s a lr ea dy r et r i eved. Most la r ge da t a ba se ma
na gement syst ems t
her ef or e
cont a i n a schedu l er t o c oor di na t e t i me
-
sha r i ng a mong t r a nsa ct ions i n mu c h t he sa me wa y t ha t a
mult ipr ogr a mmi ng op er a t ing syst em c oor di na t es i nt er wea vi ng of pr oc ess es.

T o gua r d a ga inst such a noma l i es a s t he i nc or r ect summa r y pr obl em a nd t he l

ost up
da t e pr obl em, t hes e
schedu l er s i nc or por a t e a
locki ng p rotoco l
i n whic h t he it ems wit hi n a da ta ba s e t ha t ar e curr ent l y b ein g
used by some t r a nsa ct ion a r e ma r ked a s such. T hes e ma r ks a r e ca ll ed locks; ma r
ked it ems a r e sa id t o be
l oc ked. T wo t yp es of loc ks ar
e common

s har ed loc k s
a nd
excl us ive loc ks.
T hey cor r esp ond t o t he t wo
t yp esofa cc ess t oda t a t ha ta t ra nsa ct ionmi ght r equir e

sha r eda cc ess a ndex clus i vea cc ess . Ifa t ra nsa ct ion
is not goi ng t o a lt er a da t a it em, t hen it r equir es sha r ed a cc ess , mea ning t
ha t ot her t ra nsa ct ions a r e a lso
a ll owed t o vi ew t he da t a. However , if t he t r a nsa ct ion is goi ng t o a lt er t he it em,
it must ha ve exc lus i ve
a ccess , mea ni ng t ha t it must be t he only t r a nsa ct ion wit h a cc ess t o t ha t da ta .

In a loc ki ng pr ot oc ol, ea ch t i me a tr a ns
a ct ion r equ est s acc ess t o a da ta it em, it must a lso t ell t he DBMS t he
t yp eofa ccess it r equ ir es. Ifa tr a nsa ct ionr equ est ssha r eda cc ess t oa nit emt ha t iseit
her unl oc ked or loc ke d
wit h a shar ed l oc k, t ha t a ccess is
gra nt ed,

a nd t he it em is ma r ked wit h a

sha r ed loc k. If, however , t he

r equ est ed it em is a lr ea dy ma r ked wit h a n ex clus i ve l ock, t he a ddit i ona l a ccess is
deni ed. If a t ra nsa ct ion
r equ est s exc lusi ve a cc ess t o a n it em, t ha t r equ est is gr ant ed only if t he it em ha s
no l oc k a ss ocia t ed wit h it .
Int his

ma nner , a t ra nsa ct iont ha t isgoi ngt oa lt er da ta prot ect st ha t da ta fr omot her t ra nsa
ct ionsbyobt a ini ng
ex clus i ve a cc ess , wher ea s sever a l t r a nsa ct ions ca n s ha r e a cc ess t o a n it em if
none of t hem a r e going t o
cha nge it . Of cour s e, onc e a t r a nsa ct ion is f
i nis hed wit h a n it em, it not if i es t he D BM S , a nd t he a s s oc ia t e d
l oc k is r emoved.

a lgor it hm is t ha t t he t ra nsa ct ion is mer el y for c ed t o wa it unt i l t he r eq

u est ed it em b ec omes a va ila bl e. T his
a ppr oa ch, however , ca n l ea d t o dea dl oc k, si nc e t wo t r ansa ct i ons t ha t r equ ir e
exc lusi ve a cc ess t o t he sa m e

t hen i ns
ist s on wa it i ng f or t he ot her . T o a voi d such dea d
-

l ocks, some da t a ba se ma na gement syst ems gi v e

pr ior it y t o ol der tr a nsa ct ions. T ha t is, if a n older t ra nsact i on r equ ir es a cc ess t o
a n it em t ha t is loc ked by a
you nger tr a nsa ct ion, t he you nger t ra nsa ct ion is
for c ed t o r el ea s e a ll of it s da t a it ems, a nd it s a ct ivit i es a r e
r ol l ed ba ck (ba sed on t he log). T hen, t he ol der t r a nsa cti on is gi ven a cc ess t o t he
it em it r equ ir ed, a nd t he
you nger t ra nsa ct ion is f or c ed t o st a r t a ga in. If a you nger t r a nsa ct ion is r ep ea t
edl
y pr eempt ed, it wil l gr ow
older in t he pr oc ess a nd ult i ma t el y b ec ome one of t he older t ra nsa ct ions wit h high
pr ior it y. T his pr ot oc ol,

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known a s t he
wo und
-
w ait proto col
( ol d t ra nsa ct ions wou nd you ng t r a nsa ct ions, you ng t ra nsa ct ions wa it
for old ones), ensur e
s t ha t ever y t r a nsa ct ion wil l ult i ma t el y be a l l owed t o c omp l et e it s t a sk.

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Mod ule 163

56. 56.

163.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: S eq ue nt i al Fil es

A
se q ue nt i al fi le
is a fil e t ha t is a cc ess ed i n a ser ia l ma nner fr om it s begi nni ng t o it s end a s t hou
gh t h e
i nf or ma t ion i n t he f il e
wer e a rr a nged in one l ong r ow. Exa mp l es i nc lu de a udi o f il es, vi deo f il es, f i l es
cont a i ni ng pr ogr a ms, a nd fil es cont a i ni ng t ext ua l docu ment s. In fa ct , most of t
he f il es cr ea t ed by a t ypica l
per sona l c omput er user ar e sequ ent ia l f i l es. F or inst a nc e, when a s
pr ea ds heet is sa ved, it s inf or ma t ion i s
enc odeda ndst or eda sasequ ent ia lfi l efr om whi c ht hes pr ea ds heet a pplica t i onsoft
wa r eca nr ec onst r uct t he
spr ea dsheet .

T ext fi l es, whic h a r e s equ ent ia l f il es i n whic h ea c h l ogi ca l r ec or d is a singl e s

ymb ol enc oded
usi ng AS C II
or Uni c ode, oft ens er vea sa ba sict oolfor c onst r uct i ngmor e ela bor a t esequ ent ia lf il
essuc ha sa nemp l oye e
r ec or ds fi l e. One onl y needs t o est a blis h a unif or m for ma t for r epr es ent i ng t he i
nf or ma t i on a bout ea c h
emp l oyee a s a str ing of t ext , en
c ode t he i nf or ma t i on a ccor di ng t o t ha t for ma t , a nd t hen r ec or d t he r esult in g
emp l oyee r ec or ds one a ft er a not her a s one singl e st r ing of t ext . F or exa mp l e, one
c ou l d const r uct a simp l e
emp l oyee f i l e by a gr eei ng t o ent er ea c h empl oyee r ec or d a s a st r ing of 3
1 cha r a ct er s, cons ist i ng of a fi el d
of 25 cha r a ct er s cont a in
-

-
c ha r a ct er

wou l
d be a l ong st r ing of enc oded c ha r a ct er s in whi ch ea c h 31
-
c ha r a ct er bloc k r epr es ent s t he i nf or ma t i on
a bout a singl e emp l oyee (F i gur e 119). Infor ma t i on wou ld b e r et r i eved fr om t he f
i l e i n t er ms of l ogica l
r ec or ds c onsist ing of 31
-
c ha r a ct er bloc ks. Wit hin ea
c h of t hes e b l oc ks, i ndi vi dua l fi el ds wou l d be i dent i
-

fi ed a cc or ding t o t he unif or m f or ma t wit h whic h t he b l oc ks wer e c onst r uct ed.

Fi gure
119
: The st ruct ure of a si mpl e empl oyee f il e i mpl ement ed as a t ext fi l e

T he da t a in a sequ ent ia l fi l e must be r ec or ded i n ma ss st or a ge i n suc h a wa y t ha

t t he sequ ent ia l na t ur e of
t hefi l eispr es er ved. Ift he ma ss st or a gesyst emisit s elfsequ ent ia l(a sint he
ca seofa ma gnet i ct a peorC D),
t his is a stra ight f or wa r d under t a ki ng. We need mer el y r ec or d t he fi l e on t he st or
a ge mediu m a ccor di ng t o
t he s equ ent ia l pr op er t i es of t he mediu m. T hen pr oc essing t he f il e is t he t a sk of
mer el y r ea ding a nd
pr oc ess i ng t he f i l e

pla yi ng a udio C Ds, wher e t he musi c is st or ed a s a sequ ent ia l fi l e sect or by sect or

a long one c ont i nu ous
spir a ling t r a ck.

In t he ca se of ma gnet i c disk st or a ge, however

, t he fi l e wou l d be sca t t er ed over di ff er ent sect or s t ha t coul d
be r et r i eved i n a va r iet y of or der s. T o pr eser ve t he pr oper or der , most op er a t
ing syst ems ( mor e pr ec is el y,
t hef i l e ma na ger ) ma i nt a ina l ist oft hes ect or son whicht hef i l e isst or ed. T his l i
st isr ec or deda spa rt oft h e
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t hesect or sint hepr op er sequ enc ea st hou ght hefi l ewer est or eds equ ent ia l l y, event
hou ght hefi l eisa ct ua ll y
di
st r ibut ed over va r i ous por t ions of t he dis k.
Inher ent i npr ocess i ngasequ ent ia lfi l eist he needt odet ect whent he end oft hefi l eisr ea
ched. G ener ica l l y,
we r ef er t o t he end of a sequ ent ia l fi l e a s t he
e nd
-
of
-
fil e (E O F).
T her e a r e a var i et y of wa ys of
i dent if yi ng
t he EOF . One is t o pla ce a spec ia l r ec or d, ca ll ed a
senti ne l,
a t t he end of t he fi l e. Anot her is t o use t he

syst em knows whic h sect or s

cont a i n t he fi l e, it a lso knows wher e t he fil e t er mi na t es. A cla ss ic exa mp l e

i nvol vi ng sequ ent ia l fi l es is pa yr oll pr oc ess i ng i n a sma ll c ompa ny. Her e we i ma
gi ne a sequ ent ia l f i l e
cons ist
-

i ng of a ser i es of l ogica l r ec or ds, ea c h of whic h cont a ins t he i nf

(na me, emp l oyee i dent if ica t i on nu mb er , pa y sca le, a nd so on) fr om whi ch c hecks
must be pr int ed on a

chec k pr odu c ed.

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Mod ule 164

57. 57.

164.
Dat ab ase S yste ms: I nde xed Fi les

st or ed. However , suchfil esa r ei neff i ci ent whenr ec or dswit hi nt hef il emust b er et r
ievedin
a nunpr edi ct a bl e
or der . Insuc hsit ua t i onswha t isneededisa wa yt oi dent i fyt hel oca t i onoft hedes ir edl
ogica lr ec or dqui c kl y.
A p opula r solut i on is t o us e a n i ndex f or t he f i l e i n mu ch t he sa me wa y t ha t a n i
ndex i n a book is us ed t o
l oca t e t op ics wit h
i n t he b ook. S uch a fil e s yst em is ca l l ed a n i ndex ed f i l e.

Ani ndexfor afil econt a i nsalist oft hekeysst or edint hefi l ea l ong wit hent r i esi ndi ca t i
ng wher et her ecor d
cont a i ni ng ea ch key is st or ed. T hus t o find a pa rt icula r r ec or d, one f i nds t he i den
t if yi ng key i n t he i ndex
a nd t hen r et r i eves t he bl ock of i nf or ma t i on st or ed a t t he loca t i on a ss oc ia t ed
wit h t ha t key.

i ndex is usua l l y t r a nsfer r ed

t o ma i n me mor y b ef or e f i l e pr oc ess i ng b egi ns so t ha t it is ea si ly a cc ess ib l e

when a cc ess t o r ec or ds i n t he f i l e is r equ ir ed (F i gur e 120).

A cla ss ic exa mpl e of a n index ed fi l e oc cur s in t he cont ext of ma i nt a i ni ng emp l

oyee r ec or ds. Her e a n index
ca n be used

t o a void l engt hy sea r ches when you a r e r et ri evi ng a n indi vi dua l r ec or d. In par t
icula r , ift he fil e
b er is kno wn. Anot her exa mpl e is foun dona udi o
C Ds wher e a n i ndex is used t o a l l ow r ela t ivel y qui ck a c c ess t o i ndi vi dua l r ec or
di ngs.

Fi gure
120
: Openi ng an i ndexed f il e

Over t he yea r s
nu mer ous va r ia t ionsoft heba sic i ndexc onc ept ha veb eenus ed. Oneva r ia t ion c onst r
uct sa n
i ndex i n a hi er ar chi ca l ma nner so t ha t t he i ndex t a kes on a la yer ed or tr ee st r
uct ur e. A pr omi nent exa mp l e
is t he hi er a r chica l dir ect or y syst em us ed b y most op er a t in
g syst ems for or ga niz i ng f i l e st or a ge. I n suc h a
ca se, t he dir ect or i es, or fol der s, pla yt her ol e of i ndex es, ea c hc ont a i ni ng li nkst oit
ssub
-
i ndex es. F r omt his
per sp ect i ve, t he ent ir e f i l e syst em is mer el y one la r ge i ndex ed f i l e.

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Mod ule 165

58. 58.

165.

Dat ab ase
S yste ms: H as h Fi les

Alt hou gh i ndex i ng pr ovi des r ela t ivel y qu ic k a ccess t o ent r i es wit hi n a da ta st or
a ge st r uct ur e, it does so a t
t he exp ens e of i ndex ma i nt ena nc e.
H as hi ng
is a t ec hniqu e t ha t pr ovi des si mi la r a ccess wit hout such
over hea d. As in t he ca s e of

a n i ndex ed syst em, ha shi ng a ll ows a r ec or d t o be l oca t ed by mea ns of a key

va lu e. But , ra t her t ha n l ooki ng up t he key i n a n i ndex, ha shi ng i dent i fi es t he l
oca t ion of t he r ec or d dir ect l y
fr om t he key.

Aha shsyst emca nb esu mma r iz eda sfoll ows:T heda t a st

or a gespa c eisdivi dedi nt os ever a lsect i ons, ca ll e d
b uc kets,
ea ch of whic h isca pa ble of hol di ngs ever a lr ecor ds. T her ecor dsa r edisp er seda mongt
hebu cket s
a ccor di ng t o a n a lgor it hm t ha t conver t s key va lu es i nt o bucket nu mb er s. (T his
conver si on fr om key

va lu es
t obucket nu mb er sisca l l eda
has h func tio n.
)Ea chr ec or disst or edi nt hebu cket i dent ifi edb yt hispr oc ess .
T her ef or e, a r ec or d t ha t ha s been p la c ed i n t he st or a ge st r uct ur e ca n b e r et r i
eved b y fir st a pplyi ng t he ha s h

nt i f yi ng key t o det er mi ne t he a ppr opr ia t e bucket , t hen r et r i evi ng t he c ont ent s

of
t ha t bucket , a nd fi na l ly s ea r chi ng t hr ou gh t he da t a r et r i eved f or t he des ir ed r
ec or d.

Ha shi ng is not onl y us ed a s a mea ns of r et r i evi ng da t a fr om ma ss st or a ge but a

ls o a s a m
ea ns of r et r i evi ng
it ems fr om la r ge bl oc ks of da t a st or ed i n ma i n memor y. When ha shi ng is a ppli ed t
o a st or a ge st r uct ur e i n
ma ss st or a ge, t he r esu lt is ca ll ed a
has h fil e.
When a ppl i ed t o a st or a ge st r uct ur e wit hi n ma i n me mor y, t he
r esult is usua ll y ca ll ed

a
has h t abl e.

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Mod ule 166

59. 59.

166.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: H as h Fi le

E xamp l e

Let us a pply t he ha shi ng t ec hni qu e t o t he cla ss ic emp loyee f i l e i n whi c h ea c h r ec

or d c ont a i ns i nf or ma t io n
a bout a singl e emp l oyee i n a compa ny. F irst , we est a bl i sh sever a l a va ila bl e ar ea s
of

ma s s st or a ge t ha t wil l
pla y t he r ol e of buc ket s. T he nu mb er of buc ket s a nd t he s iz e of ea c h bucket a r e
desi gn dec is i ons t ha t we
wi ll c onsi der la t er . F or now, let us a ss ume t ha t we ha ve cr ea t ed 41 bucket s,
whic h we r ef er t o a s bucket
nu mb er 0, bucket nu mb e
r 1, t hr ough bucket nu mb er 40. (T he r ea s on we s el ect ed 41 bucket s r a t her t ha n
an
even 40 wi l l be exp la i ned shor t l y. )
is t o devel op a ha sh fu nct i on f or conver t i ng t hes e keys i nt o buc ket

t her ef or enot nu mer ic, t heya r est or eda sbit pa t t er ns, a ndweca ni nt er pr et t hebit
pa t t
er nsa snu mb er s. Usin g
t his nu mer ic i nt er pr et a t ion, we ca n di vide a ny key b y t he nu mb er of buc ket s a va
i la bl e a nd r ec or d t he
r ema i nder , whic h i n our ca se wi ll b e a n i nt eger i n t he r a nge fr om 0 t o 40. T hus
we ca n us e t he r ema i nder
of t his divisi on pr oc ess t o

i dent if y one of t he 41 bucket s (F igur e 121).

Fi gure
121
: Has hi ng t he key f i el d val ue 25 X3Z
t o one of 41 bucket s

Us i ng t his a s our ha sh funct i on, we pr oc eed t o c onst r uct t he f i l e by c onsi der i ng

ea c h r ec or d i ndi vi dua l l y,
a pplying our di vi de
-
by
-
41 ha sh fu nct i on t o it s key t o obt a in a bucket nu mb er , a nd t hen st or i ng t he r ec
or d
i n t ha t bucket (F i gur e

122). La t er , if we need t o r et r i eve a r ec or d, we need mer el y a pply our ha sh fu nct

i on
At t his poi nt l et us r ec onsi der our dec isi on t o di vi de t he

s t or a ge a r ea i nt o 41 bu cket s . F ir s t , not e t ha t t o
obt a i n a n eff ic i ent ha sh syst em, t he r ecor ds being st or ed shoul d b e dist r ibut ed
evenl y a mong t he bucket s.
Ifa dispr opor t i ona t enu m
-

b er ofkeysha pp ent oha sht ot hesa mebuc ket (a phenomenonca l l ed

cl u
ste ri ng
),
t hena dispr opor t i ona t enu mb er ofr ec or dswil lb est or edina singl ebucket . Int ur n, r
et r i evi nga r ec or dfr om
t ha t bucket cou l d r equir e a t ime
-
c onsu mi ng s ea r ch, ca using t he l oss of a ny b enef it s ga i ned by ha shi ng.

Now obs er ve t ha t if we ha d chos en t o divide t he st or a ge a r ea int o 40 bucket s r a t

her t ha n 41, our ha sh
funct i on wou l d ha ve i nvol ved di vi di ng t he keys b y t he va lu e 40 r a t her t ha n 41.
But , if a di vi dend a nd a
di vis or bot h ha ve a common fa ct or , t ha t fa ct or wil
l b e pr es ent i n t he r ema i nder a s wel l. In pa r t icula r , if t he
keys t o t he ent r i es st or ed i n our ha sh fil e ha ppened t o be mu lt ip l es of 5 (whi ch is a
lso a di visor of 40), t hen
t he fa ct or of 5 woul d a ppea r in t he r ema i nder s when di vi ded by 40, a nd t he ent r i
es
wou l d c lust er i n t hos e
bucket s a ss ocia t ed wit h t he r ema i nder s 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, a nd 35. S i mila r sit
uat ions wou l d oc cur in
t he ca se of keys t ha t ar e mu lt ipl es of 2, 4, 8, 10, and 20, beca use t hey a r e a ll a lso fa c
-

t or s of 40.

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C ons equ ent l y, wec hoos e

t o di vi det hest or a gea r ea int o41bucket sbeca uset he choic e of41, bei nga pr im e
nu mb er , el i mi na t ed t he p oss ib i l it y of c ommon fa ct or s and t her ef or e r educ ed t
he c ha nc e of clust er i ng.

Fi gure
122
: T he rudi me
nt s of a hashi ngsyst em

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Mod ule 167

60. 60.

167.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: Dat a M i ni ng

A r a pidly expa ndi ng subj ect t ha t is clos el y a ss oc ia t ed wit h da t a ba se t ec hnol ogy

is da t a mi ni ng, whic h
cons ist sof
t ec hni qu esf or disc over i ngpa t t er nsi nc ol l ect i onsofda t a . Da ta mi ni ng ha sbec
omea ni mp or t a nt
t oolinnu mer ousa r ea sinc lu di ngma r ket i ng, i nvent or yma na gement , qua l it yc ont r
ol, loa nr iskma na gement ,
fr a ud det ect i on, a nd invest ment a na lysis. Da ta mi ni ng t
echni qu es even ha ve a pplica t i ons in wha t mi ght
seem u nl i kel y set t i ngs a s ex empl if i ed by t heir use i n i dent if yi ng t he fu nct i ons of
pa rt icula r genes enc oded
i n DNA mol ecul es a nd c ha r a ct er izi ng pr op er t i es of or ga nis ms.

Da t a mi ni ng a ct i vit i es diff er fr om t r a di
t i ona l da t a ba se i nt er r oga t i on i n t ha t da t a mi ni ng s eeks t o i dent if y
pr evi ous ly u nknown pa t t er ns a s oppos ed t o t r a dit i ona l da t a base i nquir i es t ha t
mer ely a sk f or t he r et r i eva l
of st or ed fa ct s. Mor e
-

over , da ta mi ning is pr a ct iced on st a t ic da ta col l ect i ons,

ca ll ed
data w are ho uses,

da t a bases beca use

f indi ng pa t t er ns i n a st at ic syst em is ea si er t ha n i n a dyna mic one.

W e shou l d a lso not e t ha t t he subj ect of da t a mi ni ng is not r est r ict ed t o t he doma

i n of c omput i ng but ha s
t ent a cl es t ha t ext end fa r int o st a t ist ics. In fa ct , ma ny wou ld a r gu e t ha t si nc e
da
t a mi ni ng ha d it s or igi ns i n
a t t empt s t o p er for m st a t ist ica l a na l ysis on la r ge, di ver se da t a col l ect i ons, it
is a n a ppl ica t i on of st a t ist ics
r at her t ha n a fi eld of c omput er sci enc e.

T woc ommonf or msofda t a mi ni nga r e

c l ass descr ip tio n
a nd
c l ass d iscr i mi na
t io n.
C la ss descr ipt i ondea l s
wit hi dent if yingpr oper t i est ha t cha ra ct er iz ea given gr oupofda t ait ems, wher ea scla
ssdiscr i mi na t i ondea ls
wit hi dent i f yi ngpr op er t i est ha t di vi det wogr oups. F or exa mp l e, cla ss descr ipt i
ont ec hni qu eswoul db eus ed
t o i dent
if y c ha r a ct er ist ics of p eopl e who bu y s ma l l economi ca l vehic l es, wher ea s cla ss
dis cr i mi na t i on
t ec hni qu es wou ldb eus edt of i ndpr op er
-

t i est ha t dist i ngu ish cust omer s whos hop for us edca r sfr omt hos e
who shop f or new ones.

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Mod ule 168

61. 61.

168.

Dat ab ase S yste ms:

Dat a M i ni ng

E xamp l es and I mp li c at io ns

Anot her for mofda t a mi ni ngis

c l ust eranal ysis,
whic hseekst odisc over cla ss es. Not et ha t t hisdiff er sfr om
cla ss descr ipt ion, whi ch s eeks t o disc over pr op er t i es of me mb er s wit hi n cla ss es
t ha t ar e a lr ea dy
i dent if i ed.
Mor epr ec is el y, clust er a na lysist r iest ofi ndpr op er t i esofda t ait emst ha t lea dt ot
hedis c over yofgr oup i ngs.

clust er a na lysis mi ght fi nd

t ha t t he cust omer ba se br ea ks down i nt o t wo a ge gr oups

a 4
-
to
-
0 a ge gr oup
a nd a 25
-
to
-
40 a ge gr oup. (P er ha ps t he mot i on pict ur e a t t ra ct ed c hi ldr en a nd t heir par ent
s?)

S t ill a not her for m of da t a mini ng is

ass oci atio n analy sis,
whic h i nvol ves l ooki ng for li n
ks bet ween da t a
gr oups. It is a ss ocia t ion a na l ys is t ha t mi ght r evea l t ha t cust omer s who bu y pot
a t o c hips a lso buy b eer a nd
soda or t ha t peop l e who shop dur i ng t he t r a dit i ona l weekda y wor k hour s a lso dr a
w r et ir ement b enef it s.

O ut l ie ranalys is
isa not her f or
mof da t a mi ni ng. It t r ies t oi dent if y da t a ent r i es t ha t do not c omp l y wit ht h e
nor m. Out li er a na lysis ca n be used t o i dent if y er r or s in da t a coll ect i ons, t o ident
if y cr edit ca r d t heft by

ns, a nd per ha ps t o ident i fy pot ent ia l

t er r or ist s by r ecogniz i ng unusua l b eha vior .

F ina l l y, t he for m of da t a mi ni ng ca ll ed
seq ue nt i al pat ter n analys is
t r ies t o ident if y pa t t er ns of beha vi or
over t i me. F or exa mpl e, s equ ent ia lpa t t er na na lys is mi ght r evea lt r
endsi n ec onomics yst emssuc ha sequ it y
ma r ket s or i n envir on
-

ment a l syst ems suc h a s cli ma t e condit i ons.

As i ndi ca t ed by our la st exa mpl e, r esult s fr om da t a mi ni ng ca n be used t o pr edict

fut ur e beha vi or . If a n
ent it y poss ess es t he pr oper t i es t ha t cha ra ct e
r iz e a cla s s , t hen t he ent it y will pr oba bly b eha ve l ike memb er s
of t ha t cla ss . However , ma ny da t a mi ni ng pr oj ect s are a i med a t mer el y ga i ning a
bet t er under st a ndi ng

oft heda t a, a swit ness edbyt heus eofda t a mi ningi nunr a vel i ngt hemyst er i esofDN A. I
na nyca s e,
t hescop eofda t a mi ni nga pplica t i onsispot ent ia ll yenor mous, a ndt husda t a mi ni ngpr
omis est obea na ct iv e
a r ea of r esea r ch f or yea r s t o come. Not e t ha t da t a ba se t ec hnol ogy a nd da t a mi
ni ng a r e cl os e c ous i ns, a nd
t hus r es ea r ch i n one wi l l ha ve

r ep er cus s i ons i n t he ot her . Da ta ba s e t ec hn i qu es a r e us ed ext ens i vel y t o gi v e

da t a wa r ehous es t he ca pa bil it y of pr es ent i ng da t a in t he f or m of
d at a c ubes
( da t a vi ewed fr om mult ipl e
per sp ect i ves

t het er m
cube
isusedt oconj ect ur et hei ma geofmu lt ipl e
di mens i ons )t ha t ma keda t a mi ni ng
poss ib l e. I n t ur n, a s r esea r cher s i n da t a mi ni ng i mpr ove t ec hni qu es f or i mp l
ement i ng da t a cubes, t hes e
r esult s wi ll pa y di vi dends i n t he f i el d of da t a ba se des i gn.

Inc l osi ng, weshou l dr ecogniz et ha t succ ess fulda t a mi ni ng

enc ompa ss esmuc hmor et ha nt hei dent i fi ca t io n

of pa t t er ns wit hi n a col l ect i on of da t a . Int el li gent ju dgment must be a ppli ed t o
det er mi ne whet her t hos e
pa t t er ns ar e signif ica nt or mer el y coinc i denc es. T he fa ct t ha ta par t icula r
convenienc e st or e ha s sol d a

hi gh
nu mb er of wi nni ng l ot t er y t ic ket s s houl d pr oba bl y not be c ons i der ed si gnif ica
nt t o s omeone p la nni ng t o
buy a lot t er y t ic ket , but t he disc over y t ha t cust omer s who buy sna ck food a lso t end
t o buy fr oz en di nner s
mi ght c onst it ut e mea ni ngful i nf or ma t i ont
oa gr oc er yst or e ma na ger . Likewis e, da t a mi ni ng enc ompa ss esa
va st nu mb er of et hica l iss u es i nvol vi ng t he r i ght s of i ndivi dua ls r epr es ent ed i n t
he da t a wa r ehous e, t he
a ccur a cy a nd use of t he c onc lusi ons dr a wn, a nd even t he a ppr opr ia t eness of da t a
mi ni ng i
n t he f ir st pla ce.

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Mod ule 169

62. 62.

169.

Dat ab ase S yste ms: S oci al I mp act of D at abas e T ec hno logy

Wit h t he devel op ment of da t a base t echnol ogy, infor ma t i on t ha t wa s onc e bur ied
i n a r ca ne r ec or ds ha s
bec ome a cc ess ib l e. In ma ny ca ses, a ut oma t ed l ibr a r y syst ems p la c e
t
a genc i es, pol it i ca l pa r t ies, emp l oyer s, a nd pr i va t e i ndi vi dua ls.

T his is r epr es ent a t i ve of t he p ot ent ia l pr ob l ems t ha t per mea t e t he ent ir e spect

r um of da t a ba se a pplica t i ons.
T ec hnol ogy ha s ma de it ea sy t o c ol l ect enor mous a mount s of da t a a nd t o mer ge
or
compa r e dif f er ent da t a
col l ect i ons t o obt a in r ela t ions hips t ha t woul d ot her wis e r ema i n bur i ed in t he
hea p. T he r a mif ica t i ons, bot h
posit i ve a nd nega t i ve, a r e enor mous. T hes e r a mif ica t i ons a r e not mer el y subj
ect s f or a ca demi c deba t e

t hey a r e r ea lit i es.

In s
ome
ca ses,

t he da t a col l ect i on pr oc ess is r ea di ly a ppa r ent ; in ot her s it is subt le. Exa mpl es
of t he fir st
ca se occur when one is exp l ic it l y a sked t o pr ovi de i nfor ma t i on. T his ma y b e done
i n a volu nt a r y ma nner ,
a s in sur veys or cont est r egist r a t ion f or ms, or it ma y b
e done i n a n involu nt a r y ma nner , such as whe n

pr ovi di ngp er sona li nf or ma t ionwhena ppl yi ngf or a loa nvolu nt a r yor i nvolu nt a r
y?T hedist i nct i ondep ends
on whet her r ec ei ving t he l oa n is a conveni enc e or a nec ess it y. T o use a cr edit ca r
d a t some r et a i l er s now
r equir est ha t youa llowyour signa t ur et ober ecor dedi na digit i z edfor ma t . Aga i n, pr
ovi di ngt hei nf or ma t i on
is eit her volu nt a r y or involu nt a r y dep en
di ng on your sit ua t ion.

Mor esubt l eca sesofda t acol l ect i ona voi ddir ect commu nica t i onwit ht hesubj ect . Exa
mpl esi nc lu dea cr edit
compa ny t ha t r ec or ds t he pur c ha si ng pr a ct ices of t he holder s of it s cr edit ca r ds,
websit es t ha t r ecor d t h e
i dent it i es of t ho
s e who vis it t he s it e, a nd socia l a ct ivist s who r ecor d t he l ic ens e pla t e nu mb er s
on t he ca r s

c a ses,

t he subj ect of t he da t a col l ect i on mi ght not be

a wa r et ha t infor ma t i onisb ei ngc oll ect eda ndl ess
l i kel yt obea wa r eoft he ex ist enc e oft he da t a basesb ei ng
const r uct ed.

S omet i mes t he under l ying da t a

-
col l ect i on a ct ivit i es a r e self
-
evi dent if one mer el y st ops t o t hi nk. F or
exa mp l e, a gr oc er y st or e mi ght off er disc ou nt s t o it s regu la r cust omer s who r
egis
t er in a dva nc e wit h t h e
st or e. T he r egist r a t ion pr oc ess mi ght i nvol ve t he iss ua nc e of ident if i ca t ion ca r
ds t ha t must be pr es ent ed a t
t he t i me of pur cha se t o obt a i n t he disc ou nt . T he r esult is t ha t t he st or e is a bl e t
o compi l e a r ecor d of t he

cha ses
a r ec or d whos e va lu e fa r exc eeds t he va lu e of t he disc ou nt s a wa r ded.

Of cour se, t he f or c e dr i ving t his boom i n da t a col l ect i on is t he va lu e of t he da t a ,

which is a mplif i ed b y
a dva nc es i n da t a ba se t ec hnology t ha t a llow da t a t o be li nked i n wa ys t ha t

r evea l i nf or ma t i on t ha t wou l d
ot her wis er ema i nobscur e. F or exa mpl e, t hepur cha si ngpa t t er nsofcr edit ca r dhol
der sca nbec la ss if i eda nd
cr oss
-
l ist edt o obt a i ncust omer pr of il esofi m mens e ma r ket i ngva lu e. S ubscr ipt i onf or
msf or body
-
bui l di ng
ma ga zi nes c
a n b e ma i l ed t o t hos e who ha ve r ec ent l y pur cha sed ex er cis e equ ip ment , wher ea
s subs cr ipt ion
for ms for dog ob edi enc e ma ga z ines ca n be t a r get ed t owa r d t hos e who ha ve r ec
ent l y pur cha sed dog food.
Alt er na t i ve wa ys of comb i ni ng i nf or ma t i on ar e somet i mes ver y i ma
gi na t i ve. Welfa r e r ec or ds ha ve bee n
compa r ed t o cr i mi na l r ec or ds t o f i nd a nd a ppr ehend pa r ol e viola t or s, a nd i n
1984 t he S el ect i ve S er vic e i n
t he Unit ed S t a t es used old b ir t hda y r egist r a t ion list s fr om a popu la r ice cr ea m r
et a i l er t o i dent if y c it i z ens
who
ha d fa il ed t o r egist er for t he mi l it a r y dr a ft .

T her e a r e s ever a l a ppr oa ches t o pr ot ect i ng s oc i et y fr om a busive us e of da t a

-

ba ses. One is t o a pply l ega l

r emedi es. Unf or t una t el y, pa ss inga la wa ga i nst a na ct i ondoesnot st opt hea ct i onfr
omoc cur r ingbut me
r el y
ma kes t he a ct i on il l ega l. A pr i me exa mp l e in t he Unit ed S t a t es is t he P r iva c y Act
of 1974 whos e pur pos e
wa s t o pr ot ect cit iz ens fr om a busi ve us e of gover nment da t a ba ses. One pr ovis i on
of t his a ct r equ ir e d

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gover nment a genc i es t o publis h not ic e of t heir

da t a ba ses in t he F eder a l R egist er t oa ll ow cit iz ens t o a cc ess

a nd c or r ect t heir per sona l i nf or ma t i on. However , gover nment a genc i es wer e sl
ow t o c omp l y wit h t his
pr ovisi on. T his does not nec ess a r ily i mpl y ma l ic i ou s int ent . In ma ny ca ses t he pr
obl em wa s one

of
bur ea ucr a cy.
But

t he fa ct t ha t a bur ea ucr a cy mi ght be c onst r uct ing p er sonnel da t a bases t ha t it is

una ble t o
i dent i f y is not r ea ss ur ing.

Anot her , a nd p er ha ps mor e power fu l, a ppr oa ch t o cont r ol li ng da t a ba se a buse is

public opi ni on. Da ta ba ses
wi llnot be
a busedi ft hepena lt i esout wei ght hebenef it s; a ndt hep ena lt ybusi ness esfea r t he most
isa dver s e
publi c opi ni on

t his go es r i ght t o t he b ot t om li ne. I n t he ea r ly 19 90 s it wa s pu blic opi ni on t ha

t ult i ma t el y
st opp ed ma j or cr edit bur ea us fr om sel l i ng ma i l i ng

list s for ma r ket i ng pur poses. Mor e r ec ent ly, Googl e

disc ont i nu ed it s G oogle Buzz soc ia l net wor king t ool i n 2011 a ft er it s a utoma t ic
sha r ing of c ont a ct
i nf or ma t ion fr om t he popu la r Gma i l t ool wa s gr eet ed wit h ha r sh public cr it ic is m.
Even gover nment
a genc i e
s ha ve bowed t o publi c opi ni on. In 1997 t he S oc ia l S ecur it y Admi nist r a t ion i n t he
Unit ed S ta t es
modif i edit spla nt o ma keS oc ia lS ecur it yr ec or dsa va ila bl evia t heI nt er net whenpubl
icop i nion qu est i oned
t hesecur it yoft hei nf or ma t i on. Insome oft hes eca
sesr esu lt swer eobt a ined i nda ys

a s tar kcont r a s tt ot he
ext ended t i me p er i ods a ss ocia t ed wit h l ega l pr oc ess es.

Ofc our se, i n ma nyca ses da t a basea ppli ca t ionsa r eb enefic ia lt obot ht he hol der a ndt
hesubj ect oft he da t a ,
but in a ll
ca ses,

t her e is a loss

of pr iva cy t ha t s houl d not be t a ken l i ght l y. S uch pr iva cy is s u es a r e s er ious

whent he i nf or ma t ionisa ccur a t e, butt heybec ome gi ga nt i cwhent he i nf or ma t ion
iser r oneous. Ima gi net h e
f eeli ng of hop el ess ness if you r ea l iz ed t ha t your cr edit r a t ing wa s a d
ver s el y a ff ect ed by er r oneous
i nf or ma t ion. I ma gi ne how your pr obl ems woul d be a mpl if i ed i n a n envir onment i
n whi c h t his
mis i nf or ma t i on wa s r ea di l y sha r ed wit h ot her i nst it ut i ons. Pr iva c y pr obl ems
a r e, a nd wi l l b e, a ma j or sid e
eff ect of a dva nc i ng t ec hnol og
y in gener a l a nd da t a ba se t ec hni qu es i n pa r t icula r . T he s olut i ons t o t hes e
pr obl ems wi ll r equ ir e a n educa t ed, a ler t , a nd a ct ive c it i z enr y.
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Mod ule 170

63. 63.

170.
Arti fic i al Inte ll ige nc e: I ntro d uc tio n and Vis io n

Ar t if ic ia l i nt ell i genc e is t he fi el d of c omput er sci enc e t ha t seeks t o buil d a ut

onomous ma chi nes
-

ma chi nes
t ha t ca ncarr yout comp l ext a skswit hout hu ma ni nt er ve nt i on. AI ishelpi ngt o ma keR
ob ot sa sshowni nt he
F igur e 123, a nd s el f
-
dr i vi ng ca r sa s shown

i n t he F i gur e 124.

Fi gur e
123
: Robot

Fi gure
124
: Sel f
Dri vi ngC ars

R obot s ca n help pa t i ent s, for exa mp l e one t yp ica l r ob ot shown i n t he F i gur e 125
ca n a ll evia t e a per son
even 40 t i mes a da y.
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Fi gure
125
: Medi cal robot hel pi ng t he pat i ents
P epp er R obot wor ks a s r ec ept i onist in B el gia n hosp it a l shown i n t he F i gur e 126.

Fi gure
126
: Recept i oni st Robot

Anot her r obot isshowni nt heF igur e127.T hisr obot isa blet ot a kebloodfr omt hevei nsoft
he hu ma nsa nd
it is mor e a ccura t e t ha n hu ma ns. It per for ms i ma ge pr oc ess i ng t o loca t e t he vei
ns a nd fur t her conf ir med b y
t he ult r a sound.

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Fi gure
127
: Robot draws blood

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Mod ule 171

64. 64.

171.

Arti fic i al Inte ll ige nc e: I nte l lig e nt Age nts

An
age nt

it s envir onment . It is na t ura l t o envisi on a n a gent a s

a n i ndi vi dua l ma c hi ne suc h a s a r obot , a lt hou gh a n a gent ma y t a ke ot her for ms
suc h a s a n a ut onomous
a ir pla ne, a char a ct er in a n i nt er a ct ive vi deo ga me, or a pr ocess c ommu nica t i ng
wit h ot her pr oc ess es o
ver
t he I nt er net (p er ha ps a s a cli ent , a ser ver , or a peer ). Most a gent s ha ve sens or s
by whic h t hey r ec ei ve da t a
fr om t heir envir onment s a nd a ct ua t or s by whic h t hey c a n a ffect t heir envir
onment s. Exa mp l es of s ens or s
i nc lu de mi cr op hones, ca mer a s, ra nge sens
or s, a nd a ir or soi l sa mp li ng devi c es. Exa mpl es of a ct ua t or s
i nc lu de wheel s, l egs, wi ngs, gr ipp er s, a nd speec h synt hes iz er s.

Much of t he r es ea r ch i n a r t ific ia l i nt el li genc e ca n b e c ha r a ct er iz ed i n t he c ont

ext of bui l ding a gent s t ha t
beha ve i nt el l i gent ly, m

r ec ei ved t hough it s s ens or s. In t ur n, we ca n c la ss ify t his r es ea r ch b y c onsi der

ing diff er ent l evels of t hes e
r espons es.

T hes i mp l est r esp ons eisa r efl exa ct i on, whic h

ismer el ya pr edet er minedr esp ons et ot hei nputda t a . Higher

a gent wit h knowl edge of it s envir onment a nd r equir e t ha t t he a gent a djust it s a ct

ions a cc or
di ngl y. T he
pr oc ess of t hr owing a ba seba ll is la r gel y a r ef l ex a ct ion but det er mi ni ng how a
nd wher e t o t hr ow t he ba ll
r equir esknowl edgeoft hecur r ent envir onment . (T her ei soneout wit hr unner sonf ir st a
ndt hir d. )Howsuc h
r ea l
-
wor l d knowl edge ca n b e st
or ed, upda t ed, a cc ess ed, a nd ult i ma t el y a ppli ed i n t he dec is i on
-
ma ki n g
pr oc ess cont inu es t o be a cha l l enging pr ob l em i n a rt ific ia l i nt ell i genc e.

Anot her level of r espons e is r equ ir ed if we wa nt t he a gent t o seek a goa l suc h a s wi

nni ng a ga me of chess
or ma
neu ver i ng t hr ou gh a cr owded pa ss a gewa y. S uch goa l
-
r espons e, or sequ enc e of r espons es, b e t he r esu lt of delib er a t el y f or mi ng a pla n
of a ct i on or sel ect i ng t h e
best a ct ion a mong t he cur r ent opt i ons.

In some
ca s es,

devel op i ng
pro ced ur al knowl edge

d ec l ar at ive know le dge

Lea r ning pr oc edur a l knowl edge usua ll y i nvol ves a tr ia l

-
a nd
-
er r or pr
ocess by whic h a n a gent l ea r ns
a ppr opr ia t e a ct ions by b ei ng punis hed f or poor a ct ions a nd r ewa r ded f or good
ones. F ol l owi ng t his
a ppr oa ch, a gent s ha ve been devel op ed t ha t , over t ime, i mpr ove t heir a bilit i es i n
comp et it i ve ga mes such a s
chec ker s a nd chess .
Lea r ni ng dec la r a t ive knowl edge u sua lly t a kes t he for m of expa ndi ng or a lt er i ng t
he

da t a base of knowl edge (t her e is st il l just one out , but now r unner
s ar e on f ir st a nd s ec ond) fr om whic h
r at iona l r esp ons es t o futur e event s a r e det er mi ned.
T ha t is, a n a gent must b e a bl e t o ext r a ct inf or ma t ion fr om t
he da t a pr oduc ed b y it s sens or s, or in ot her
wor ds, a na gent must be a ble t o per c ei ve. In some
ca s es,

t his is a st ra ight f or wa r d pr ocess . S igna ls obt a ine d

fr om a gyr osc op e a r e ea sil y enc oded i n f or ms compa t ibl e wit h ca lcu la t ions f or
det er mi ni ng r espons es. B
ut
i n ot her
ca ses,

ext r a ct ing i nf or ma t i on fr om input da t a is dif fi cult . Exa mp l es i nc lu de under st a

ndi ng sp eec h
a nd i ma ges. Likewis e, a gent s must be a ble t o for mu l a t e t heir r espons es in t er ms
compa t ible wit h t heir
a ct uat or s. T his mi ght be a str a ight f or wa r d
p
r oc es s ,

or it mi ght r equ ir e a n a gent t o f or mula t e r esp ons es a s

comp l et e spoken s ent enc es

mea ni ng t ha t t he a gent must gener a t e speec h. In t ur n, such t opics a s ima ge

pr oc ess i ng a nd a na l ys is, na t ura l la ngua ge u nder st a ndi ng, a nd sp eec h gener a t
ion a r e i mp or t a nt

ar ea s of
r es ea r ch. T he a gent a t tr ibut es t ha t we ha ve i dent if i ed her e r epr es ent pa st a s
wel l a s cur
-
r ent ar ea s of
r es ea r ch. Of cour se, t hey a r e not t ot a ll y i ndep endent of ea c h ot her . We woul d li
ke t o devel op a gent s t ha t
poss ess a lloft hem, pr oduc inga gen
t st ha t under st a ndt heda t a r ec ei vedfr omt heir envir onment sa nddevel op

t ies.

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However , byis ola t i ngva r ioust yp esofr a t iona lb eha vi or a ndpur suingt hemindep end
ent ly, r es ea r cher sga i n
a t oehol d t ha t ca n la t er be c omb i ned wit h pr ogr ess i n ot her a r ea st o pr oduc e
mor e i nt ell i gent a gent s.

W e cl os e t his subsect i on b y i nt r oduc i ng a n a gent t ha t wi ll pr ovide a cont ext f or

our discussi on i n S ect i ons
65. 65.

11. 2 a nd 11. 3. T he a ge
nt is des i gned t o sol ve t he ei ght
-
puzzl e, whic h c ons ist s of ei ght squa r e t il es la bel ed
1t hr ough8mou nt edi nafra meca pa bleofhol di nga t ota lofni nesucht i l esint hr eer owsa
ndt hr eec olu mns
(F igur e 128). Among t he t i l es i n t he fr a me is a va ca ncy int o

whic h a ny of t he a dja c ent t i l es ca n b e pushed,

a ll owingt het i l esi nt hefr a met ob escr a mbl ed. T hepr obl emp os edist omovet het il esi
na scra mbl edpuzz l e
ba ck t o t heir init ia l p osit i ons (F igur e 128).

Fi gure
128
: T he ei ght
-
puzzl ei n it ssol ved confi gurat i on
Our a gent t a kes t he f or m of a box equ ipp ed wit h a gr ipper , a vi deo ca mer a , a nd
a fi nger wit h a r ubber en d
so t ha t it does not sl ip when pushi ng somet hi ng (F i gur e 129). When t he a gent is f ir
st t ur ned on, it s gr ipp er
begi nst oop ena ndcl os ea sifa ski ngf or t hepuz zl e. W henwepla c ea scr a mbl edei ght
-
pu zz l ei nt hegr ipp er ,
t he gr ipp er cl os es on t he puz z l e. Aft er a shor t
t i me,

t il es a r ound i n
t he fr a me u nt i l t hey a r e ba ck in t heir or i gi na l p osit ions. At t his poi nt t he ma c hi
ne r el ea s es
t he puzz l e a nd t ur ns it self of f.

T his puzzl e
-
s ol vi ng ma c hi ne ex hib it s t wo of t he a gent a t tr ibut es t ha t we ha ve i dent if i ed. F
ir st, it must be
a ble t o p er c ei ve i n t he s ens e t ha t it must ext r a ct t he cur rent puzz l e st a t e fr om
t he i ma ge it r ec ei ves fr om it s
ca mer a .

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Fi gure
129
: Our pu zz l e
-
sol vi ng machine

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Mod ule 172

66. 66.

172.

Arti fic i al Inte ll ige nc e: Rese ar c h Met hodo logi es

T oa ppr ecia t et hefi el d ofa r t ificia li nt el l i genc e, it ishel pfult ounder st a ndt ha t it
isbei ngpur sueda longt w o
pa t hs.Oneist he
eng i neer ingt r a ckinwhi c hr es ea r cher s a r etr yingt odevel ops ys t ems t ha t exh ibit i
nt ell i gent
beha vi or . T he ot her isa t heor et ica lt r a cki n whic hr es ea r cher sar et r yi ngt o devel
opa comput a t iona lu nder
-

st a ndi ng of a ni ma l

esp ec ia ll y hu ma n

i nt el l i genc e. T hi
s di chot omy is cla r if i ed by cons ider i ng t he
ma nner in whic h t he t wo t r a cks ar e pur sued. T he engi neer ing a ppr oa ch l ea ds t o a
per for ma nc e
-
or i ent e d
met hodol ogyb eca uset heunder l yi nggoa list opr oduc ea pr oduct t ha t meet sc er t a inp
er for ma nc egoa ls. T he
t heor
et ica l a ppr oa ch l ea ds t o a simu la t i on
-
or i ent ed met hodol ogy b eca use t he u nder l ying goa l is t o expa nd
our under st a ndi ngofi nt el l i genc ea ndt hust heemp ha sisisont heunder lyi ngpr oc ess r
a t her t ha nt heext er i or
per f or ma nc e.

As a n exa mp l e, cons i der t he fi el d

s of na t ura l la ngua ge pr oc ess i ng a nd li ngu ist i cs. T hes e f i el ds a r e cl os el y
r ela t ed a nd b enef it fr om r es ea r ch i n ea c h ot her , yet t he u nder l yi ng goa ls ar e
diff er ent . Lingu ist s ar e
i nt er est ed in l ea r ni ng how hu ma ns pr oc ess la ngua ge a nd t hus t end t owa r d mor e
t
heor et ica l pur suit s.
R es ea r cher s in t he fi el d of na t ur a l la ngua ge pr oc essi ng a r e int er est ed in devel
op i ng ma c hi nes t ha t ca n
ma nipula t e na t ura l la ngua ge a nd t her ef or e l ea n i n t he engi neer ing dir ect i on. T
hus, lingu ist s oper a t e i n
si mu la t i on
-
or i ent ed mode
-

bui l di ng syst ems whos e goa ls ar e t o t est t heor i es. In c ont r a st, r esea r cher s i n
na t ura l la ngua ge pr oc ess i ng op er a t e i n p er for ma nc e
-
or i ent ed mode
-
bu i l di ng syst ems t o per for m t a sks.
S yst emspr oduc edi nt hisla t t er mode(suc ha sdocu ment t ra nsla t or sa ndsyst em
sbywhic hma c hi nesr espond

t o wor k i n t he r est r ict ed envir onment of t he pa r t icula r syst em.

As a n el ement a r y exa mp l e, c onsi der t he t a sk of devel op ing a shel l f or a n op er a t

ing syst em t ha t r ec ei ves
i nst r uct ionsfr omt heout si dewor l dt hr ou ghver ba lEngli shcom ma nds. Int hisca s e, t
heshel l(a na gent )does
not need t o wor r y a bout t he ent ir e E nglis h
la ngua ge. Mor e pr ec is ely, t he s hel l does not need t o dist i nguis h
bet ween t he va r i ous mea ni ngs of t he wor d
copy.
(Is it a nou n or a ver b? S houl d it ca r r y t he c onnot a t ion of
pla gia r ism?) Inst ea d, t he shell needs mer el y t o dist i nguish t he wor d
copy
fr om ot her comma nds such a s
rename
a nd
del et e.
T hus,

t heshel lcou l dper f or mit st askjust byma t chi ngit sinput st opr edet er mi neda udi o
pa t t er ns. T he per for ma nc e of such a syst em ma y be sa tisfa ct or y t o a n engi neer ,
but t he wa y it is obt a ine d
wou l d not be
a est het ica l l y pl ea si ng t o a t heor et i cia n.

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Mod ule 173

67. 67.

173.

Arti fic i al Inte ll ige nc e: T he T uri ng T est

In t he pa st t he
T ur i ng t est
(pr op os ed by Ala n T ur ing i n 1950) ha s ser ved a s a benchma r k i n mea sur i ng
pr ogr ess in t he fi el d of a r t ific ia l i nt ell i genc e. T oda y
t he signif ica nc e of t he T ur ing t est ha s fa ded a lt hou gh

whom weca l lt he int er r oga t or , t ocommu nica t ewit ha test subj ect by mea nsofa t
ypewr it er
syst em wit hout
bei ng t ol d whet her t he t est subject wa s a hu ma n or a ma c hi ne. In t his envir
onment , a ma chi ne wou l d b e
decla r ed t o b eha ve i nt el l i gent l y if t he i nt er r oga t or wa s not a bl e t o dist i ngu is
h it fr om a hu ma n. T ur ing
pr edict ed t ha t by t he yea r 2000 ma
c hines wou l d ha ve a 30 per c ent cha nc e of pa ssi ng a fi ve
-
mi nut e T ur ing
t est

a conj ect ur e t ha t t ur ned out t o b e sur pr isingl y a ccur at e.

One r ea son t ha t t he T ur ing t est is no longer cons i der ed t o be a mea ni ngfu l mea sur
e of i nt el l i genc e is t ha t
a n eer i e a ppea r a
nc e of i nt ell i genc e ca n be pr oduc ed wit h r ela t i ve ea s e. A wel l
-
known exa mp l e a r ose a s a
r esult oft hepr o
-

gr a mDOC T OR (a ver s i onoft hemor egener a ls ys t emca l l edELIZ A)devel op edb yJ os

ep h
W ei z enba u m i n t he mi d
-
1960s. T his int er a ct i ve pr ogr am wa s des i gne
d t o pr oj ect t he i ma ge of a R oger ia n
a na lyst c ondu ct i ng a psychologica l i nt er vi ew; t he c omput er pla yed t he r ole of t
he a na l yst whi l e t he us er
pla yed t he pa t ient . Int er na l l y, a ll t ha t DOCT OR did wa s r est r uct ur e t he st a t
ement s ma de by t he pa t i ent
a ccor di ng t
o some wel l
-
def ined r ul es a nd dir ect t hem b a ck t o t he pa t ient . F or exa mp l e, i n r espons e t o t
he
,

you

If DOCT OR wa s una ble t o r ec ogni z e t he sent enc e st r uct ur e, i

ura lla ngua gec ommu nica t i on.

T he subj ect of psyc hot her a py mer el y pr ovided a n envir onment i n whic h t he pr og
r a m c oul d

for a ct ua lpsychot her a py. (T heR oger ia nt hesisist ha t t hepa t i ent , not t hea na lyst ,
shou ldl ea dt hediscuss i on
dur i ng t he t her a peut ic sess i on, a nd t
hus, t hey a r gued, a comput er cou l d poss ib l y c ondu ct a discuss ion a s
wel l a s a t her a pist could. ) Mor eover , DOCT OR pr oj ect ed t he i ma ge of compr ehens
i on so st r ongl y t ha t

-
a nd
-

a nswer
dia l ogu e. In
a sens e, DOCT OR pa ss ed t he T ur ing t est . T he r esult wa s t ha t et hica l, a s well a s t
echnica l, iss u es wer e
r a ised, a nd W ei z enba u m beca me a n a dvoca t e f or ma i nt a ini ng hu ma n di gnit y i
n a wor l d of a dva nci ng
t ec hnol ogy.

Mor er ec ent exa mpl es ofT ur ingt

wit h a hu ma n vict i m i n or der t o t r ic k t he hu ma n i nt o dr oppi ng his or her ma l

wa r e gua r d. Mor eover ,
phenomena si mi la r t oT ur ingt est soccur int hec ont ext ofc omput er ga messucha s
chess
-
p la yi ngpr ogr a ms.
Alt hou gh t hes e pr ogr a ms sel ect moves mer el y by a ppl yi ng br ut e
-
f or c e t ec hni qu es, hu ma ns comp et i ng
a ga inst t he c omput er oft en exp er i enc e t he sensa t i on t ha t t he ma c hi ne p oss ess
es cr ea t ivit y a nd even a
per sona l it y. S i mi la r sensa t ions oc
cur i n r ob ot i cs wher e ma c hi nes ha ve b een bu i lt wit h phys ica l a t t r ibut es
t ha t pr oj ect i nt ell i gent c ha r a ct er ist ics. Exa mpl es i nc lu de t oy r obot dogs t ha t
pr oj ect a dor a bl e p er sona lit i es
mer el y b y t ilt i ng t heir hea ds or lift i ng t heir ea r s in r espons e t o a sound
.

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Mod ule 174

68. 68.

174.

Arti fic i al Inte ll ige nc e: U nd erst and i ng I mag es

Let us consi der t he pr ob l ems p os ed by t he puz zl e

-
s ol vi ng ma c hi ne i nt r odu c ed i n t he modu l e nu mb er 171.
T he op eni nga ndc l osi ng oft hegr ipp er ont he ma c hi ne
pr es ent

nos er i ousobst a cl e, a ndt hea bil it yt o det ect

t he pr es enc e of t he puz zl e i n t he gr ipp er dur i ng t his pr oc ess is st ra ight f or wa r d
b eca use our a pplica t i on
r equir esver yl it t l epr ec is ion. Event hepr obl em off ocus i ngt heca mer a ont hepuzzl eca
nbeha ndl edsi
mp l y
by des i gni ng t he gr ipp er t o posit i on t he puzzl e a t a par t icula r pr edet er mi ned
pos it i on for vi ewi ng.
C ons equ ent l y, t hef ir st int el l i gent b eha vi or r equir edbyt hema c hi neist heext r a ct i
onofi nf or ma t i ont hr ou gh
a visua l mediu m.

It is i mp or t a nt t o r ea li
z e t ha t t he pr obl em fa c ed b y our ma c hi ne when l ooking a t t he puzz l e is not t ha t
of
mer el y pr odu ci ng a nd st or ing a n i ma ge. T ec hnol ogy ha s been a ble t o do t his for
yea r s a s in t he ca se of
t ra dit i ona l p hot ogr a phy a nd t el evisi on syst ems. Inst ea d, t he pr obl em i
s t o under st a nd t he i ma ge i n or der t o
ext r a ct t hecur
-

r ent st at usoft hepuzzl e(a ndp er ha psla ter t omonit or t he movement oft het il es ). Int
heca se
of our puzzl e
-
s ol vi ng ma c hi ne, t he poss ib l e i nt er pr et a t i ons of t he puzzl e i ma ge a r e r ela t i
vel y l i mit ed. W
e
ca n a ssume t ha t wha t a ppea r s is a lwa ys a n i ma ge conta ini ng t he digit s 1 t hr ou gh
8 in a well
-
or ga niz e d
pa t t er n. T he pr ob l em is mer el y t o ext r a ct t he a r r a ngement of t hes e di git s. F or
t his, we i ma gi ne t ha t t he
pict ur eoft hepuzzl eha sbeenenc odedi nt er ms

t he br ight ness l evel of a pa rt icula r pixel. Ass u mi ng a unif or m siz e of t he i ma ge (t

he ma chi ne hol ds t he
puzzl e a t a pr edet er mi ned l oca t i on i n fr ont of t he ca mer a ), our ma c hi ne ca n det
ect whic h t
i l e is i n whic h
posit i on by c ompa r ing t he diff er ent sect i ons of t he pi c t ur e t o pr er ecor ded t emp
la t es c onsist i ng of t he bit
pa t t er ns pr oduc ed b y t he indi vi dua l di git s used in t he puzzl e. As ma t ches a r e
found, t he condit i on of t h e
puzzl e is r evea l ed.

T his t e
c hni qu e of r ec ogniz i ng i ma ges is one met hod used i n opt ica l c ha r a ct er r ea der s.
It ha s t he dr a wba ck,
however , ofr equir i nga cer t a indegr eeofunif or mit yf or t hest yl e, siz e, a ndor i ent a t
ionoft hesymb olsbei ng
r ea d. In pa r t icula r , t he bit pa t t er n pr odu c ed

by a phys ic a ll y la r ge c ha r a ct er does not ma t ch t he t emp la t e f or

a sma l l er ver si on of t he sa me symb ol, even t hou gh t he sha pes ar e t he sa me. Mor
eover , you ca n i ma gi n e
how t he pr ob l ems incr ea s e i n dif fi cult y when t r yi ng t o pr oc ess ha ndwr it t en ma t
er ia l.
Anot h
er a ppr oa ch t o t he pr obl em of cha r a ct er r ecognit i on is ba sed on ma t chi ng t he
geomet r ic
cha r a ct er ist ics r at her t ha n t he exa ct a ppea ra nc e of t he symb ols. In such ca ses t
he di git 1 mi ght be
cha r a ct er iz ed a s a singl e ver t i ca l li ne, 2 mi ght be a n opened cur ved
l i ne j oi ned wit h a hor iz ont a l st ra ight
li ne a cr oss t he bot t om, a nd so on. T his met hod of r ec ogniz i ng symb ols invol ves t
wo st eps : T he f ir st is t o
ext r a ct t he f ea t ur es fr om t he i ma ge b ei ng pr oc ess ed, a nd t he s ec ond is t o c
ompa r e t he f ea t ur es t o t hos e of
know
n symb ols. As wit h t he t empla t e
-
ma t c hi ng a ppr oa ch, t his t ec hniqu e f or r ec ogni zi ng c ha r a ct er s is not
foolpr oof. F orinst a nc e, minor er r or sint hei ma geca npr oduc ea set ofent ir el ydif f er
ent geomet r i cfea t ur es,
a s in t he ca se of dist i ngu ishi ng bet ween a n O

a nd a C or , in t he ca se of t he ei ght
-
puzz l e, a 3 a nd a n 8. We
a r e for t una t e in our puzzl e a pplica t i on beca use we do not need t o under
-

st a nd i ma ges of gener a l t hr ee
-
di mens i ona l sc enes. C ons i der , for exa mp l e, t he a dva nt a ge we ha ve b y b ei ng a
ss ur ed t ha t t he

s ha pes t o b e
r ec ogni z ed (t he di git s 1 t hr ough 8) a r e isola t ed i n diff er ent pa rt s of t he pict ur e r
a t her t ha n a ppea r ing a s
over la ppi ng i ma ges, a s is common i n mor e gener a l s et t ings. In a gener a l p hot ogr
a ph, for inst a nc e, one is
fa ced not only wit h t he pr obl
em of r ec ogniz i ng a n object fr om diff er ent a ngles but a lso wit h t he fa ct t ha t
some p or t i ons of t he obj ect mi ght be hi dden fr om vi ew.

T he t a sk of under st a ndi ng gener a l i ma ges is usua ll y a ppr oa ched a s a t wo

-
st ep pr oc ess : (1)
i mag e
process i ng,
whi ch r ef er s t o

i dent i fyi ng c ha r a ct er ist ics of t he i ma ge, a nd (2)

i mage analys is,
whic h r ef er s
t o t he pr ocess of under st a ndi ng wha t t hes e cha r a ct er ist i cs mea n. We ha ve a lr ea
dy obs er ved t his di chot om y
i n t he c ont ext of r ec ogniz i ng symb ols by mea ns of t heir geomet r ic f ea t u
r es. In t ha t sit ua t ion, we f ou nd
i ma ge pr oc ess i ng r epr es ent ed by t he pr oc ess of i dent if ying t he geomet r ic f ea t ur
es f ou nd i n t he i ma ge a n d
i ma ge a na l ysis r epr es ent ed by t he pr oc ess of i dent if yi ng t he mea ni ng of t hos e f
ea t ur es.

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I ma ge pr oc ess ing ent a i ls nu mer

ous t op ics. One is edge enha nc ement , whic h is t he pr oc ess of a ppl yi ng
ma t hema t i ca l t ec hni qu es t o cla r if y t he bou nda r i es bet ween r egi ons i n a n i ma
ge. I n a sens e, edge
enha nc ement is a n a t t empt t o c onver t a phot ogr a ph i nt o a line dr a wi ng. Anot
her a ct ivit y i n

i ma ge a na l ys is
is known a s r egion fi ndi ng. T his is t he pr oc ess of iden t if yi ng t hos e a r ea s in a n i ma
ge t ha t ha ve common
pr oper t i es such a s br ight ness , col or , or t ext ur e. S uch a r egi on pr oba bly r epr es
ent s a sect i on of t he i ma ge
t ha t bel ongs t o a singl e obj e
ct . (It is t he a bi l it y t o r ec ogniz e r egi ons t ha t a ll ows c omput er s t o a dd c ol or t o
ol d
-
fa shi onedbla c k
-
a nd
-

whit emot i onpi ct ur es. )S t illa not her a ct i vit ywit hi nt hesc op eofi ma gepr oc ess i ng
is s moot hi ng, whic h is t he pr oc ess of r emovi ng fla ws i n t he i ma ge
. S moot hi ng keeps er r or s in t he i ma g e
fr om confusi ng t he ot her i ma ge
-
pr oc ess i ng st eps, but too muc h smoot hing ca n ca use t he l oss of i mp or t a nt
i nf or ma t ion a s well.

S moot hi ng, edge enha nc ement , a nd r egi on fi ndi ng a r ea ll st eps t owa r d ident if yi
ng t he va r ious
comp onent s
i n a n i ma ge. I ma ge a na l ys is is t he pr oc ess of det er mi ni ng wha t t hes e c omp
onent s r epr es ent a nd ult i ma t el y
wha t t he i ma ge mea ns. H er e one fa c es suc h pr obl em s as r ec ogni zi ng pa r t ia lly
obst r uct ed obj ect s fr om
diff er ent per spect i ves. One a ppr oa ch t o
ima ge a na lys is is t o sta rt wit h a na ss umpt i on a bout wha t t he i ma ge
mi ght b e a nd t hen t r y t o a ss ocia t e t he c omp onent s i n t he i ma ge wit h t he ob j ect
s whos e pr es enc e is
conj ect ur ed. T his a ppea r st o be a na ppr oa ch a ppli ed by hu ma ns. F or inst a nc e, we
somet i mes f
i nd it ha r dt o
r ec ogni z e a n unexp ect ed ob j ect i n a set t i ng i n whic h ou r visi on is blur r ed, but
onc e we ha ve a clu e t o wha t
t he ob j ect mi ght b e, we ca n ea sil y i dent if y it .
T hepr ob l emsa ss ocia t ed wit h gener a li ma gea na lys isa re enor mous, a nd muc hr es
ea r ch i
nt hea r ea r ema i ns
t o b e done. I ndeed, i ma ge a na l ysis is one of t he f i el ds t ha t demonst r a t es how t a
sks t ha t ar e per f or med
qu ic kly a nd a ppar ent l y ea sil y b y t he hu ma n mi nd c ont i nu e t o c ha l l enge t he ca
pa bilit i es of ma c hi nes.

Mod ule 175

69. 69.

175.

Arti fic i al
Inte ll ige nc e: L ang uag e Process i ng

Anot her per c ept i on pr obl em t ha t ha s pr oven c ha l l engi ng is t ha t of under st a ndi

ng la ngua ge. T he succ ess
obt a i ned i n t r a nsla t ing f or ma l hi gh
-
l evel pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges i nt o ma chi ne la ngua ge l ed ea r l y
r es ea r cher s t o bel i eve
t ha t t he a bil it y t o pr ogr a m compu t er s t o under st a nd na t ura l la ngua ge wa s onl y
a few
yea r sa wa y. Indeed, t hea bil it yt ot ra nsla t epr ogr a msgivest hei l lusi ont ha t t hema
chinea ct ua ll yunder st a nds
t he la ngua ge b ei ng t r a nsla t ed.

Wha t t hes e r es ea r cher s fa il ed

t o un der s t a nd wa s t he de pt h t o whic h f or ma l pr ogr a mmi ng la ngua ges dif f er
fr om na t ura l la ngua ges suc h a s Englis h, G er ma n, a nd L a t in. P r ogr a mmi ng la
ngua ges a r e const r uct ed fr o m
wel l
-
des i gned pr i mit i ves so t ha t ea ch st at ement ha s onl y one gr a mma t ica l st r uct ur
e a nd onl y one mea n
-

i ng. In cont r a st, a sta t ement i n a na t ura l la ngua ge ca n ha ve mult ipl e mea ni ngs
dep endi ng on it s cont ext or
even t he ma nner i n whic h it is c ommu ni ca t ed. T hus, t o under st a nd na t ura l la
ngua ge, hu ma ns r el y hea vil y
on a ddit i ona l knowl edge.

F or exa mp l e, t he s ent enc es

Nor ma n R oc kwel l pa i nt ed peop l e.

a nd

C inder el la ha d a ba ll.

ha ve mu lt ip l e mea ni ngs t ha t ca nnot be dist i nguis hed by par sing or tra nsla t ing ea
ch wor d i ndep endent l y.
Inst ea d, t ou nder st a ndt hes es ent enc esr equir est hea bi l it yt oc omp
r ehendt hec ont ext i nwhic ht hest a t ement
is ma de. I n ot her
i nst a nc es,

t he t r ue mea ni ng of a sent enc e is not t he sa me a s it s lit er a l t r a nsla t ion. F or

exa mp l e,
Do you know wha t t i me it is?

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been wa it i ng for a long t i me, it mi ght

T o unr a vel t he mea ning of a sta t ement i n a na t ura l la ngua ge t her ef or e r equir es
sever a l l evel s of a na l ys is.
T he fir st of t hes e is
synt ac ti c analysis,
whos e ma j or component is pa r sing. It is he
r e t ha t t he subj ect of t h e
sent enc e

Mar y ga ve John a bir t hda y ca r d. is r ecogniz ed a s

Mary
, whi l e t he subj ect of

John got a birt hda y ca r d fr om Ma r y.

is fou nd t o b e
John.

Anot her l evel of a na l ys is is ca ll ed

se ma nt ic analys is.
In cont r a st t o t he pa r sing
pr oc ess , whic h mer el y
i dent i fi es t he gr a mma t i ca l r ol e of ea ch wor d, sema nt ic a na lys is is c ha r ged wit h
t he t a sk of i dent if ying t he
sema nt ic r ol e of ea c h wor d i n t he st at ement . S ema nt ic a na lys is seeks t o i dent if y
suc h t hi ngs a s t he a ct ion
descr ib ed, t he a gen
t of t ha ta ct ion (whic h mi ght or mi ght not be t he subj ect of t he s ent enc e), a nd t he
ob j ect

ying t he sa me t hing.
A t hir d l evel of a na l ysis is
co nte xt ual analysis.
It is at this l evel t ha t t he cont ext of t he sent enc e is br ought
i nt o t he u nder st a ndi ng pr oc ess . F or exa mp l e, it is ea sy t o i dent if y t he gr a mma
t ica l r ol e of ea c h wor d i n t h e
sent enc e:

Th
e ba t fel l t o t he gr ou nd.

W e ca n even p er for m sema nt ic a na lys is by ident if ying t he a ct ion i nvolved a s

f alli ng,
t he a gent a s
bat ,
a nd
soon. But it isnot unt il wec ons i der t hecont ext oft hest a t ement t ha t t he mea ni ngoft
hest a t ement bec omes
cl ea r . In par
t icula r , it ha s a diff er ent mea ning i n t he c ont ext of a ba seba ll ga me t ha n it does in
t he c ont ext

W
eshou l dnot et ha t t heva r i ousl evelsofa na lysis

s ynt a ct ic, sema nt i c, a ndcont ext ua l

a r enot nec ess a r il y

i ndep endent . T he subj ect of t he s ent enc e
S t a mpedi ng ca t t l e ca n be da nger ous.

ist henoun
cat t l e
(modif i edbyt hea dj ect i ve
s t ampedi ng
)ifweenvisi on
t heca t t l es t a mp edi ngont heir own.
But t he subj ect is t he ger u nd
st ampedi ng
(wit h ob j ec t
cat t l e
) in t he c ont ext of a t r oubl ema ker whos e
ent er t a inment cons ist sofst ar t ingst a mp edes. T hust hes ent enc eha smor et ha none
gr a mma t i ca lst r uct ur e

whic h one is co
r r ect dep ends on t he c ont ext.

Anot her ar ea ofr es ea r chin na t ura lla ngua gepr oc ess i ngconc er nsa n ent ir edocu
ment r at her t ha nindi vidua l
sent enc es. Her e t he pr obl ems of conc er n fa l l i nt o t wo c a t egor i es :
i nfor mat io n ret ri eval
a nd
i nfor mat io n
extr act io n.
I nf
or ma t i onr et r i eva lr ef er st ot het a sk of i dent if yi ng docu ment st ha t r ela t et ot het
opi ca t ha nd.
An exa mp l e is t he pr obl em fa c ed by user s of t he Wor l d Wi de W eb a s t hey t r yt o
find t he sit es t ha t r ela t e t o
a par t icula r t opic. T he cur r ent st a t e of t he a r t is
t o sea r ch sit es for key wor ds, but t his oft en pr oduc es a n

i ng c onsi der ed.

T he diff icu lt y of obt a ini ngsuc hu nder
-

st a ndi ngist her ea son ma nya r et ur ni ngt ot ec hni qu essuc ha sXML

t o pr oduc e a sema nt i c W eb a s wa s int r oduc ed i n t he modu l e 75.

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Mod ule 176

70. 70.

176.

CS I mp ac t: CS i mp act o n S ocie ty

C omput er S ci enc e ha s i mpa ct ed l i ves of hu ma ns la r gel y. In t his modul e we wi ll l

ea r n t he pos it i ve a nd
nega t i ve i mpa ct s of C S on our soci et y.

Posi tiv e i mp act o f CS :

It ha s impr oved t he c ommu nica t i on bet ween p eop l e.

Incr ea s ed a ccess t o educa t i ona l

i nf or ma t i on via t he I nt er net
Incr ea s ed pr oduct i vit y of peop l e a s now t heir ma nua l wor k ha s r educ ed si gnif ica
nt l y.

Exponent ia l busi ness gr owt h

F a st er r espons e t i mes (for exa mp l e, ema i l, i nst a nt mess a gi ng a nd c ha t )

Negativ e I mp act:

P eopl e a r e wor ki ng in sit

t i ng p osit i on a nd t hus ha ve mor e cha nc e t o devel op ob es it y.

Exposur e t o i na ppr opr ia t e ma t er ia l via t he I nt er net

Incr ea s ed cr i me a nd a cc ess t o pr iva t e i nfor ma t i on

Ha cki ng ba nk a ccou nt a nd t r a nsfer money t o your a ccount

P eopl ea r enow over
-
dep endent ont ec hn
ology. T hey event r yt oca t cht hep eop l eonl i ne evenift h e
per son is sit t i ng nea r t hem geogr a phi ca ll y. T his ha s dec r ea sed t he s oc ia l i nt er a
ct ions a s wel l.

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Mod ule 177

71. 71.

177.

CS I mp ac t: CS Imp act o n H ealt h

C omput er S ci enc e ha s bot h pos it i ve a nd nega t i ve i mpa ct s on hea lt h.

Posi tiv e i mp act

Ea sy a ccess t o onli ne hea lt h c ent er s

W e ca n t a ke onl i ne a ppoi nt ment

W e ca n r ec ei ve r ep or t s via ema i l a t home

Hospit a ls ca n b e ma na ged mor e ef fi ci ent l y

Onli ne hea lt h
t ips/ iss u es a r e a va ila bl e.

Hea lt h news ca n b e vi ewed onl i ne.

Negativ e i mp act

C omput er wr ist s

T ypi ng t oo mu c h. T his cr ea t es iss u es in t he ha nds.

Eyes i ght

eye is not mea nt t o l ook 2D f or l ong a mount of t i me. T his i ncr ea ses t he r isk of ey e
dis ea ses.
Hea r i ng l oss is mor e c ommon i n t hos e
l ist ening t o

hi gh volu me musi c on c omput er .

S ocia l Isola t ion

C ommu ni ca t ion Iss u es

P ost ur e cou l d l ea d bone issu es

R a dia t ionDa ma gewhent hedevic eisr unni ng. It sbet t er t oputoffa llsuchdi git a ldevi c
esesp ec ia ll y
mo

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Mod ule 178

72. 72.

178.

CS I mp ac t: CS Imp act o n E nvi ro nme nt

C omput er S ci enc e ha s bot h pos it i ve a nd nega t i ve i mpa ct s on t he envir onment a s
wel l.

Posi tiv e i mp act

P a per less

Onli ne r ea di ng a nd publ is hi ng.

Amer ica ns use a bout

680 pounds

of pa per

per per son, per yea r

T his a mou nt s t o a bout

85 mil l i on t ons of pa per or 2 bill i on t r ees.

T he a ver a ge Amer i ca n hous ehol d t hr ows a wa y

13, 000 pi ec es of pa p er

(
a r ound 1 b il l i on t r ees i n
t ot a l i n US A) ea ch yea r . Most in t he f or m of pa cka gi ng a nd ju nk ma il.

Due t o t he usa ge of c omput er , t he a bove wa st e of t r ees is mi ni mi zi ng in t he wor l d.

Negativ e i mp act

In off ic es, peop l e pr i nt unnec ess a r il y.

C omput er sar ema de

fr omhea vymet a ls(L ea d, mer cur y, B er yll iu m, C a dmiu m, P C V)whent hr own
-
a wa y ca use wa t er cont a mi na t i on

a nd a ir pol lut i on.

E
-
wa st e is sent t o devel op i ng cou nt r i es wher e peop l e ext ra ct ma t er ia ls fr om t hes
e el ect r oni cs such
a s gol d, sil ver , a nd c opp er .

T hey ex
t r a ct t hem b y bu r ni ng t he s ub s t a nces a nd t ha t pr oc es s r el ea s es ha za r dous s
mok e i nt o t he
a ir .

T hep eop l epr es ent a r oundt hee

-
wa st ega indis ea s essucha sski nca nc er , bra inda ma ge, lu ngca nc er ,
ki dney dis ea s e

Usa ge of ener gy ha s a lso incr ea s ed wit h t he use

of c omput er .

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Mod ule 179

73. 73.

179.

CS I mp ac t: E t hi c al Is s ues

Ethi ca l iss ues a r e r ela t ed t o mor a l pr inc ipl es or t he branc h of knowl edge dea l i ng
wit h t hes e. Quest ions of
et hics a nd l ega lit y a r e ess ent ia l i n ma ny i ndust r ies. Doct or s, t ea cher s, gover
nment of fi c ia ls a nd
business p eop l e

a ll ha ve l ega l a nd et hica l over si gh

t t o cont r ol how t heir pr of ess i ons funct i on. Inf or ma t io n
t ec hnol ogy, by cont r a st , ha s no over a r chi ng st a nda r diz a t ion in pla c e. However ,
as inf or ma t i on t ec hnol ogy
bec omes i ncr ea si ngly i nflu ent ia l, t he et hica l a nd l ega l cons i der a t ions bec ome si
mi la r ly r el eva
nt . Her e a r e
t he fi ve most pr ess i ng et hica l a nd l ega l iss u es c onfr ont i ng t he i ndust r y t oda y.

Pr iv acy

Most peopl e ha vet heir per sona l da t aspr ea dt hr ou ghout t hedi git a lwor l d. Event hi
ngst hou ght t obesecur e,
such a s ema i l or pr iva t e a ccou nt s, ca n be
a cc ess ed by uni nt ended s our c es. Most emp l oyer s a ct ivel y c hec k

cons i der a t ions. Do p eop l e know how t heir a ccou nt s ar e monit or ed? T o wha t ext
ent is suc h moni
t or i n g

pr iva cy c ompl et el y.

Digi t al O w ne rs hip

Di git a l mediu ms ha ve a l lowed i nf or ma t i on t o f l ow mor e fr eel y t ha n b efor e. T

his exc ha nge of i dea s c omes
wit h

a lega l a nd et hi ca l ba ckla sh. How ca n owner ship be est a blis hed i n t he di git a l r ea l
m? T hi ngs ca n be
ea si l y c opi ed a nd pa st ed onl i ne, whic h ma kes i nt el l ect ua l pr oper t y ha r d t o c
ont r ol. L ega l not i ons suc h a s
cop yr i ght ha ve st r uggl ed t o keep up wit h t he di git
a l er a . C ompa ni es i n t he mus ic a nd ent er t a inment
i ndust r ies ha ve pushed f or gr ea t er l ega l pr ot ect i ons f or int el l ect ua l pr oper t i es
whi l e ot her a ct ivist s ha ve
sou ght t o pr ovide gr ea t er fr eedoms f or t he ex c ha nge of i dea s in t he di git a l r ea l
m.

Dat a G at he ri ng

O
n some l evel, ever yone knows t ha t t heir onl i ne l i ves a r e monit or ed. T he Unit ed S
ta t es ha s even pa ss ed
l egisla t i on a ll owing t he gover nment t o a ct ivel y monit or pr iva t e cit i z ens in t he na
me of na t i ona l secur it y.
T hes emea sur esha ver evi veda deba t ea bout wha t

inf or ma t i onca nbega t her eda ndwhy. T hisdeba t ea ppli es

on a sma l l er sca l e a s wel l b eca us e c ompa ni es need t o c onsi der wha t inf or ma t i
on t o c ol l ect fr om t heir
emp l oyees. T hisiss u einvokesaqu est i onofcons ent . Dopeop l eknowwha t inf or ma t
ionisbei ngmon
it or ed?
Do t hey ha ve a r ight t o know how t heir da t a is being us ed?

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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74. 74.

180.

CS I mp ac t: S oftw ar e L ice nses and I nfor matio n Pri vacy

S oft wa r e li c ens es t yp ica l l y pr ovi de end user s wit h t he r i ght t o one or mor e c opi
es of t he s oft wa r e wit hout
vi ola t i ng

c op yr i ght s
. T he li c ens e a ls o def i nes t he r esp onsib i l it i es of t he pa r t ies ent er i ng i nt o t he l
ic ens e
a gr eement a nd ma y i mp os e r est r ict i ons on how t he soft wa r e ca n b e us ed.

S oft wa r e l ic e
ns i ng t er ms a n d
condit i ons usua ll y i nc lude

fa ir use

of t he s oft wa r e, t he li mit a t i ons of l ia bi l it y, wa rr a nt i es a nd disc la i mer s

a nd pr ot ect ions i f t he soft wa r e or it s use infr i nges on t he

int el l ect ua l pr oper t y

r ight s of ot her s.

S oft wa r e li c ens es t yp ica l l y a r e eit her

pr opr iet a r y
,

fr ee

or
op en s our c e
, t he dist i nguis hing f ea t ur e bei ng t h e
t er ms under whic h us er s ma y r edist r ibut e or copy t he s oft wa r e f or fut ur e

devel op ment

or use.

Info r mat io n Pr iv acy

Da t a pr iva c y, a lso ca ll ed i nf or ma t i on pr iva c y dea ls wi t h t he a bi lit y a n or ga

niza t i on or i ndi vi dua l ha s t o

det er mi ne wha t da t a in a comput er syst em ca n be s ha r ed wit h t hir d pa r t ies.

(C OP P A)
-

gi ves pa r ent s c ont r ol over wha t inf or ma t i on websit es ca n c oll ect fr om t heir ki
ds.

H ealt h I ns ur ance Po rt ab i li ty and Acco unt abi l it

y Ac t

(HIP P A)
-

ensur es pa t ient confi dent ia l it y f or a ll hea lt hc a r e

-
r ela t ed da t a .
E lect ro nic Co mmu ni c at io ns Pr ivacy Act

EC P A ext ends gover nment r est r ict i ons on wir e t a ps t o inc lu de t r a nsmiss i ons of
el ect r onic da t a .

Vid eo Pr iv acy Prote ct io n Act

P r event s
wr ongfu l disc l osur e of a n i ndi vidua l 's p er sona ll y i dent if ia bl e i nf or ma t i on st em
mi ng fr om t heir
r ent a l or pur cha se of a udi ovisua l ma t er ia l.

G ramm
-
L e ac h
-
B li l ey Act

Ma nda t es how f i na nc ia l i nst it ut i ons must dea l wit h t he pr iva t e i nf or ma t i on of

i ndi vi dua ls.

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75. 75.

181.

CS I mp ac t: I nte l lec t ual Pro pe rty

Int el l ect ua l pr op er t y (IP ) is idea s, inf or ma t ion a nd knowl edge. In t he Uni ver sit y
c ont ext IP ca n be vi ewe d
a s t he r esu lt s a nd out c omes of r es ea r ch
eca us e
it is vi ewed a s a t ra da ble c ommodi t y. Int ell ect ua l pr oper t y r i ght s (IP R ) a r e
spec if ic l ega l r ight s whic h
pr ot ect t he owner s of IP . IP R ca n be subdi vi ded i nt o t he ma jor ca t egor i es b el ow.

Pat e nt

A pa t ent is a l ega l monop ol y la st i ng 20 yea r s gr a nt ed i n

exc ha nge f or descr ib i ng a n i nvent i on a nd pa yi ng

f ees t o t he P a t ent Offic e. A pa t ent posit i on is dest r oyed by publ ic disc l osur e of t
he i dea bef or e a pa t ent
a pplica t i on is fi l ed ( exc ept for a shor t gr a ce p er iod in t he US ). T hink pa t ent bef
or e you publ is h.

C
opyrig ht

C opyr i ght a ppli es t o lit er a r y a nd dr a ma t ic wor ks, ar t istic a nd mus ica l wor ks, a
udi o a nd vi deo r ec or di ngs,
br oa dca st sa nd ca ble t r a ns missi ons. C opyr i ght is a lso t he usua l wa y of pr ot ect i
ng soft wa r e, a lt hou gh some
soft wa r e ma y b e pa t ent ed if it is a

funct i ona l pa r t of a n i nvent i on. C op yr i ght a r ises a ut oma t ica l l y

it does
not need t o be a ppli ed f or
a nd la st s 70 yea r s a ft er t he dea t h of t he a ut hor .

Dat ab ase rig ht

Da t aba se r ight s a pply t o da t a ba ses whic h a r e not pr ot ect ed by c op yr i ght (a n EU

r i ght on
ly

ma xi mu m
dur a t ion is 15 yea r s).

Desig n r ig ht

Des i gnr i ght a ppli est oa spect s oft hesha p e or conf i gur a t ionofa na r t icl e. Unr egist
er ed des i gnr i ght ( whi c h
cover s comput er chips, for exa mp l e) ca n pr ot ect i nt er na l or ext er na l f ea t ur es.
In t he ca se of r eg
ist er ed
des i gns, t he f ea t ur es must a ppea l t o a nd b e ju dged b y t he eye. (R egist er ed des i
gn r i ght s a r e pr ot ect ed for a
ma x i mu m of 25 yea r s. )

T rad e mar k

A
t r a dema r k

is a ma r k (l ogo) or ot her dist i nct i ve si gn a ppli ed t o or ass ocia t ed wit h pr odu ct s

or ser vic es,
whic h does not descr ib e t he pr odu ct s or ser vi c es. (Onc e r egist er ed t he t r a dema r
k IP R is unli mit ed. )

Confi de nt i al i nfo r mat io n

C onfi dent ia l i nf or ma t ion is knowl edge whi c h only you poss ess a nd which you ha ve
only r evea l ed u nder a
non
-
disc losur e/ c onf i dent ia l it ya gr eement . T hec ompr ehens i vet a bl eha sbeens hownt
ohi ghl i ght t he det a i ls
of a ll t he a bove i nt ell ect ua l pr op er t i es.

IPR

Covers

Need to
ap p ly?

Maxi mu m
d ur at io n

P a t ent

Invent i ons

Yes

20 yea r s
C opyr i ght

Lit er a r y,
musica l,
a rt ist icwor ks,
a nd soft wa r e

No

70yea r sa ft er
dea t h of
a ut hor

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R egist er ed
des i gn

I ma ge

l ook
a nd f eel

Yes

25 yea r s

R egist er ed
t ra dema r k

Na me, l ogo

Yes
Unli mit ed

C onfi dent ia l
i nf or ma t ion

Unpubl is hed
secr et
i nf or ma t ion

No

Unl i mit ed

Da t aba se
r ight

Da t aba ses

No

15 yea r s

S uccess fu l ma na gem ent ofIP Rpr ovi dest he mea nsbywhic hi ndi vi dua lsa ndi nst it ut i
onsa r ea blet opr ot ect
t heir cr ea t ive out put
fr om i mit a t or s.
An under st a ndi ng of IP a nd IP R s isa n incr ea si ngl y i mp or t a nt a spect of Univer sit
y a nd busi ness l if e. Now,
mor e t ha n ever , IP isr ec ogni z ed a sa tra da ble c ommodi t y.

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76. 76.

182.

CS I mp ac t: S ec ur ity

Co mp ut ersec ur ity
, a lsoknowna s

cyber
-
sec uri ty

or

IT sec ur ity
, ist hepr ot ect i onofinf or ma t i onsyst ems
fr om t heft or da ma ge t o t he ha r dwa r e, t he soft wa r e, a nd t o t he i nf or ma t i on on
t hem, a s well a s fr om
disr upt ion or misdir ect i on of t he ser vic es t hey pr ovi de. It inc ludes cont r oll i ng phy
si ca l a ccess t o t he
ha r dwa r e, a s wel l a s pr ot ect i ng a ga i nst ha r m t ha t ma y come via net wor k a cc
ess , da t a a nd c ode i nj ect i on,
a nd du e t o ma lpr a ct ic e by op er a t or s, whet her int ent i ona l, a ccident a l, or due t o
t hem b ei ng t r ic ked int o
devia t i ng fr om s ecur e pr oc ed
ur es.
What ar e t he co ncer ns of co mp ut er sec ur ity?

C omput er S ecur it y is conc er ned wit h f our ma i n a r ea s:

77. 77.

1. C onf i dent ia l it y:
-

O nl y a ut hor iz ed us er s ca n a ccess t he da t a r esour c es a nd i nf or ma t i on.

78. 78.

2. Int egr it y:
-

Only a uthor iz ed us er s shou l d b e a ble t o modif y

t he da t a when needed.
79. 79.

3. Ava i la bil it y:
-

Da t a s houl d b e a va i la bl e t o us er s when needed.

80. 80.

4. Aut hent i ca t ion:

-

a r e you r ea l l y com mu nica t i ng wit h whom you t hi nk you a r e commu nica t i ng wit h

Why is co mp ut er sec ur ity i mp ort ant?

P r event i on of da t a t heft such a s ba nk

a ccou nt nu mb er s, cr edit ca r d inf or ma t ion, pa sswor ds, wor k r ela t e d

dep end on t he s ecur it y of t he da t a pa t hs.

Da t a pr es ent in a comput er ca n a lso be misus e

d by una ut hor iz ed int r usi ons. An int r uder ca n modif y a nd
cha nge t he pr ogr a m sour c e c odes a nd ca n a ls o use your pict ur es or ema i l a ccou nt
s t o cr ea t e der oga t or y
cont ent such a s por nogr a phi c i ma ges, fa ke misl ea ding a nd of f ens ive s oc ia l a cc
ount s.

Ma lic i ousi nt
ent sca na lsob ea fa ct or incomput er secur i t y. Int r uder soft enus eyour comput er sfor a
tt a cki ng

comput er syst em t o cr ea t e da t a loss . DDOS a tt a cks ca n be ma d

e t o pr event a cc ess t o webs it es by cr a shin g
t he ser ver .

Ab ovefa ct or si mp l yt ha t your da t a shoul dr ema insa f ea ndc onf i dent ia l. T her ef or

e, it isnec ess a r yt opr ot ect
your comput er a nd henc e t he need for C omput er S ecur i t y a r ises.

What is fir ew al l?

A f ir ewa l
l is a secur it y
-
c onsc ious pi ec e of ha r dwa r e or soft
-
wa r e t ha t sit s bet ween t he I nt er net a nd your
net wor kwit ha singl e
-
mi ndedt a sk:pr event i ngt hemfr omget t i ngt ous. T hefir ewa l la ct sa sasecur it ygua r d
bet ween t he Int er net a nd your loca l a r ea net wor k (
LAN ). Al l net wor k t r a ffic int o a nd out of t he L AN must
pa ss t hr ough t he f ir ewa ll, whic h pr event s una ut hor iz ed a ccess t o t he net wor k.

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Mod ule 183

81. 81.

183.

CS I mp ac t: Priv acy

Indi vi dua l 'sr ight t o ownt he da t a gener a t edby hisor her lif ea nda ct i vit i es, a ndt o
r est r ict t he out wa r dfl o w
of t ha t da ta . Pr iva c y uses t he t heor y of na t ura l r ight s, a nd gener a ll y r esponds t o
new i nf or ma t ion a nd
com mu nica t i on t ec hnol ogi es. In Nor t h Amer i ca ,

Sa muel D. Warr en

a nd

Louis D. Bra ndeis

wr ot e t ha t
pr iva cy is t he "r i ght t o be l et a lone".

Fro m w here d at a co mes fro m:

S ocia l S it es
(F a ceb ook, t wit t er )
T el ep hone c ompa ni es ( mob il e net wor ks )

S ma r t cit y ca mer a s on r oa d

E ma ils

P er sona l S oft wa r e

P a sswor ds, logi ns et c

H ow to hand le o n i nte r ne t

E ma ils ca n b e encr ypt ed

Anonymiz i ng
pr oxies

Anonymiz i ng

net wor ks

Pr iv acy I nfor mat io n

P r iva cy i nf or ma t i on of fa mous websit es is gi ven b el ow:

Googl e:

ht t ps
:/ /
pol ic i es. googl e. c om/ pr i va c y

ms n:

ht t ps:/ /
www. msn. c om/ en
-
us/ a ut os/ pa rt ner / pr iva c yp ol i c y
Wha t sApp :

ht t ps:/ / www. wha t sa pp. com/ l ega l/ #

pr i va cy
-
pol ic y

E PIC

Elect r onic P r iva c y Inf or ma t i on C ent er

Indep endent non

-
pr of it r es ea r ch c ent er i n

Wa sgi ngon D. C .

It s miss i on is t o f ocus publi c a t t ent i on

on emer ging P r iva c y a nd r ela t ed

hu ma n r ight s
iss u es.

EP IC ha s pur sued sever a l succ ess fu l consu mer pr iva cy c omp la i nt s wit h t he

US F eder a l T ra de
C ommiss i on, conc er ni ng

S na pcha t

(fa ult y pr iva cy T echnol ogy), Wha t sAp

(pr iva c y pol i cy a ft er

a cquis it i on by F a cebook (c ha nges i n user pri va cy
set t i ngs ),

Googl e

(r ol l
-
out of
Googl eBu zz),

Micr os oft

(Ha i lst or m l og
-
i n), iss u es.

PI
P r iva cy I nt er na t i ona l

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C ha r it y or ga niza t i on of London, UK

Pr ior ity Are as:

C ha ll engi ng Da t a Exploit a t ion

Bui l di ng t he Gl oba l P r iva cy M ovement

C ont est i ng S ur veil la nc e

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Mod ule

184
82. 82.

184.

CS I mp ac t: S oci al Is s ues o f IT

T he gr owt h i n t he a va ila bi l it y of a ffor da bl e comput i ng t ec hnol ogy ha s ca used a

nu mb er of ma j or shift s i n
t he wa y t ha t soci et y op er a t es. T he ma j or it y of t hes e ha ve b een for t he bet t er ,
wit h home c omput er s a nd t he
i nt er net pr ovi di ng unli mit ed a cc ess t o a l l of t he i nf or ma t ion ever cr ea t ed a nd
disc over ed by hu ma nit y.
T her e a r e, however , some l ess pos it i ve s oc ia l iss u es gener a t ed a sa dir ect r esu
lt of t ec hnol ogica l a dva nc es.
In t he i nt er est s of ba la nc e, it is i mp or t a nt

t o a na lyz e t hes e a nd a ss ess t he sever it y of t heir i mpa ct so t ha t

st eps ca n be t a ken t o b et t er under st a nd a nd c omba t t he nega t i ve ef f ect s.
83. 83.

1.

Co mmuni c atio n B re akdow n

S ocia li zi ng wit hi n a fa mi l y unit ha s a lwa ys b een i mp or t a nt , as it str engt hens t

he b onds
b et ween us a nd
ensur es cohes i on wit hi n t he gr oup. But wit h mor e a nd mor e hous ehol ds owni ng
sever a l comput er s a nd
nu mer ouspor t a bledevic esgr a nt i nga cc ess t oi nf or ma t iona ndent er t a inment ,
somea r guet ha t t hisisl ea din g
t o a la ck of fa mi l y c ommu ni ca t i on.
84. 84.

2.

De famat io n o f C har ac ter

T he onl y mea ns of get t i ng i n t ouc h wit h ma j or cor por a ti ons or fa mous peop l e i n
t he publ ic eye pr ior t o t he
a dvent of di git a l c om mu ni ca t ion wa s via a st iffl y wr it t en l et t er . T his wa s, of c
our se, a cc ess ib l e onl y t o t he
i nt ended r ec ip i
ent a nd t hus a ver y pr iva t e wa y f or t he disgr unt l ed t o vent t heir spleen. But fir st
mess a g e
boa r ds a nd now socia l media s er vic es li ke F a c eb ook a nd T wit t er ar e bei ng us ed t
o defa me p eop l e a n d
business es i n a n int r i ns ica l l y publi c ma nner .
85. 85.

3.

Ide nt ity T he ft

F ra u
d is a not her spur ious a ct ivit y t ha t ha s been a bl e t o evol ve i n t he wa ke of ea si l y a
ccess ibl e c omput er s
a ndt hei nt er net . P er ha psmost pr obl ema t i ca ndpr eva l ent oft heva r i ousfra udul ent
a ct ivit i esisi dent it yt heft ,
i n whic h p er sona l det a i ls of i nnoc ent p e
opl e a r e ha r vest ed b y a t hir d pa r t y so t ha t t hey ca n b e us ed f or
ma li c ious pur pos es. T his inc ludes ca rr yi ng out il li c it onli ne t r a nsa ct ions a nd ot
her da ma gi ng a ct ivit i es t ha t
ca n ha ve s er i ous r a mi fi ca t ions.
86. 86.

4.

Cyber B ul ly i ng

As wit h t he defa ma t i on of publ ic f

i gur es, t he i nt er net a nd comput er s ha ve a lso ma de it ea si er for spit efu l
peop l et oa t t a ckpeopl et hey knowp er sona l l ya swel la sper f ect st r a nger svia t hea
nonymouspla t f or mst ha t
a r e a va ila bl e t o t hem.
87. 87.

5.

G ami ng Add ic tio n

Whilst comput er s a nd t he i nt er net ha

ve ma de it ea si er for ga mb l i ng a ddict s t o get t heir fix, a new t yp e of
a ddict i onha sa lsoa r is en, i nt hef or mofa ddict i ont o vi deoga mes. T his issomet hi ngt
ha t ca ni mpa ct p eop l e
of a ll a ges a nd l ea ds i nevit a bly t o a nu mb er of pr obl em s, fr om t he soc ia l t o
t he f i na nc ia l.
88. 88.

6.

Pr iv acy

Whi lst hi gh pr ofi l e ca ses of onl i ne i dent it y t heft a nd fr a ud shoul d ha ve ca used

peop l e t o b ec ome mor e
ca r eful a bout how t hey us e t heir per sona l i nf or ma t i on, issu es of pr i va cy a nd a la
ck of a ppr ec ia t ion f or t he

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r isks a r e st il l wi despr
ea d. T his ext ends b eyond s i mp l y gi vi ng a wa y pr iva t e da t a via cha t r ooms, mess
a ge
boa r ds a nd e
-
c omm er c e s it es a nd ext ends i nt o t he c omp r omisi ng wor l d of soc ia l media .
89. 89.

7.

H ealt h & Fit ness

W e a r e l i vi ng i ncr ea si ngl y s edent a r y l if est yl es, b eca use c omput er s ar e r e

movi ng t he need f or us t o
physi ca ll y ca r r y out ma ny t a sks,a s well a s keepi ng us root ed t o one spot t hr ou
ghout our wor king da ys a nd
dur i ng our l eisur e t i me.
90. 90.

8.

E d uc at io n

T he educa t i ona l pr op er t i es of c omput er s ar e wel l known a nd uni ver sa ll y

la uded but
ha vi ng a ll t he
i nf or ma t ion i n exist enc e on t a p ha s it s own iss u es. In pa rt icula r , t he pr a ct ice of
pla gia r is m ha s bec ome a
ma j or pr obl em, a s st udent s ca n si mpl y c opy a nd pa st e whol e c hu nks of t ext fr om
onl i ne s our ces wit hout
a t tr ibut ing t he wor k t o a nyone
els e. T his ha s become t he ba ne of educa t i ona l i nst it ut i ons, whic h t end t o
come down ha r d on det ect ed pla gia r ist s in or der t o disc our a ge si mi la r a ct ivit i es
fr om ot her s.
91. 91.

9.

T error is m & Cr i me

C omput er s ha ve b een a posit i ve f or c e i n a l lowi ng f or t he cr ea t i on of g

l oba l movement s a nd r ight eous
a ct ivis mi na nu mb er offor ms. However , t he ot her si deoft hec oi nist ha t t er r or ist sa
ndor ga niz edcr i mi na l s
a lso expl oit t he web for t heir own nefa r i ous pur poses.
92. 92.

10.

Access to for b id de n li ter at ur e

C omput er ha sma dea va i la bl et

hea cc es s t ot hef or bi dd enl it er a t ur e. T his ha s l edus t oma nys oc ia lpr obl em s
i n t he soci et y.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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93. 93.

185.

CS I mp ac t: Co nte nt Fi lt er i ng, E mai l

-
S p ams and L aws

C ont ent fi lt er i ng, in t he most gener a l sens e, i nvol ves u sing a pr ogr a m t o pr event
a cc ess t o
cer t a in it ems,
whic h ma y b e ha r mfu l if op ened or a cc ess ed. T he mos t common it ems t o f i lt er a r
e ex ecut a bl e, ema i ls or
webs it es.

H ow it works

C ont ent f i lt er ing wor ks b y ma t chi ng st r ings of c ha r act er s. When t he st r i ngs ma

t ch, t he c ont ent is not
a ll owed t hr ou gh. C ont ent fi lt er s ar e oft en pa r t of Int er net fir ewa lls. In suc h a
usa ge cont ent f ilt er i ng is
ser vi ng a secur it y pur pos e.
C ont ent filt er i ng
is a lso used t o i mp l ement compa ny poli ci es r ela t ed t o
i nf or ma t ion s yst em usa ge. F or exa mpl e, it 's c ommon t o f i lt er webs it es l i ke F a
ceb ook, yout ub e et c whic h
a r e consi der ed unr ela t ed t o wor k.

S pam e mails

As ema i l

spa m

cont i nu es t o b ec ome a ma j or is s ue, go ver nment s ar oun d t he wor l d ha ve pu t s

pec if ic
r egula t i ons
i n pla c e t o pr ot ect t heir cit iz ens fr om spa ms .

I mpo rt ant L aws

C AN
-
S P AM Act i n US

-
S pa m L egisla t i on (C AS L)

Ant i
-
spa m la w i n Eur op e

S pa m

Act of 2003 in Aust r a lia

Afr i ca , Asia a nd S out h Amer ica ha ve l oos er spa m
-
la w r equir ement s

CAN
-
S PAM Ac t
94. 94.

1.
95. 95.

2.
96. 96.

3.

Ident if y t he mess a ge a s a na d
97. 97.

4.
98. 98.

5.

Honor opt
-
out r equ est s pr omptl y
99. 99.

6.

Monit or wha t ot her s ar e doi ng on your beha lf

Majo r req ui re me nts

As k for per miss i on b ef or e a ddi ng ema i ls

Us er cou l d i dent if y you a s S ender

Do not gi ve ema i l a ddr ess t o ot her s

B e honest

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 186

100. 100.

186.

CS I mp ac t: C hil dre n
Prote ct io n and E le ctro ni c T he ft

T her ear elot sofr ea sonswhyp eopl est a r tusingpar ent a lcont r ols. P er ha pst ost opla t
eni ght phonec hec ki ng.

to
r educ e t he
t ot a l a mou nt of t i me b ei ng sp ent on scr eens i n gener a l. T her e a r e ma ny mor e ca
ses. Ult i ma t el y
i n t heir use of di git a l t ec hnol ogy.

W e hop e a nd a i m
t o enc our a ge a n a t t it ude a nd a ppr oa ch i n our kids t ha t wi ll r ender pa r ent a l c
ont r ol s

punis hment or a ut hor it a r ia n cont r ol but is a genu i ne t ool for buil di ng

r esp onsib i lit y a nd r i ght pr ior it i es i n

phone c ont r a ct.

T he f oll owi ng r isks a r e invol ved i n suc h sc ena r ios:

C ont ent R is ks.

C ont a ct R isks

Onli ne
Ma r ket i ng

Over sp endi ng
Elect r onic T heft

Inf or ma t i on P r iva cy

Inf or ma t i on S ecur it y

Conte nt Ris ks

Il l ega l C ont ent

Ha r mful C ont ent

Ha r mful Advi c e

Cont act R is ks

Onli ne Ha r a ss ment
C yb er bull yi ng

Il l ega l i nt er a ct i ons

P r obl ema t ic c ont ent sha r ing

O nl i ne M ar ket i ng

Ina ppr opr ia t e or unsuit a bl e pr oduct s

Il l ega l a nd Age
-
r est r ict ed pr oduct s

E lect ro nic T he ft

Onli ne F r a ud
Onli ne sca m

Ident if y t heft

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Info r mat io n Pr iv acy

P er sona l da t a col l ect i on fr om c hil dr en

Info r mat io n S ec uri ty

Ma lic i ous code

C ommer cia l spywa r e

How to
protect

W eb F ilt er i ng

P ar ent a l c ont r ol s oft wa r e

Ena bl e sa fet y f ea t ur es

Gui de ki ds

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Mod ule 187

101. 101.

187.

Word Process i ng: MS Word

One of t he most i mp or t a nt a pplica t ion soft wa r e a r e t he wor d pr oc ess or s. T hes

e soft wa r e help i ndi vi dua ls
a nd c ompa ni es t o pr epa r e di git a l docu ment s i n a prop er for ma t . One of t he fa
mous wor d pr oc ess i ng
soft wa r e is MS Wor d, whic h is i nclu ded i n t he Micr os oft

Offic e.

F igur e 130 is t he scr een shor t for wi ndows XP t o open MS Wor d 2007.

Fi gure
130
: St art Menu t o l aunch MSW ord

T he O ffice

B utto n

F igur e 130 shows t he MS wor d home r ibb on.

Fi gure
131
: MSW ord Home ri bbon

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T hec olor fu lic onint het op
l eft
-
ha nd

cor ner oft he

Wo rd
wi ndow(F i gur e131)ist he
O ffi ceb utto n.
When you point t o t he Of fi c e butt on wit h t he mous e point er it wi ll t ur n or a nge
.
W hen you c li c k t he l eft
mous e but t on whi l e p oi nt i ng t o t he Of fi c e but t on, a menu wi l l op en t ha t cont a i
ns some of t he most
com monl yus edc omma ndswhic hus edt ob ef ou ndi nt he
File
dr op
-
downmenui nea r l i er ver si onsof
Word
.
Rece nt doc u me nts
a r e l ist ed i n t
he
R ece nt Doc u me n ts
pa ne on t he r i ght s i de of t he menu a s s ho wn i n
F igur e 132.
Fi gur e
132
: MSW ord home ri bbon aft er cl i ck

T he r ibbon is di vi ded i nt o T a bs, Gr oups, a nd C omma nds.

Ea ch t a b opens a dif f er en
t r ibbon wit h gr oups of comma nds i ns i de it . Micr osoft ha s tr ied t o ma ke t h e
pla c ement of t he c omma nds wit hi nb ot h gr oups a nd t a bsa s int uit i ve a s poss ibl e t
o ma ke t hem ea s y t ofi nd.
By usi ng t he R ibb on
syst em,

t he us er ha s ma ny l ess mouse c li c ks t o ex ecut e t he des ir ed c omma nd.

T he it ems on t he r ibbons a r e gr oup ed t oget her by c om mon t a sk. T he ma i n r ibbon

is t he H ome T a b/r ibbon.
T he home t a b/ r ibbon in Exc el a nd P ower P oi nt a r e simi l a r. Bel ow is t he i ma ge of
MS
Wor d Home R ibb on.

B el ow is t he expla na t ion of dif f er ent c omp onent s i n t he home r ibbon of MS Wor d

2007.

In t he l ower
r ight
-
ha nd

cor ner of s ome gr oups is a sma ll down poi nt i ng a rr ow. T hes e

a r e r ef er r ed t o a s
Di alogE xp ande rs
or
L aunc he rs
. C lic ki ngont hea r r owwil lop ena
Dialogwi ndow
or a
Comma ndp ane
.
T he dia l og box ma y pr ovide a ddit i ona l opti ons t ha t ma y not be cont a i ned on t he
a ct ive t a b. Most of t he
dia l og box es t ha t a ppea r shoul d
b e fa mi l ia r ; ma ny a r e ta ken dir ect l y fr om ea r li er ver si ons of t he pr ogr a m.

T he R ibb on ha s t hr ee t yp es of C omma nds :

S i mp l e But t ons

Dr op
-
do wn menu s

But t ons

La uncher s (or Dia l og Expa nder s)

Butt ons

S i mp le B utto ns
wor k a s
T oggles
or
on/ off switc hes
. When t he c omma nd is off it wil l b e sur r ounded b y
blu e a nd l ook l i ke a l l ot her c omma nds a s shown i n t he F igur e 133. When a comma
nd but t on is on, it wi l l
be sur r ounded by or a nge. A com ma nd wi l l onl y wor k when it is on.
B old
is a n exa mpl e of a but t on a s
shown i n F igur e 133.

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Fi gure
133
: Font Panel

com ma nd

a nd hol d it t her e. A t ext box wi ll op en up. T he t ext box cont a i ns t he c omma nd na

me, t he
keyb oa r d shor t cuts for t he comma nd, a long wit h a n exp la na t i on of t he c omma nd
a s shown i n t he F i gur e
102. 102.

134.

Fi gure
134
: Bol dC l i cked i n Fon t Pan el
Drop
-
dow nme nub ut to ns
wi l lha vea downa rr owt ot her i ght oft hec omma nd. Jus t likebut t ons, t hedr op
-
down menu c omma nd wi l l be sur r ounded by or a nge a nd t he dr op
-
down list wi l l op en up.
Change c ase
cont r ol is a n exa mp l e of a
dr op
-
down menu a s shown i n t he F i gur e 135.

Fi gure
135
: Fon t Pan el C ha ng i ng C as e

S ome c omma nds a r e a comb i na t ion of a

si mp le b utto n
a nd a
drop
-
dow n me nu b ut to n
. T her e a r e t wo
butt ons for t hes e comma nds. T he l eft butt on is a simp l e butt on a nd t he r ight butt
ons is dr op
-
down menu
a rr ow but t on. If one c li c ks on t he s i mp l e but t on t he defa ult va lu e wil l b e us ed, if
one cl ic k on t he dr op
-
down menu a r r ow t her e wi l l b e a

nu mb er of opt i ons a va ila bl e fr om whic h t o c hoos e. T he defa ult va lu e i s

t he la st used va lu e f or t he c omma nd.
U nd er li ne
is a n exa mp l e of a comb i na t ion c omma nd a s shown i n t h e
F igur e 136.

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Fi gure
136
: Underl i ne

Panel

L aunc her (or Di alog E xp ande rs)

b utto ns

La uncher ( or Dia logExpa nder s)but t onsa sshowni nfi gur e8ar eusua ll ydispla yedi nt
hebot t o m
r ight cor ner ofs ome gr oups. C lic ki ngt he
la unc her bu t t onwil lop enup as er i es ofopt i ons eit her
i n a Ta sk pa ne (suc h a st he C lipb oa r d) or a Dia log window such a s t he F ont gr oup.

Fi gure
137
: Panel L aunch Butt ons

Mi ni T ool B ar
T he
Mi ni T oolba r a ppea r s a ut oma t ica l l y whenever you sel ect t ext a nd c ont a ins c
ommon t ext
for ma t t i ngc omma ndsa sshowni nt heF i gur e138. T oUset heMi niT oolba r :S el ect t het
extyou
wa nt t ofor ma t a ndcl ic kt hedes ir edcomma ndont heM i niT oolba r .C lic ka nywhe
r eout si det h e
M ini T oolba r t o clos e

it .

Fi gure
138
: Mi niT oolbar

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 188

103. 103.

188.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Q ui c k Acc ess bar)

T he Qu ic k Ac c ess T oolba r (F igur e 139)

pr ovi des ea sy a ccess t o t he c om ma nds you us e most fr equ ent l y.
T heS a ve, Undo, R edo/ R ep ea t ,a ndQuic kPr int but t onsa ppea ront heQuic kAc c ess T
oolba r bydefa ult , but
you ca n a dd a nd r emove com ma nds t o meet your needs. You ca n qui c kl y r ever se
most comma nds
you
ex ecut e by usi ng Undo. If you t hen c ha nge your mi nd a ga i n, a nd wa nt t o r ea ppl y a
comma nd, you ca n us e
R edo a s shown i n t he F i gur e 139.
Fi gure
139
: Quick Access t oolbar

E xerc ise
104. 104.

1.

T ype wor d
105. 105.

2.

C lic k t he Undo but t on on t he Qu ic k Acc ess menu. T he t ypi ng

disa pp ea r s.
106. 106.

3.

C lic k t he R edo but t on on t he Qui c k Acc ess menu. T he t ypi ng

r ea ppea r s.
107. 107.

4.

S el ect " Undo

exa mp l e. "
108. 108.

5.
P r ess C tr l+bt o bol d. Wor d bolds t he

t ext .
109. 109.

6.

P r ess C tr l+i. Wor d it a lic iz es t he

t ext .
110. 110.

7.

P r ess C tr l+u Wor d under li nes t he

t ext .
111. 111.

8.

C lic k t he down ar r ow next t o t he Undo ic on. You wi l l see t he a ct i ons you

p er for med
list ed. T o undo t he u nder l i ne, cl ic k Under l i ne; t o undo t he under li ne a nd it a l ic,
cl ic k
Under l i ne It a li c; t o undo t he
under li ne, it a l ic, a nd b ol d cl ic k B old

et c.
112. 112.

9.

T o r edo, cl ic k t he R edo ic on sever a l

t i mes.

Alte r nat e Met ho d

--

U ndo & Redo by Usi ng K eys

113. 113.

1.
114. 114.

2.

P r ess C tr l+z. T he t yp i ng

disa ppea r s.
115. 115.

3.

P r ess C tr l+y. T he t yping

r ea pp ea r s.
116. 116.

4.

S el ect " Undo

exa mp l e. "
117. 117.

5.
P r ess C tr l+ut o

under l i ne.
118. 118.

6.

P r ess C tr l+z. T he under l i ne is

r emoved.
119. 119.

7.

P r ess C tr l+y. T he u nder l i ne

r ea pp ea r s.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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120. 120.

189.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (H o me R ib bo n)

T hehomer ibb onisoneoft hemost i mpor t a nt r ibbona va ila bl ei nt heMS Wor d. F igur
e140showst hehom e
r ibbon. It cont a i ns dif f er ent i mp or t a nt gr oups suc h a s: C lipb oa r d, F ont , P ara
gr a ph, St yl es a nd E dit i ng. W e
wi ll b e l ea r ni ng ea c h modu l e of home r ibb on i
n t he nex t modul es i n det a i ls.
Fi gure
140
: Home ri bbon

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 190
121. 121.

190.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Cl ip bo ar d G roup)

T he
H o me
r ibbon is ma de up of t he most used c omma nds i n Wor d. T he fir st gr oup on t he
H o me
r ibbon is
t he
Cl ip bo ar d. Copy
,
Cut
,
Past e
a nd
Fo r mat Past e
a r e t he c omma nds wit hi n t he C lipb oa r d gr oup a s
shown i n t he F igur e 141. T he C lipb oa r d comma nds a r e on t he H ome r ibbo
n of
Word
a nd a ll ot her Offic e
2007 a pplica t i ons t ha t use t he r ibbon. T he dia l og expa nder a rr ow of t he C l ipboa r
d gr oup wil l op en up t h e
Cl ip board p ane
, s howi ng a ll it ems t ha t ca n be pa s t ed.
Fi gure
141
: C l i pboard Group

C ut and

Past e

Youca nuseW or d'sC utfea t ur et or emovet extfr oma docu ment. Youca nuset heP a st efea
t ur et opla c et h e
i nf or ma t ion youcut a nywher e i nt hesa me or a not her docu ment . In ot her wor ds,
youca n move i nf or ma t io n
fr omonep la c ei na
docu ment t oa not her pla c ei nt hesa meor diff er ent docu ment b yus i ngt heC ut a ndP a
st e
f ea t ur es. T he Of fi c e C l ipboa r d is a st or a ge a r ea . When you cut , Wor d st or es t
he da t a you cut on t h e
C lipb oa r d. You ca n pa st e t he i nfor ma t i on t ha t is st or ed on t he C l ipbo
a r d a s oft en a s you l i ke.

Cut wit h t he Ribbo n

122. 122.

1.

T ype t he f ol l owi ng:

I want to move. I am co nt e nt w here I am.

123. 123.

2.
124. 124.
3.

C hoos e t he Home t a b.
125. 125.

4.

C lic k t he C ut but t on
in t he C lipb oa r d gr oup a s shown i n t he F i gur e 142. Wor d cut s t he
t ext you s el ect ed a nd pla c es it on t he C l ipboa r d. Your text shou l d now r ea d:

"I a m c ont ent wher e I a m. "

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
142
: C ut opt i on i n cl i p
board group

Paste wit h t he Ribbo n

126. 126.

1.

P la ce t he cur sor a ft er t he p er i od i n t he s ent enc e

"I a m c ont ent wher e I a m. "

127. 127.

2.

P r ess t he spa ceba r t o l ea ve a spa ce.

128. 128.

3.

C hoos e t he Home t a b.
129. 129.
4.

C lic k t he P a st e but t on
i n t he C l ipboa r d gr oup a s shown i n t he F i gur e 143. Wor d pa st es t he
t ext on t he C l ipb oa r d. Your t ext shoul d now r ea d:

"I a m c ont ent wher e I a m. I wa nt t o move. "

Fi gure
143
: Past i ng i n Document

Alter nate Met hod

Cut wit h a Co ntext Me nu

130. 130.

1.

T ype t he

f ol l owi ng:

I want to move. I am co nt e nt
w here I am.
131. 131.

2.

S el ect "I wa nt t o move. "

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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132. 132.

3.

R ight
-
c l ic k. T he M i ni t oo lba r a nd a cont ext menu a pp ea r.
133. 133.
4.

C lic k C ut on t he menu a s shown i n t he F i gur e 144. You r t ext shoul d now r ea d: "I a
m c ont ent
wher e I a m. "

Fi gure
144
: Past i ng
i n Document (Alt ernat e Met hod)

Alter nate Met hod

Paste wit h a Context Menu

134. 134.

1.

P la ce t he cur sor a ft er t he p er i od i n t he s ent enc e "I a m cont ent wher e I a m. "

135. 135.

2.

P r ess t he spa ceba r t o l ea ve a spa ce.

136. 136.

3.

R ight
-
c l ic k. A M i ni t oo lba r a nd a cont ext menu a pp ea r a s s hown i n t he F igur e 14 5.
137. 137.

4.
C lic k P a st e. Your t ext shoul d now r ea d:

"I a m c ont ent wher e I a m. I wa nt t o move. "

Fi gure
145
: Past i ng i n Document (Alt ernat e Met hod)

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Alter nate Met hod

Cut wit h K eys

138. 138.

1.

T ype t he f ol l owi ng:

I want to move. I am conte nt w here I am.

139. 139.

2.

S el ect "I wa nt t o move. "

140. 140.

3.

P r ess C tr l+x.

Your t ext shou l d now r ea d: " I a m cont ent wher e I a m. "

Alter nate Met hod

Paste wit h K eys

141. 141.

1.

P la ce t he cur sor a ft er t he
p er i od i n t he s ent enc e: "I a m cont ent wher e I a m. "
142. 142.

2.

P r ess t he spa ceba r t o l ea ve a spa ce.

143. 143.

3.

P r ess C tr l+v.
144. 144.

4.

Your

t ext s hou l d no w

r ea d:

"I a m c ont ent wher e I a m. I wa nt t o move. "

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 191

145. 145.

191.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Fo nt G ro up )

T he s ec ond gr oup of com ma nds on

t he H ome r ibb on is t he F ont gr oup. T he font gr oup c omma nds a r e
for ma t enha nc i ng t ool t ha t inc lu des f ont t yp efa c es, font siz e, font eff ect s (bol d,
it a lics, under l i ne, et c. ),
col or s a nd mor e. R eme mb er t ha t you ca n pr evi ew how t he new font wi l l l ook by
hi ghl
i ght i ng t he t ext , a nd
hover i ngover t henewf ont t yp efa c ea sshowni nt heF i gur e146.T he expa nder ar r owi
nt heF ont gr oupwi l l
op en up t he F ont dia l og window.

Fi gure
1
46
: Font group
146. 146.

7.1.1

B asic T e xt E dit i ng (Fo nt G ro up T as k)

T ype your na me i n docu ment wi ndow a t inser t i on poi nt a s shown bel ow i n t he F i

gur e 147.

Fi gure
147
: T ypi ng y
our name

C ha nge t he f ont of your na me t o Ar ia l. (Home T a b

-
>F ont Gr oup
-
> F ont Ar r ow) a s shown i n t he F i gur e
147. 147.

148.

Fi gure
148
: C hanging f ont

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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By keep s el ect i ng t he na me, ma ke it bol d a nd under l i ned. (Home T a b

-
> F ont Gr oup
-
> Bol d & Under l i ne
But t ons) a s shown i n t he F i gur e 149.

Fi gure
149
: Appl yi ngbol d and under l i ne

C ha nge t he f ont si z e of your na me t o 24. (Home T a b

-
> F ont Gr oup
-
> F ont S iz e Ar r ow)

a s shown i n t h e
F igur e 150.

Fi gure
150
: C hangi ng Font Size

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 192
148. 148.

192.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Par agr ap h G ro up

-
I)

T he t hir d gr oup on t he H ome r ibb on is t he

Parag r ap h
gr oup. T he pa ra gr a ph gr oup a ll ows you t o c ha nge
Par agr ap h Al ig n me nt
(l eft , r ight , cent er ed, or just ifi ed), a djust
L ine S pac i ng
wit hi n a para gr a ph, a nd
a djust
spac i ng be for e and after p arag r ap hs,
a long wit h wor ki ng wit h pa r a gra ph
Inde nt at io n
a s shown
i n fi gur e 151
.
T his is a lso t he a r ea wher e you ca n a dd
b ul let l ists
, nu mb er
lists
, or
out li nes fo r m
toa
docu ment s. T he Dia l og expa nder ar r ow wi ll op en t he
Par agr ap h d i alog
wi ndow.

Fi gure
151
: Paragr aph Group

B ul lets and N u mbe rs

If you ha ve l ist s of da t a , you ma y wa nt t o bull et or numb er t hem. W hen usi ng

Micr os oft Wor d, bull et i ng

a nd nu mb er i ng a r e ea sy. T he fir st par t of t his l ess on t ea ches you t o bull et a nd nu
mb er .

In Mi cr osoft Wor d, you ca n ea si l y cr ea t e bull et ed or numb er ed l ist s of it ems. S

ever a l bull et i ng a nd
nu mb er i ngst yl esa r ea va ila bl e, a sshown
i nt he exa mp l es. Youca ns el ect t he one you wis ht ous ea sshown
i n t he F i gur e 152 a nd F i gur e 53.

Fi gure
152
: N umbers varri at i onsi n paragr aph group

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
153
: Bull et s vari at ionsi n paragr aph group
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 193

149. 149.

193.
Word Process i ng: MS Word (Par agr ap h G ro up
-
II)

You ca n cr ea t e your own bull et libr a r y. P er for m t he f ol l owi ng st eps:

150. 150.

1.

T ype t he f ol l owi ng l ist a s shown:

App le

O rang e

G rap e

Mango

C her ry
151. 151.

2.

S el ect t he wor ds you just t yp ed.

152. 152.

3.

C hoos e t he Home t a b.
153. 153.

4.
In t he P a ra gr a ph gr oup, clic k t he down a rr ow next t o the Bu l l et s butt on
. T he Bull et Libr a r y
a ppea r s.
154. 154.

5.

C lic k t o s el ect t he t yp e of bull et you wa nt t o us e a s shown i n t he F i gur e 154. Wor

d
a dds bull et s t o your

list .

Not e: As you move your cur sor over t he va r ious bul l et st yl es, Wor d displa ys t he bu
ll et st yl e onscr een.

Fi gure
154
: Bull et sel ect i on

T o re move t he b ul l et i ng:
155. 155.

1.

S el
ect t he list a ga i n.
156. 156.

2.
C hoos e t he Home t a b.
157. 157.

3.

In t he P a ra gr a ph gr oup, clic k t he down a rr ow next t o t he Bu l l et s ic on. T he Bu l l

et dia l og box
a ppea r s.
158. 158.

4.

C lic k N one. Wor d r emoves t he bul l et s fr om your list .

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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N umb ers T as k
159. 159.

1.

T ype t he f ol l owi ng l ist a s shown:

App le O range

G r ape M ango C herry

160. 160.

2.

S el ect t he wor ds you just t yp ed.

161. 161.

3.

C hoos e t he Home t a b.
162. 162.

4.

In t he P a ra gr a ph gr oup, clic k t he down a rr ow next t o t he Nu mb er i ng but t on

.T he
Nu mb er i ng Libr a r ya ppea r s a s show
n i n t he F i gur e 155 .

C lic k t o sel ect t he t yp e of nu mb er i ng you wa nt t o use. Wor d nu mb er s your list .

Note:
As you move your
cur sor over t he va r ious nu mb er st yl es, W or d displa ys t he nu mb er st yl e onscr
een.

Fi gure
155
: Adding
N umberedL i sts

T o re move t he nu mb er i ng :
163. 163.

1.

S el ect t he list a ga i n.
164. 164.

2.

C hoos e t he Home t a b.
165. 165.

3.

In t he P a ra gr a ph gr oup, clic k t he down a rr ow next t o t he Nu mb er i ng ic on. T he

Nu mb er dia l og
box a ppea r s.
166. 166.

4.

C lic k N one. Wor d r emoves t he nu mb er ing fr om your li st .

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 194
167. 167.

194.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (S tyle G ro up )

T hef our t h gr oup ont heH omer ibb onist he

S tyl e
gr oup a sshowni nt heF i gur e156. S t yl esa r ea col l ect i on
of for ma t t i ng opt i ons t ha t you ca n a pply
t o t ext . When you use st yl es t o for ma t your docu ment , you ca n
qu ic kly a nd ea si ly a ppl y a set of for ma t t ing c hoic es c onsist ent l y t hr ou ghout
your docu ment .

Fi gure
156
: St yl e Group

A
sty le
is a set of
for mat t i ng
c har act er ist ics
, such a s font na me, si z e, col or , para gr a ph a lignment a nd
spa cing. S omest yl es eveni nclu deb or der sa nds ha di ng. F or exa mpl e, i nst ea d oft a ki
ngt hr ees epa r a t est eps
t ofor ma t your hea di nga s16
-
poi nt , bold, C a mbr ia , you ca na chi evet hesa me
r esu lt i nonest epbya ppl yi ng
t he built
-
i n H ea ding 1 st yl e. You do not need t o r eme mb er t he c ha r a ct er ist ics of t he H ea
di ng 1 st yl e. F or

a nd t hen c l i
c k H ea di ng 1 in t he ga l l er y of st yl es.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 195

168. 168.

195.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (E dit i ng G roup)

T he F ift h a nd f ina l gr oup (F i gur e 157) on t he Home r i bbon is t he

E dit i ng
Gr oup. T he c omma nds i n t he
Edit i ng gr oup a r e
Find
,
Rep l ac e
, a nd
S el ect
. W hen you cr ea t e a docu ment i n M icr os oft W or d, you ma y
deci de t o cha nge a c er t a in wor d or phr a se t ha t is r epea t ed t hr ou ghout t he docu
ment . Let t he c omput er do
t he ha r d wor k wit h t he
Find
a nd
Rep l ace

Fi gure
157
: Edit i ng
group

Under t he
Find
c omma nd, t her e is t he
GoTo
comma nd. T he G o T o comma nd ca n b e used t o
i mmedia t el y go t o a pa ge, a sect i on or a ny ma r ked l oca t ion wit hi n your docu
ment .

T he
S el ect
c omma nd

ca n b e us ed for diff er ent pur pose.

T o sel ect a ll of t he t ext in t he docu ment, cl ic k

S ele ct Al l
.

T o sel ect sha pes t ha t a r e hi dden, st a cked, or behi nd t ext , clic k

S ele ct O bjec ts
, a nd t hen dr a w a
box over t he sha p es.

T o sel ect t ext wit h si mi la r for ma t t ing, cl ic k

S el ect T e xt wit h S i mi l ar For mat t i ng
.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 196

169. 169.

196.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (I nsert Func tio nal it ies )

Ins er t T a b ca n be used if you wa nt t o a dd t o gr a phics or li nk your docu ment wit h

a not her

docu ment . T he
i nit ia l pa r t of t he i ns er t ta b in wor d r ibbon ha s been shown i n t he F i gur e 158.

Fi gure
158
: Inert t ab

In t he i ns er t ta b, t he f oll owi ng gr oups a r e a va ila bl e whi ch wil l b e cover ed i n t he

next modu l es :

P a ges Gr oup
Ta bles Gr oup

Il lust r a t ions Gr oup

Media

Links

C omment s

Hea der &F oot er

T ext

S ymb ols
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 197

170. 170.
197.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (p age G ro up )

P a ges
gr oup is in t he fa r left of t he i ns er t ta b. You ca n ins er t fr om t he t hr ee ca t egor i es
for pa ges whic h a r e;
C over P a ge, Bla nk P a ge, a nd P a ge Br ea k a s shown in t he F i gur e 159. T hes e f ea t
ur es a r e usefu l if you a r e
cr ea t i ng a pr of ess i ona l or l ong docu ment .

Fi gure
159
: Pages group i
n t hei nsert t ab

Cover Page

C over P a ge is t he t it l e pa ge of t he docu ment . Wor d 2007 pr ovides a nu mb er of pr

ef or med c over pa ges t o
gi ve your docu ment a pr ofess i ona l l ook.

Cover pag e
E xer cis e: Cre at i ng a Cover Page
171. 171.

1.

C lic k t he
I ns ert

t a b t o ma ke it t he a ct ive t a b a s shown i n t he F i gur e 158.

172. 172.

2.

T oopent he
B ui lt
-
i nCover PageG all ery
, cl ic kt he
do w nar row
t ot her ight of
CoverPage
i nt h e
Pages
gr oup on t he
I nser t
t a ba s shown i n t he F i gur e 1 60.

Fi gure
160
: Insert i ngC over Page
173. 173.

3.

S cr oll down a nd
c l ic k
t he des ir ed c over for t he docu m ent fr om t he
Cover Page G al le ry
. Us e t he
sc
r ol l ba r or scr ol l a rr ow t o s ee a ll t he cover pa ge c hoi c es.
174. 174.

4.

A C over pa ge wi ll b e a dded t o your docu ment .

Re move t he Cover Page

175. 175.

1.

C lic k t he
I ns ert
t a b t o ma ke it t he a ct ive

t a b.
176. 176.

2.

T oop ent he
B ui lt
-
i nCoverPageG all ery
, cl ic kt he
do w nar row
t ot her i ght of
CoverPage
i n t he P a ges gr oup on t he
I nse rt

t a b.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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177. 177.

3.
S cr oll down a nd s el ect
Re move C urre nt Cover Page
a sshown i n t he F igur e

1
178. 178.

61.

Fi gure
161
: Removi ng cover page

B lank Page

Gener a l l y,

Wor d i ns er t sa bla nkpa gea ut oma t ica l l y whi l e youa r et ypi ng. B la nkP a gei nI ns er
t t a bca nhel p
you a dd a new pa ge a nywher e i n a docu ment when r equir ed.

Tr y ins er t i ng a bla nk pa ge t o your docu ment .

179. 179.

1.

C lic k wher e you wa nt t o i ns er t a new pa ge i. e. b ef or e or

a ft er s ome t ext .
180. 180.

2.
C lic k on Bla nk P a ge i n I ns er t T a b (F igur e 158).

Page B re ak

P a ge Br ea k but t on wi ll f or c e a pa ge br ea k a nywher e you sel ect i n your docu ment

.
181. 181.

1.

cl ic k wher e you wa nt t o i ns er t P a ge Br ea k
182. 182.

2.

C lic k pa ge br ea k (F i gur e 158).

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 198

183. 183.

198.

Word
Process i ng: MS Word (T ab le G ro up)

Wor d pr ovides t a bles opt i on for pla ci ng da t a in a mor e for ma l wa y.

184. 184.

1.

C lic k on t a ble i n i ns er t t a b. (F igur e 162).

Fi gur e
162
: T ables group
185. 185.

2.

T o a dd R ows a nd C olu mns, sel ect

t op t o b ot t om f or r ows & l eft t o r ight for colu mns (F i gur e . 163)
186. 186.

3.

C lic k t o a ppl y when ha ppy wit h t he s el ect i on.

187. 187.

4.

C lic k on t he box t o ent er t ext .

188. 188.

5.

Obser ve t he new t a b op ened "T a ble T ools". You ca n use t his t ool t o a pply fur t her f
or ma t t i ng t o
your cr ea t ed t a ble

Fi gure
163
: Sel ect i ng R
ows and Col umns
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 199

189. 189.

199.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Il l ust r at io n G ro up )

Us i ngI l lust r a t ions(F i gur e164), youca na ddpi ct ur esofa llt yp esa ndst yl est o your
docu ment . F ol l owed is
det a i l des cr ipt i on on how t o a dd i l lust r a t ions.

Fi gure
164
: Il l ust rat i ons

Pict ure

T hef ir st sel ect i on i nI llust r a t ionsisI ns er t a pict ur efr oma fi l e. W hen youc li c kont
hisa
wi ndow wi l lop e n
for you t o br ows e t o a phot ogr a ph or ot her pict ur e you ha ve sa ved on your comput
er .

C l i p A rt

T o il lust r at e a speci fi c
conc ept ,

you ca n Ins er t C lip Ar t i n your docu ment , i nc lu di ng media fil e (s ou nd a nd

vi deo cl ips) a nd dr a wi ng.

S hapes

Wor d 2007 pr ovides a wide r a nge of sha pes (F i gur e 16 5) t o sel ect a nd i ns er t in
your docu ment a s per your
r equir ement . It a lso pr ovi des C a nva s t o pla c e a ll t he S ha pes a t one p la c e wit
hout bei ng dist ur bed when
fur t her c ha nges a r e ma de a s shown i n t he fi gur e
190. 190.

166. Ea ch sha p e b elongs t o one of t he f ol l owi n g

subca t egor y

i. e. Lines, Ba sic S ha pes, Bl oc k Ar r ows, F low C ha r t s, Ca llout s, S ta rsa nd Ba nner s.

191. 191.

1.

C lic k on S ha pes i n I ns er t T aba nd dr a w a new C a nva s F igur e

192. 192.

165.
193. 193.

2.

Ins er t sha pes gi ven i n F i gur e

194. 194.

166.
195. 195.

3.

Ar r a nge
i ns er t ed sha pe t o for m S now Ma n a s done i n F i gur e
196. 196.

167.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
165
: Shapes t ypesi nW ord

Fi gure
166
: Shapes required t o make snowman

Fi gure
167
: Snowman

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S mart Art

A new f ea t ur e i nt r oduc ed i n Wor d 2007 is S ma r t Ar t. Us i ng S ma r t

Ar t ,

you ca n commu nica t e your idea s

t he F i gur e 168.

Fi gure
168
: Smart

Art

Exer c is e: H ow t o a dd C yc l e S ma r t Ar t
197. 197.

1.

C lic k on S ma r t Ar t But t on i n I l lust r at ion gr oup of I ns er t T ab

198. 198.

2.

C lic k C ycl e i n t he l eft pa ne of op ening wi ndow (F i gur e 169)

199. 199.
3.

S el ect Ba sic C ycl e F i gur e

200. 200.

169.
201. 201.

4.

C lic k O n [T EXT ] t o a dd t ext. "Ba by", "C hil d", "T een" a nd " Adu lt ". Not ic e t he extr
a C ir cle
l eft (F i gur e 170).

C lic k on t he r ema i ni ng c ir cl e a nd pr ess D el et e ( D el) K ey on your keyb oa r d t o r

emove it (F igur e 171).

Fi gure
169
: Basi c cycl e

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
170
: Human Li f eC ycl e

Fi gure
171
: Adding and Removi ng Object s
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 200

202. 202.

200.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Med i a and L i nks G roups)

Linkst oolb ox(F i gur e172)i nI ns er t t a bhelpsl i nkot her docu ment si nyour cur r ent
docu ment a nda lsohelps
you keep t ra ck of r ea di ng b y pr ovi di ng B ookma r k fa ci l it y.

Fi gure
172
: L i nks group

H yperl i nk

Hyp er l i nkisusedt oa ddl ink ofot her docu ment sor web pa gesi nyour Docu ment . H er
eishow youca na dd
Hyp er l i nk. C lic k on hyp er l ink in i ns er t r ibbon t a b, a wi ndow wi l l op en a s in
t he F i gur e 173.
203. 203.

1.

Ent er wor d or phr a se t o displa y hyp er l i nk

204. 204.

2.

C lic k t o a dd t ext disp la yed when mous e is over t he hyp er l i nk t ext

205. 205.

3.

S el ect B ookma r k
206. 206.

4.
S el ect r esp ect i ve opti on t o l oca t e fi l e or web l inks t ha t you wa nt t o a dd i n docu
ment
207. 207.

5.

Addr ess bar

208. 208.

6.

You ca n l i nk t o va
r ious f il es i. e. exist i ng fi l e i n your sys t em, l i nk t o pla c e wit hi n docu ment
(i dea l t o li nk t a bl e of c ont ent s wit h hea di ngs).

Fi gure
173
: Adding Hyperl i nk

B ookmar ks

Bookma r ks a r e a wa y t o keep t r a ck of r ea di ng.

T hey ar e si mila r t o bookma r ks you keep whil e r ea di ng a
fa vor it e novel or st or y book l ike, t ur n t he c or ner of t he pa ge or pla ce p en or penc i
l.

Bookma r ks Ex er cis e: H ow t o Us e B ookma r k

209. 209.

1.

C lic k wher e you wa nt t o pla c e bookma r k.

210. 210.

2.

F r om i ns er t r ibbon t a bsel ect

bookma r k (F i gur e 174)
211. 211.

3.

Ent er
bookma r k

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212. 212.

4.

Fi gure
174
: Adding Bookmark

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Mod ule 201

213. 213.

201.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Co mme nts and H ead er & foote r)

Hea der a nd F oot er s ar e ar ea s wher e you ca n a dd T ext or Gra phics. Any f or ma t t i

ng a ppli ed i n t hes e a r ea s
wi ll b e s hown t hr ou ghout t he docu ment . A hea der is a t t he t op ma r gi n; a foot er
is
pr int ed i n t he b ot t om
ma r gi n F or Exa mpl e obs er ver t he t op of t his pa ge a nd a ll t he pa ges i n t he docu
ment you wi l l see sa m e
hea der a nd foot er for ma t .
Fi gure
175
: Header and Foot er

Exer c is e: H ow t o Us e H ea der

& F oot er s
214. 214.

1.

C lic k on i ns er t r ibbon t a b sel ect hea der .

215. 215.

2.

P a ge hea der wi ll op en i n edit mode. (F i gur e 176)

216. 216.

3.
217. 217.

4.

C los e hea der & foot er (F igur e 177).

S i mila r l y, you ca n a dd f oot er . P lea s e not e you

ca n even a dd i ma ges t o t he hea der , foot er or bot h.

Fi gure
176
: Header i n edit mode

Fi gure
177
: Aft er Header Inserti on

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 202

218. 218.

202.

Word
Process i ng: MS Word (T ext G ro up ( Part
-
1) )

T ext Box in I ns er t R ibbon t a b ca n be used t o a dd gr a phica l for ma t t i ng. T his ha s

been shown i n t he F i gur e
219. 219.

178.

Fi gure
178
: T ext group

Exer c is e: H ow t o Us e T ext box (F ig

ur e 179)
220. 220.

1.
C lic k t he T ext Box but t on, loca t ed i n t he T ext gr oup on t he I ns er t t a b. Fr om t he
menu t ha t
a ppea r s, choos e Dr a w T ext Box.
221. 221.

2.

C lic k wher e you wa nt one c or ner of t he t ext box t o a ppea r a nd dr a g t o wher e you
wa nt t he
opp osit e c or ner .
222. 222.

3.

R el ea se t he mous e b
ut t on a nd t hen t yp e your t ext .

Fi gure
179
: Adding T ext Box

Q uic k p arts

Quic k P a r ts a r e a new f ea t ur e i n Wor d

2007 t ha t a llows you t o sa ve t ext or

ca ll it up quic kl y whe n
you need it . T his is esp ecia l l y ha ndy for
i ns er t ing i nfor ma t i on such a s a C ompa ny
Na me, Logo, C ompa ny Addr ess or a ny
ot her infor ma t i on t ha t you us e oft en.
Exer c is e: H ow t o C r ea t e a Quick P a r t
223. 223.

1.

S el ect t het extyou wa nt t or euse.

Toi
nc lude pa ra gr a ph for ma t t ing, ma k e
sur e you sel ect t he ending pa ra gr a ph
ma r k.
224. 224.

2.

C lic k t he I ns er t t a b on t he R ibb on.

225. 225.

3.

C lic k t he Qu ic k P a rt s but t on a nd c l ic k S a ve S el ect i on t o Quic k P a r t Ga ller y.

226. 226.

4.

Ent er in t he des ir ed pr oper t i es f or t he Quic k P a rt .

227. 227.

5.

T oins er t a Qu
ickP ar tt ha t youha vesa ved, cl ic kt heQu i ckP a r tsbut t ona ndchoos et heQuic k
P ar t you wa nt t o use.
Word Art

Wor dAr t ca n be us ed t o pr oduc e sp ec ia l t ext ef f ect s i n a Micr osoft Wor d docu

ment . F or exa mp l e, you ca n
cr ea t e cur ved, sla nt ed, or
t hr ee
-
di mens i ona l t ext by i ns er t i ng a Wor dAr t obj ect .

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Exer c is e: H ow t o a dd Wor d Ar t
228. 228.

1.

On t he I ns er t t a ba nd t hen C l ic k W or dAr t .
229. 229.

2.

In t he W or dAr t Ga ll er y dia log b ox, doub l e

-
c li c k t he s t yl e t ha t you wa nt (F i gur e 18 0).
230. 230.

3.

In t he E dit Wor dAr t T ext dia l og box, t yp e your t ext a nd s el ect font a nd siz e.
231. 231.

4.

C lic k B ol d or It a lic t o ma ke a l l t he t ext bol d or it a l ic. (Not e you ca nnot a pply b ol

d or it a li c
t o onl y a par t of t he t ext . ).
232. 232.

5.
In t he E dit Wor dAr t T ext dia l og box, cl ic k OK. T o
ins e r t int o t he docu ment .

Fi gure
180
: W ord Art Gall ery

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 203

233. 233.

203.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (T ext G ro up ( Part

-
II ) and S y mbo ls G ro up)

Drop Cap

A dr op ca p is a specia l l y for ma t t ed l et t er t ha t a ppea rs a t t he b egi nni ng of a para

gr a ph just like you see i n
newspa p er s or in b ooks. Micr osoft wor d off er s dr op c a ps in t wo st yl es.
Most c ommonl y us ed dr op ca p

begi ns t he pa ra gra ph wit h a lar ge l et t er t ha t sp

il ls down int o t he t ext . T hus, t he dr op ca p shift s t he fir st few
li nes of t he pa r a gra ph.

Exer c is e: H ow t o Us e Dr op C a p
234. 234.

1.
T ype t he pa r a gra ph a s you nor ma l l y wou l d.
235. 235.

2.

Open t he I ns er t t a b on t he R ibb on a nd cl ic k t he Dr op C a p but t on. (F i gur e 181)

236. 236.

3.

C hoos e t he dr op ca
p st yl e you wa nt t o us e.
237. 237.

4.

Adjust t he dr op ca p, if you wa nt t o.

S y mbo ls

Anot her fea t ur e fou nd is Micr os oft Wor d is S ymb ols. You ca n a dd pr e
-
ma de ma t hema t i ca l Equa t i ons a nd
va r ious S ymb ols wher e r equ ir ed i n your docu ment . However , if you ca nnot fi nd
wha t you

wa nt , you ca n
a lso cr ea t e your own equa t i ons.

Exer c is e: Us i ng S ymb ols

238. 238.
1.

Loca t e t he Equa t i on butt on i n t he S ymbols gr oup of t he Ins er t ta b on t he R ibbon.

239. 239.

2.

C lic k t he but t on ( not it s menu t r ia ngl e), a nd t wo t hings ha ppen. F ir st, a n equa t
ion c ont r ol
isi ns er t e
d i nt o your docu ment a t t hei ns er t i onpoi nt er 'sl oca t i on. S ec ond, t heEqua t i onT
ools
Des i gn t a ba ppea r s on t he R ibb on.

Fi gure
181
: Drop cap ' P'

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 204

240. 240.

204.

Word Process i ng:

MS Word (Desig n R i bbo n)

Des i gn r ibbon (a s shown i n t he F i gur e 182) cont a ins t he f oll owi ng gr oups:

Fi gure
182
: Desi gn Ribbon

T he mes

Dr op
-
D own. T hedr op
-
do
wnc ont a i nst hec om ma nds:Bui lt
-
i n, Mor eT hemesonMicr osoft Offi c e
Onli ne, Br ows ef or T hemesa ndS a veC ur r ent T heme. Thebu ilt
-
i nt hemesa r e:Of fi c e, Ap ex, Asp ect , C i vi c,
C onc our se, Equ it y, F l ow, F oundr y, M edia n, M et r o, Modul e, Opul ent , Or i el, Or
igi n, P ap
er , S olst ic e,
T ec hnic, T r ek, Ur ba na ndVer ve. T oolt ipi ndica t est hec urr ent t heme. T hedefa ult t
hemeis"Off ic e". T oolt ip
i ndi ca t est hecur r ent t heme. Quic kAc c ess t omor et hem essa veddownonMicr os oft
Offi c eOnl ine. D efa ult
t heme is "Off ic e". C ha nges t he

over a l l des i gn of t he ent ir e docu ment i nc lu di ng c ol or s, font s a nd eff ect s.

T his dr op
-
down ha s a n a ddit i ona l c omma nd not f ou nd in Exc el or P ower P oi nt whic h is "R es
et t o T heme
fr om T emp la t e".

S tyle S et

C ha nge t he l ook of your docu ment by c hoosing a new st

yl e s et . S t yl e s et s cha nge t he f ont a nd
pa ra gra ph pr oper t i es of your ent ir e docu ment .

Colors

Dr op
-
Down. Displa ys a list ofa ll t he a va ila bl e col or sa nd l et s you c ha nge t he col or comp
onent of
t he a ct ive t heme.

Fo nts

Dr op
-
D own. Displa ysa list ofa llt he

a va ila bl e f ont sa nd l et syouc ha nget hef ont comp onent oft he

a ct ive t heme.
Par agr ap h S p ac i ng

Dr op
-
D own. Quic kl y c ha nge t he li ne a nd pa ra gr a ph spa cing i n your docu ment . T he
dr op
-
downc ont a i nst hec om ma nds:N oP a ra gr a phS pa ce, C ompa ct , T ight , Open, R ela x
ed, D oubl e, C ust o m
P ara gr a ph S pa cing.

E ffe cts

Dr op
-
Down. Displa ys a list of a ll t he a va ila bl e ef f ect s a nd l et s you cha nge t he eff ect
comp onent
of t he a ct ive t hem e. T he dr op
-
down c ont a ins t he comma nds : Offi c e, Ap ex, Aspect , C ivic, C oncour s e,
Equ it y, F l ow,

F oundr y, M edia n, M et r o, Modul e, Opul ent , Or i el, Or i gi n, P a per , S olst ic e, T ec

hnic, T r ek,
Ur ba n a nd Ver ve.

S et As Default
-

Us e t he cur r ent l ook f or a ll new docu ment s.

PageB ac kgro und

T hista bcont a inswa t er ma r k, pa gecol or a ndpa gebor der sasshowni nt

heF igur e183.

Fi gure
183
: Page background group

Page Color

Dr op
-

em e
col or pa let t e.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Page B orde rs

Dis pla ys t he " B or der a nd S ha di ng " dia l og box.

Wate r mar ks

wa y of l et t i ng t he r ea der know t ha t t he docu ment is

c onfi dent ia l.
Exer c is e: H ow t o a dd Wa t er ma r k
241. 241.

1.

C lic k t he Wa t er ma r k but t on on t he P a ge La yout t a b.

242. 242.

2.

C lic k one of t he wa t er ma r ks t o ins er t it or sel ect C ust om Wa t er ma r k fr om t he

bot t om of t he
ga l l er y.
243. 243.

3.

T o sel ect t ext for your cust om wa t er ma r k, sel ect t he T ext

Wa t er ma r k opt i on in t he P r int ed
Wa t er ma r kdia l ogbox. T henus et hec ont r olst os el ect t hela ngua gea ndt het ext t ob
eus ed. C lic k
OK.

You ca n a ls o s el ect a pict ur e t o b e us ed f or t he wa t er ma r k by sel ect i ng t he P i ct

ur e Wa t er ma r k opt i on a nd
t hen usi ng t he S e
l ect P ict ur e bu t t on t o f i nd t he i ma ge you wa nt t o us e. F or mos t i ma ges , you wa
nt t o l ea v e
t he Wa shout opt i on s el ect ed, whic h ma kes t he t ext on t op of t he i ma ge ea si er t o
r ea d.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 205

244. 244.

205.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Pag e S et up G ro up i n Page L ayo ut Rib bo n)

Us i ng pa ge set up gr oup (F igur e 184), you ca n ea sil y pl a ce ma r gi ns, displa y t ext in
t wo or t hr ee colu mns,
Add s ect i on br ea k or even s et pa ge s et up.

Fi gure
184
: Page set up group

Displa yi ng T ext i n t wo
C olu mns

Asyou mi ght ha ve obs er vedi nnewspa per st ext isdispl a yedint woor t hr eec olu mns. M
icr osoft
Wor d pr ovi des t his f ea t ur e in P a ge La yout R ibbon t a b. By defa ult t he t ext is disp
la yed i n on e

Exer c is e: H ow t o a dd C olu mns

245. 245.

1.

S el ect t ext t ha t you wa nt t o disp la y i n c olu mn f or m. ( Fi gur e

185)

In P a ge La yout T a b clic k on C olu mns a nd s el ect

Fi gure
185
: T ext sel ect i ons f or 2
-
col umns di splay

Fi gure
186
: T ext i n t wo col umns

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 206

246. 246.

206.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Pag e S et up G ro up i n Page L ayo ut Rib bo n)

You ca n qui c kl y disp la y t he

"P a ra gr a ph" dia l og box, Indent s a nd S pa cing t a b, by cli c ki ng on t he la unc her
i n t he bot t om r ight cor ner of t his gr oup. T hes e a r e opt i ons t a ken fr om t he (F or
ma t P ara gr a ph)(Indent s a nd
S pa cing t a b) for quick a cc ess .

Fi gu r e
187
: Paragr aph gro
up i n page layout

Inde nt L eft

-
T extBox. T his a utoma t ica ll y upda t es t o indica t e how muc h i ndent a t ion ha s been a
ppli ed t o
t he pa ra gr a ph of t he cur r ent sel ect i on. T his ca n be used t o c ha nge t h
e l eft i ndent a t i on for t he cur r ent
sel ect i on.

Inde nt Rig ht

T ext Box. T his a ut oma t ica l l y upda t es t o i ndi ca t e how muc h i ndent a t ion ha s
been a ppli ed t o
t he pa r a gra ph of t he cur r ent s el ect i on. T his ca n b e used t o c ha nge t he r i ght i
ndent a t i on f or t he cur r ent
sel ect i on.

S pac i ngB e fo re

T ext B ox. T hisa ut oma t ica l l yup da t es t oi ndica t ehow muc hspa ci ng is def i nedb efor
et he
pa ra gra ph of t he cur r ent sel ect i on. T his ca n be used t o cha nge t he spa ci ng for t he
cur r ent sel ect i on.

S pac i ng A fter

T ext B ox. T he a ut oma t ica

l l y upda t es t o i ndi ca t e how muc h spa ci ng is defi ned a ft er t he
pa ra gra ph of t he cur r ent sel ect i on. T his ca n be used t o cha nge t he spa ci ng for t he
cur r ent s el ect i on.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 207
247. 247.

207.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Arr ang e G ro up i n Page L ayo ut Ri bbo n)

T his gr oup
a lso a ppea r s on t he Dr a wi ng T ools
-

F or ma t cont ext ua l t a b as shown i n t he F i gur e 188.

Fi gure
188
: Arrange Group

Posi tio n

Dr op
-
D own. Displa ys a list of pi ct ur e p osit i oning opt i ons. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he
com ma nds: I n Line
wit h
T ext a nd T ext Wra pping. You ca n sel ect Mor e La yout Opt i ons t o disp la y t h e
" Adva nc ed La yout" dia l og b ox.

Wrap T ext

Dr op
-
Down. T he dr op
-
down c on
t a i ns t he c om ma nds: I n L i ne wit h T ext , S quar e, T ight ,
T hr ough, T opa nd B ot t om, B ehi nd T ext , In F r ont of T ext , Edit Wra pP oi nt s a nd
Mor e La yout Opt i ons.

B ri ng Forw ard

But t on wit h Dr op
-
D own. T he but t on br i ngs t he s el ect ed obj ect f or wa r d one l evel. T h e
dr op
-
down pr ovi des a comma nd t o br i ng t he s el ect ed ob j ect i n fr ont of a l l t he ot her
ob j ect s.

S end B ac kw ar d

-
(S end t o Ba c k i n 2007). Butt on wit h Dr op
-
Down. T he butt on br ings t he s el ect ed object
ba ck one l evel. T he dr op
-
down pr ovi des a comma nd t o send t he s el ec
t ed ob j ect t o t he ba ck of a ll t he ot her
ob j ect s.

S elect io n Pane

(Added i n 2010). Displa ys t he S el ect i on P a ne t a sk pa ne.

Al ig n

Dr op
-
D own. T hedr op
-
downc ont a i nst he com ma nds: Al i gnL eft , Ali gnC ent er , Al i gnR ight , Al i gn
T op, Al ign M iddl e, Al i gn B ot t om,
Dist r ibut e Hor i z ont a ll y, Dist r ibut e Ver t ica l l y, Al i gn t o P a ge, Ali gn t o
Mar gi n, Al i gnS el ect edObject s, Vi ewGr i dli nesa ndGr i dS et t i ngs. T heGr i dS et t i
ngsdisp la yst he"Dr a wi ng
Gr id" dia l og box.

G roup
-

Dr op
-
Down. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c omma nds: Gr ou
p, R egr oup a nd Ungr oup.

Rotat e

Dr op
-
D own. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c omma nds : R ot a t e R i ght 90, R ot a t e Left 90, F lip
Ver t ica l, F lip Hor iz ont a l a nd M or e R ot a t ion Opt i ons.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 208

248. 248.

208.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Re fe re nces Ri bbo n)

T his t a b gi ves you

a cc ess t o a ll t he c om ma nds for cr ea t i ng r ef er enc es wit hi n your docu ment s.

T ab le o f Co nt e nts
-

Dr op
-
D own. P r ovide a n over vi e w of your docu ment by a ddi ng a ta ble of c ont ent s.
T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c omma nds : Bu ilt
-
i n, Ins er t T a ble of C ont ent s a nd S a ve
S el ect i on t o T a ble of
C ont ent s Ga ll er y a s shown i n t he F i gur e189.

Fi gure
189
: T abl e of C ont ent

AddT ext

Dr op
-
Down. T hedr op
-
downcont a i nst he

c omma nds :DoN ot S howi nT a bleofC ont ent s, Level

1, Level 2 a nd L evel 3.
Up da t e T a ble

Up da t es t he t a ble of c ont ent s so t ha t a ll t he ent r i es r ef er t o t he c or r ect pa ge nu

mb er s.

Foot no tes
-

You ca n qu ic kl y displa y t he "F oot not e a nd Endnot e" dia l og box by

c li c ki ng on t he dia l og box
la unc her i n t he b ot t om r i ght cor ner of t his gr oup a s shown i n t he F i gur e 190.

Fi gure
190
: Foot not es Group

Inse rt
Foot no te

( Alt + C t r l + F ). Ins er t s a foot not e a t t he cur r ent pos it i on. F oot not es a r e a ut
oma t ica l l y
r enu mb er ed a s you move t ext a r ound t he docu ment .

Inse rt E nd note

-
( Alt + C tr l + D). Ins er t s a n endnot e a t t he end of t he docu ment . End not es a r e a lwa
ys
pla
c ed a t t he end of a docu ment .

NextFoot note

But t on wit hDr op

-
D own. T hebutt on movest ot he nextfoot not e. T he dr op
-
downpr ovides
t he c omma nds N ext F oot not e, P r evi ous F oot not e, Next Endnot e a nd P r evi ous
Endnot e.

S how Notes

S hows wher e foot not es a nd endn

ot es a r e loca t ed.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 209

249. 249.

209.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Proo fi ng G ro up i n Re view Ri bbo n)

T he pr oof i ng gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 191.

Fi gure
191
: Proof i ng group

S pel l i ng & G rammar

Displa ys
t he "S pel l ing a nd Gr a mma r " dia l og box. T his a llows you t o c hec k t h e
spel li ng a nd gr a mma r i n t he a ct i ve docu ment .

T hes aur us

T oggl est hedisp la yoft heR es ea r cht a skpa nedefa ult i ngt her es ea r chs er vi c et ot het
hesa ur us.
S a me a s Excel.

WordCo unt

T his
displa yst he"W or dC ount "dia l ogb oxdisp la yingt hedocu ment st a t ist ics. T hisr epla c
es
t he W or d C ou nt t oolba r . T his dia log b ox ca n a lso b e di spla yed b y c l ic ki ng on t he
wor d c ou nt i ndi ca t or on
t he st a t us bar.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 210

250. 250.

210.
Word Process i ng: MS Word (L ang uage

G ro up i n R eview R ib bo n)

T he la ngua ge gr oup ha s been shown i n t he F i gur e 192.

Fi gure
192
: L anguage group

T rans l ate

Dr op
-
D own. Displa ys t he R es ea r ch t a sk pa ne. T his dr op
-
down c ont a ins t he c omma nds :
Tr a nsla t
e Docu ment , Tra nsla t e S el ect ed T ext , Mini T ra nsla t or a nd C hoos e T ra nsla t ion
La ngua ge.

L ang uag e

-
Dr op
-
Down. T his dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he comma nds : S et Pr oof i ng La ngua ge a nd La ngua ge
P r ef er enc es. S et Pr oof i ngLa ngua ge disp la yt he"La ngu a ge"dia l ogbox. La ng
ua geP r ef er enc es disp la yst he
"Opt i ons " dia l og box, La ngua ge T a b.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 211

251. 251.

211.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Co mme nts G ro up i n Revie w Rib bo n)

T he c omm ent s gr oup ha s been shown i n t he F i gur e 193.

Fi gure
193
: C omment sgrou
p

New Co mme nt

(S hi ft +F 2). Inser t s a comment a t t he a ct ive c el l. T his comma nd does not c ha nge t

o Edit
C omment when a comm ent is s el ect ed l i ke it does i n Exc el.

Del ete
-

But t on wit h Dr op
-
D
own. Del et es t he s el ect ed comment . T he but t on del et es t he c om ment i n t he
a ct ive s el ect i on. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c omma nds: D el et e Al l C omm ent s S hown a nd D el et e a ll
com ment s in D ocu ment . T his is disa bl ed when t he doc u ment does not c ont a in a ny
c omment s.

Pr evio us

Goest ot hepr evi ouscom ment int hea ct i vedocu ment . T hisisdisa bl edwhent he docu
ment does
not cont a i n a ny com ment s.

Next

Goes t o t he next comment i n t he a ct ive docu ment . T his is disa bled when t he docu
ment does not
cont a i n a ny com ment s.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 212

252. 252.

212.
Word Process i ng: MS Word (T rac ki ng and C hange s G roups i n R evi ew Rib bo n)

T he T ra cki ng gr oup ha s been shown i n t he F i gur e 194.

Fi gure
194
: T racki nggroup

T rac k C hanges

(C tr l + S hift
+ E). But t on wit h Dr op
-
Down. T he but t on is t he Tra ck C ha nges c omma n d
fr om t he R evi ewi ng. It cont a i ns t he c omma nds T ra ck C ha nges, C ha nge T ra cki ng
Opt i ons a nd C ha ng e
Us er na me
. C ha nge T ra cki ng Opti ons displa ys t he T ra ck C ha nges Opti ons dia l og box. C ha nge
Us er na me

displa ys t he W or d Opt i ons dia l og box (P opu la r ta b).

S how M ar kup

-
Dr op
-
D own. T he dr op
-
down c ont a ins t he c omma nds : C omm ent s, Ink, Ins er t i ons a nd
Del et i ons, F or ma t t ing, Mar kup Ar ea Hi ghli ght .

Revie wi ng Pane

But t on wit h Dr op
-
D own. T he but t on t oggl e
s t he displa y of t he R evi ewi ng pa ne. T he
dr op
-
down c ont a ins t he c omma nds : R eviewi ng P a ne Ver t ica l a nd R eviewi ng P a ne Hor i
z ont a l l y. T her e i s
now a lso su mma r y i nfor ma t i on a t t he t op of t he pa ne.

T he c ha nges gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 195.

Fi gure
195
: C hanges group

Acce pt

-
Butt on wit hDr op
-
D own. T hebutt onist he Ac c epta ndMovet oN extcomma ndwhic ha cc epts t he
cur r ent cha nge a nd moves t o t he next pr opos ed c ha nge. T he dr op
-
down c ont a ins t he com ma nds
: Ac c ept
a nd Move t o Next , Acc ept C ha nge,
a ccept

a ll C ha nges S hown a nd Acc ept a ll C ha nges i n Docu ment . T his

dr op
-
down is disa bl ed when t he docu ment is pr ot ect ed.

Rejec t

But t on wit h Dr op
-
D own. T he but t on is t he R ej ect a nd Move t o N ext c omma nd whi c h r ej ect s t h e
cur r ent c ha ngea ndmovest ot henext pr opos edc ha nge. T hedr op
-
downcont a i nst hec omma nds:R ej ect a nd
Move t o N ext, R ej ect C ha nge,
r ej ect

a ll C ha nges S hown a nd R e
j ect a ll C ha nges i n Docu ment . T his dr op
-
down is disa bl ed when t he docu ment is pr ot ect ed.

Pr evio us

Movest ot hepr evi ousr evisi on i nt hea ct i ve docu ment . T hisisa bit c onfusi nga sit does
exa ct l y
t he sa me a s t he P r evi ous i n t he c omment s gr oup.

Next

Mov
es t o t he next r evis i on i n t he a ct i ve docu ment .

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 213

253. 253.

213.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Co mp ar e and Prote ct G roups i n R evi ew Ri bbo n)

T he C ompa r e gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 196.

Fi gure
196
: C ompare group

Co
mp are

Dr op
-
D own. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he com ma nds: C ompa r e a nd C ombi ne. T he C ompa r e
com ma nd l et s you c ompa r e t wo ver si ons of t he sa me docu ment a nd disp la ys t he
"C ompa r e D ocu ment s "
dia l og box. T he C omb i ne c omma nd l et s you comb i ne r evisi ons fr om mu lt ipl
e a uthor s a nd displa ys t h e
"C ombi ne D ocu ment s " dia l og box. T his dr op
-
down is disa bl ed when t he docu ment is pr ot ect ed.

T he pr ot ect gr oup is s hown i n t he F i gur e 197.

B loc k A ut hors

Dr op
-
D own. Pr event ot her s fr om ma ki ng cha nges t o t he s el ect ed t ext .

Restr ic
t E d it i ng

-
T oggl es t he displa y of t he R est r ict Edit i ng t a sk pa ne.

Pro tect Doc u me nt

T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c omma nds : Unr est r ict ed Acc ess, R est r ict ed Acc ess,
Ma na ge C r edent ia ls.

Fi g
ure
197
: Prot ect group

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 214

254. 254.

214.

Word Process i ng: MS Word (Vi ew Rib bo n)

T heVi ewr ibb onc ont a i nsVi ewsgr oup, S howGr oup, ZoomGr oup, a ndWi ndowsgr oup.
T heVi ewsgr oup
cont a i ns a ll t he c omma nds r ela t i ng t o t he dif f er ent wa ys you ca n vi ew your docu
ment s a s shown i n t h e
F igur e
255. 255.

198.
Fi gure
198
: Vi e ws

group

Read Mode

It ma xi mi z es t he Wor d wi ndow on t he scr een a nd r emoves a ll t oolba r s et c t o a ll

ow ea s y
r ea ding.

Pr i nt L ayo ut

Disp la ys t he docu ment a s it woul d a ppea r if pr int ed a nd is

t he defa ult vi ew.

Web L ayo ut

Disp la ys t he docu ment a s it wou l d a ppea ra sa web pa ge.

O ut l i ne

-
Displa ys t he docu ment a sa n out l i ne is disp la ys t he Out l i ni ng c ont ext ua l t a b.

Draft

Displa ys t he docu ment i n dr a ft mode a l l owi ng f or quic k edit i ng. When usi n
g t his view c er t a i n
a spect s of t he docu ment a r e not vis ibl e, f or exa mpl e a ny hea der s or foot er s.

T he show gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 199.

Fi gure
199
: Show group

R ul er

T oggl es t he disp la y of t he

r ul er (s).

G rid l i nes

T oggl es t he displa y of gr i dl i nes.

Nav igatio n Pane

T oggl es t he disp la y of t he Na vi ga t ion t a sk pa ne. T his is a combi na t i on of t he F

ind,
Docu ment Ma pa nd T hu mb na i ls.

T he Z oom gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 200.

Fi gure
200
: Z oomgroup

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Zoo m

D ispla ys t he "Z oom" dia l og box. T his ca n a lso be a ccess ed fr om t he st a t us bar by cl

ic king on t he
vi ew p er c ent a ge.

100%

Adjust s t he z oom t o 100% of it s nor ma l siz e. Let s you qu ic kly

r et ur n t o 100 %.

O ne Page

-
Adjust t he z oom so a n ent ir e pa ge fit s i n t he a ppli ca t ion wi ndow.

T wo Pages

Adjust t he z oom so t wo ent ir e pa ges f it in t he a ppl ica t i on wi ndow.

PageWi dt h

Adjust t hezooms ot he wi dt hoft hepa geist hesa mea st he wi dt hoft

hea pplica t i onwi ndow.

T he Wi ndows gr oup ha s been shown i n t he F i gur e 201. Ever y docu ment you op en i n
Wor d ca n b e t hought
of a s a wi ndow. It is poss ibl e t o op en mu lt ip l e wi ndows of t he sa me docu ment .

Fi gure
201
: W indows group

New Wi ndow

Let s you cr ea t e a new wi ndow of t he a ct i ve docu ment .

Arr angeAl l
-

T il ea llt heop enwi ndowssi debyside ont hescr een. T hiswil la lso
ma xi miz e

t hea ppli ca t ion

/ docu ment t o a

full scr een.

S pli t

S plit s t he cur r ent wi ndow i nt o t wo pa r t s.

View S ide by S ide

Displa ys t wo docu ment s si de by side so t hey ca n be ea si l y compa r ed. If you ha v e

mor e t ha n t wo docu ment s op en t he "C ompa r e S ide b y S ide" dia log box is disp la yed
so you ca n c
hoos e
whic h docu ment t o displa y next t o t he a ct i ve docu me nt , a llowi ng you t o scr oll mu
lt ip l e wi ndows a t t he
sa me t i me.

S ync hro no us S croll i ng

-
T oggl es t he sync hr oni z e scr oll i ng of t he t wo docu ment s t ha t ar e disp la yed si de
by si de. T his is only ena bl ed when

you a r e vi ewi ng t wo docu ment s si de b y side.

Reset Wi ndow Posit io n

R es et s t he wi ndows p osit ions so t hey t a ke up t he sa me a mou nt of spa ce on t h e

scr een when t wo docu ment s a r e displa yed si de b y s ide. T his is onl y ena bl ed when
you a r e vi ewi ng t w o
docu ment s
side b y si de.

S witc hWi ndows

Dr op
-
D own. Let syous wit chb et weena l lt hecur r ent l ya ct i vedocu ment s. T hisdispla ys
a ll t he window/ docu ment s t ha t ar e curr ent l y op en i n t he par t icula r sess i on.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 215

256. 256.

215.

Prese nt at io ns: MS
-
Powe r Poi nt (I nt rod uct io n)
Micr os oft of f er s a not her power fu l t ool known a s MS
-
P ower P oi nt . T his is used t o devel op pr es ent a t i ons.
Micr os oft P ower P oi nt is a n ea sy pr ogr a m t o use a nd a power fu l t ool for gi vi ng a
pr es ent a t ion. Whet her
your pr es ent a t ionneedsavisua lkic k, t oolsfor co
lla bor a t ion, ea sya ccess or t hea bil it yt osha r einfor ma t i on
beyond t he i nit ia l me et i ng, P ower P oi nt is a good opt i on. It ca n even help r educ e
sp ea ki ng a nx i et y b y
dr a wi ng eyes a wa y fr om t he sp ea ker a nd t owa r ds a screen. Jus t do not exp ect t
his t echnol ogy t o

subs t it ut e
for sound a nd dyna mic sp ea ki ng skil ls. All r ibbons of MS P ower p oi nt a r e shown i n t
he F i gur e 202.

Fi gure
202
: MS: Po werpoi nt

S omeoft hefu nct i onsi ndif f e

r ent gr oupsinP ower p oi nt a r eexa ct lysa mea sper t hefunct i onsinM S :Wor d.
W e wil l onl y cover t hos e gr oups a nd funct i ons whi c h a r e new i n t he MS : P ower p
oi nt a s compa r ed t o t he
MS : Wor d. T hes e gr oups a nd t heir funct i ona lit i es wi l l be dis cussed in t he next

modu l es.
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Mod ule 216

257. 257.

216.
Prese nt at io ns: MS
-
Powe r Poi nt (S l ides G ro up on H o me R ib bo n)

T he S l i des gr oup is shown i n t he F i gur e 203.

Fi gure
203
: Sl i des gr ou p i n home r i bb on

New S li de

Butt o
n wit h Dr op
-
D own. T he butt on i ns er t s a new bla nk T it l e a nd C ont ent S li de. T he dr op
-
downc ont a inst hes l i des:T it l eS l i de, T it l ea ndC ont ent , Duplica t eS el ect edS li des, S
li desfr omOut l i nea nd
R eus e S li des.

L ayo ut

Dr op
-
D own. T he dr op
-
down c ont a i ns t he c om
ma nds : T it l e S li de a nd T it l e a nd C ont ent .

Reset

R es et t he p osit i on, siz e a nd f or ma t t ing of t he sl i de pla c ehol der s t o t heir defa

ult set t i ngs.

Del ete

R emoves t he sl i des cur r ent l y s el ect ed.

Mod ule 217

258. 258.

217.

Prese nt at io ns: MS
-
Powe r Poi nt (Des ig n Ribbo n)

T hedes i gnr ibbonist her ibbont ha thelpsyout odesi gnyour slidesa sper your r equ ir
ement . T hefir st gr oup
pr es ent a t ion. You ca n t r y di ff er ent t hemes t o
see t he di f f er enc e.

Fi gure
204
: T hemes group

F ur her mor e, you ca n s el ect sl ide s iz e i n t he next gr oup a nd f or ma t ba ckgr ou nd a

ccor ding t o your
r equir em
ent s.

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Mod ule 218

259. 259.

218.

Prese nt at io ns: MS
-
Powe r Poi nt (T r ans it io n Ribbo n)

Ifyou' ve ever s eena P ower P oi nt pr es ent a t iont ha t ha dspecia l eff ect sbet ween ea c
hsl i de, you' ves een

sl id e
tr ans it io ns
. A t r a nsit i on ca n b e a s si mp l e a s fa di ng t o t he next sl i de or a s fla shy a s a n eye
-
ca t chi ng ef f ect .
P ower P oi nt ma kes it ea sy t o a ppl y t r a nsit i ons t o som e or a ll of your sli des, gi vi
ng your pr es ent a t ion a
polis hed, pr of ess i ona ll ook. T het ra nsit i onr ibbonh
260. 260.

205.

Fi gure
205
: T ransi t i on group

Onc e you a r e done wit h one t yp ica l t ra nsit i on st yl e, t he next t hi ng is t o c onf i gur
e ot her opt ions a va i la bl e
i n t he F i gur
e 206.

S ound

You ca n a dd a ny sou nd fi l e over her e whic h you need t o pla y i n t his t r a nsit i on

D ur at io n

you ca n set t he dur a t ion of t he t r a nsit i on.

App ly to All

S et t he t r a nsit i on b et ween a ll t he sl i des i n t he pr es ent a t i on t o b e t he sa me a s t

his sl i de.
O n Mo use C li c k

L et s you wa it unt il t her e is a mous e cl ic k b ef or e movi ng on t o t he next sl i de.

Fi gure
206
: T ransi t i on t i mi ng group

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Mod ule 219

261. 261.

219.

Prese nt at io ns: MS
-
Powe r Poi nt (A ni mat io n R ib bo n)

Tr a nsit ion
discuss edi nt he la st modu l e

wer et hea ni ma t i onsa dded i nb et weens l i des. Wher ea s, Ifyou wa nt

t o a ni ma t e t ext , a n ima ge, sha pe, gr a ph or cha r t wit hi n t he sl i de, t his is t he t
yp e of a ni ma t i on you sel ect .

T her e a r e va r iet y of a ni ma t i ons a va i la bl e a s shown i n t he F i gur e 207.

Fi gure
207
: Animati ons group

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Mod ule 220

262. 262.

220.

S preads he ets: MS E xcel (I ntrod uc tio n)

What is a S pre ads hee t?

S uppose you wou l d l i ke t o ma i nt a in

p er sona l fi na nc e regist er a lso known a s chec k r egist er t ha t wi l l keep
t ra ck of t he exp endit ur es t ha t you ha ve been ma king du r ing t he cur r ent semest er .
Anot her scena r io ca n b e
t he budget ma na gement of a sma ll hous e. You ma y be i nt er est ed i n qu est i on such a
s

how muc h money ha s

been sp ent on el ect r icit y bil ls a nd t el ep hone bi lls. How muc h sa ving ha s been ma
de? You ma y i ma gi ne a
book t ha t keeps r ec or d of a ll t r a nsa ct ion/ exp endit ur es a nd inc ome. S uc h a book
ca n b e ca l l ed a ma nua l or
pa per spr ea dsheet . A sa mp l e
is shown i n t he F igur e 208. In t his ca se you ma y ha ve t o sa ve da t a t ha t ca n be
nu mer ica l or a lpha nu mer i c (i nvol vi ng l et t er s or nu mb er s).

S pr ea dsheet is a t ool t ha t is used t o or ga ni z e da t a , such a s a check r egist er . S pr

ea ds heet s ha ve b een us e d
for ma ny, ma
ny yea r s in business t o keep t ra ck of exp ens es a nd ot her ca lcula t i ons.

E lect ro nic S pr e ads heet :

Micr os oft Exc el is a n exa mpl e of spr ea dsheet a ppli ca t ion pr ogr a m t ha t ca n b e
used for st or ing, or ga niz i ng a nd ma nipu la t i ng da t a . T he key b enef it t o using a
spr ea
dsheet pr ogr a m is t ha t
you ca n ma ke cha nges ea si l y, inc lu di ng cor r ect i ng spell i ng or va lu es, a ddi ng, del
et i ng a nd for ma t t ing. It
cons ist s of a gr id ma de fr om c olu mns a nd r ows si mila r t o wha t you ha ve s een i n
your Mat hema t ic s
not eb ooks in sc hool da ys. T his
gr i d envir onment ma kes nu mb er ma nipula t i on ver y ea sy.

Fi gure
208
: Spread Sheet Exampl e

P l ea se r ef er t o F igur e 209 t o obs er ve t he la yout of MS Exc el. On t he t op you wi l l

fi nd a r ibbon
s i mi la r t o
MS Wor d a nd P ower P oi nt t ha t we wi l l b e dis cuss i ng shor t ly. T he diff er ent t hi
ng you wi l l not ic e is t he
r ect a ngula r box es on t he scr een di vi ded wit h t he help of r ows a nd c olu mns

R ows a r e i dent i fi ed b y Nu mb er s a s shown i n t he l eft most c olu mns wher

ea s C olu mns a r e i dent i fi ed b y
Alp ha bet s a s shown i n t he t op most r ow.

If you wa nt t o sel ect a par t icula r cel l, you wi l l ha ve t o i dent if y it s a ddr ess . T he
sel ect ed c ell i n t he F i gur e
263. 263.

209. F or . e. g. is A1, A b ei ng t he f ir st colu mn a nd 1 bei ng t he f ir st r ow

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
209
: Excel L ayout
Cel l Fo r matt i ng

T he c ell f or ma t t i ng is show i n t he F igur e 2010.

a cc or di ng t o t he f ont siz e of t he da t a you ha ve

i ns er t ed.

C harts

C ha r t sa llow you t o pr es ent inf or ma t i on cont a i ned i n t he wor ksheet in a gra phic
f or ma t . Excel off er s ma n y
t yp es of c ha r t s inclu di ng: C olu mn, Line, P i e, Ba r, Area , S cat t er a nd mor e. T o vi
ew
t he cha r t s a va ila bl e
cl ic k t he I ns er t Ta b on t he R ibb on.

C r ea t ing a C har t :

S el ect t he c el ls t ha t cont a i n t he da t a you wa nt t o us e i n t he c ha r t . In our exa

mpl e we ca n s el ect t he
shipp i ng c ost colu mn t o b e used a s cha r t da t a.

Fi gure
210
: C el l f ormatt i ng
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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C lic k

t he I ns er t t a b on t he
R ibb on

C lic k t he t yp e of C ha r t you wa nt t o cr ea t e. T her e a r e diff er ent cha r t t ypes a s

show i n t he F igur e
264. 264.

211.

Fi gure
211
: C harts group

C lic k t he C olu mn c ha r t but t on a nd t hen s el ect t he 2 d c ha rt

A ba r char t wil l a ppea r showi ng t he s hippi ng c ost a s cha rt a s shown i n F i gur e

212.

You ca n obs er ve t he c ost s a t t he Y

-
a xis a nd a s
t her e a r e four it ems so you ca n s ee 4 bar sa t X
-
a xis

T his cha r t ha s four comp onent s a nd you ca n r ight cl ock on t hem s epa ra t el y t o s
ee t he a dva nc e
opt i ons a va ila bl e.

Fi gure
212
: C hart exampl e i n Excel

Mod ule 221

265. 265.

221.

S preads he ets: MS E xcel ( Func tio ns

)

A f or mula is a set of ma t hema t i ca l i nst r uct ions t ha t ca n be used i n Exc el t o p er

for m ca lcu la t i ons. F or ma ls
a r e sta rt ed i n t he f or mula box st ar t ing wit h a n = sign. A sa mpl e f or mula is shown
i n F i gur e 213.

Fi gure
213
: Formula
Exampl e

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T he f or mu la r ibbon is shown i n t he F i gur e 214. T his r ibbon gi ves you di ff er ent opt
i ons f or a pplyi n g
for mu la s. T he fir st sect i on r epr es ent s F unct i on l ibr ar y. F unct ion l ibr a r y cont a
i ns
di ff er ent for mula s fr om
va r ious ca t egor i es. F igur e 214 gi ves you a n over vi ew of t he F or mu la r ibbon.

Fi gure
214
: Formula ri bbon

Cre at i ng B as ic Fo r
mul a

T o cr ea t e a ba sic for mu la in Exc el we need t he da t a on whic h t o a pply t he f or mu

la . Da ta is r epr es ent ed i n
F igur e 215.

Fi gure
215
: Dat af or Sum F
ormula

T o cr ea t e a ba sic
for mula ,

you need t o do t he f ol l owi ng:

S el ect t he c el l f or t he f or mu la
T he f or mula is of su m whi c h wou l d su m t he va lu es.

C lic k E nt er

C r ea t ing a ba sic for mula is shown i n t he F i gur e 216.

Fi gure
216
: Sum Formula

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When you cl ic k ent er you wou ld get t he r e

s ult a s s hown i n fi gur e 21 7 t he la bel 1 r epr es ent s t he for mu la
a ppli ed t o get t he des ir ed r esult a nd la bel 2 r epr es ent s t he r esu lt a ft er a pplyi ng
t he f or mula .

Fi gure
217
: Resul t of Sum Formula

Calc ul at e wit h
Func t io ns

Afu nct i onisa built inf or mu la inExc el. Afunct i onha sana mea nda r gument s(t he ma t
hema t ica lfu nct i on)
i n pa r ent hes es.

S um: Adds a ll c el ls i n t he a r gu ment

Aver a ge: C a lcula t es t he a ver a ge of t he c el ls i n t he a r gu ment

Min: F i nds t he mi ni mu m va l
ue

Ma x: F inds t he ma x i mu m va lu e

C ount : F inds t he nu mb er of c el ls t ha t cont a i n a numer ic a l va lu e wit hi n a ra nge

of t he a r gu ment

T o ca lcula t e a funct i on:

C lic k t he c ell wher e you wa nt t he funct i on a ppli ed

C lic k t he I ns er t F unct i on but t on

C hoos e t he funct i on
C lic k OK

T he pr oc ess of ca lcu la t ing t hr ough a funct i on is shown i n fi gur e 218.

Fi gure
218
: Funct i on C omput at i on

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Mod ule 222

266. 266.

222.

S preads he ets: MS E xcel (A pp l ic at io n S ce narios

-
I
)

Aft er l ea r ni ng t he f or mu la s in det a ils i n t he la st modul e . Let s a pply t hos e i n t

he r ea l sc ena r io.

C ons i der t he F igur e 219 whic h cont a i ns t he da t a of five st udent s a nd t heir ma r ks

in fi ve subj ect s. We wa nt
t o a dd t he t ot a l ma r ks of ea c h st udent . T he f or mul
a ha s been wr it t en for your r ef er enc e.

Fi gure
219
: Sum of marks

When t his f or mula is a ppli ed a nd cop i ed i n t he f ol l owi ng c ells, t he r esu lt ca n be s

een i n t he F i gur e 220.
Fi gure
220
: Resul t of sum f ormul a

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Mod ule 223

267. 267.

223.

S preads he ets: MS E xcel (A pp l ic at io n S ce narios

-
II
)

ment i oned a scena r io t ha t if you wa nt t o ma na ge your per sona l exp ens es on a r

egist er , it s ver y diff icu lt t o
per f or mdiff er ent qu er i es. Int hismodul e, wewil l

c onsi der t hisscena r i oa ndwil lp er for mnu mb er ofqu er i es

on t his exa mp l e.

T he F i gur e 221 cont a i ns t he p er sona l exp ens es det a i ls of t he yea r 2020 mont h
wis e i n di ff er ent hea ds.

Fi gure
221
: Pers onal expen
se sheet
Now our fir st qu er y is t o s ee t he t ot a l exp ens e f or t he J a nua r y mont h. T he a ppl i
ed f or mula ca n b e s een i n
t he F i gur e 222 a nd it s r esult ca n b e seen i n t he F i gur e 2 23.

Fi gure
222
: Fi ndi ng t otal expense f or

t he January mont h

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Fi gu r e
223
: Resul t of queryf rom Fi gure 222

Now if we a r e i nt er est ed t o s ee wha t t he t ot a l exp ens e of t he Elect r i cit y B il l is,

we

ca n a ppl y t he fol l owi ng

for mu la a nd ca n cop y it i n t he next c el l t o see t he r esu lt a s shown i n t he F i gur e
224.

=su m(b3 :b14)

Fi gure
224
: T ot al bil l Expense
-
head wi se

S i mila r l y,

you ca n t r y t he f ol l owi ng for mu la s a s wel l :

=aver age (b3: b14)

= max( b3: b14)

= mi n(b3: b14)

T he t ot a l exp ens e f or t he yea r 2020 ca n be seen a ft er a ppl yi ng t he f ol l owi ng f or

mula :

=S UM(B 16:H 16)

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Mod ule 224

268. 268.

224.

S preads he ets: MS E xcel (S ort i ng and Filter

)

S or t ing a nd F ilt er i ng a ll ow you t o ma nipu la t e da t a in a wor ks heet ba sed on gi

ven s et of cr it er ia . You ca n
sor t t he da t a in a scending a nd desc endi ng or der . T her e a r e t wo t yp es of sor t s in
Micr osoft Exc el i. e. Ba sic
S or t sa nd C ust om S or t s.

B asic S ort

To
ex ecut e a ba s ic des c endi ng or a s cend i ng s or t bas ed on on e c olu mn p er f or m t he
fol l owi ng s t eps :
Hi ghl i ght t he c el ls t ha t wi ll b e sor t ed

C lic k t he S or t & F ilt er but t on on t he H ome t a b

C lic k t he S or t Asc endi ng ( A

-
Z) but t on or S or t Desc endi ng (Z
-
A) but t on.

T hes
e st eps a r e shown i n t he F i gur e 225.

Fi gure
225
: Sort and Fi l t er

C ust om S or t

T o sor t on t he ba sis of mor e t ha n one c olu mn:

C lic k t he S or t & F ilt er butt on on t he H ome

tab
C hoos e whic h c olu mn you wa nt t o sor t by fir st

C lic k Add Level

C hoos e t he next colu mn you wa nt t o sor t

C lic k OK

T his pr oc ess is r epr es ent ed i n t he F i gur e 226.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
226
: C ust om Sort

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Mod ule 225

269. 269.

225.

Dat ab ase: MS Access (I nt rod uct io n

)

Da t aba se is col l ect i ons of fi l es whic h a r e a lsor ef er r ed a s ta bles. Inf or ma t ion is

or ga ni z ed i n t hes e t a bles i n
t he f or m of f i el ds a nd r ec or ds for ea sy a cc ess a nd
ma na gement pur pose.

S QL st a nds for str uct ur ed qu er y la ngua ge. In or der t o a ccess a nd r et r ieve da t a

fr om t he da t a ba se we us e
S QL.T his is t he most c ommonl y us ed synt a x for qu er yi ng a r ela t i ona l da t a ba se.

It is i mp or t a nt t o under st a nd t he di ff er enc e b et ween

wit h a n a na l ogy of off ic e C l er ic. Off ic e cl er ic or ga niz e a nd st or es diff er ent f il es i

n t he f i li ng ca bi net
whenever he needs t o a cc ess i nf or ma t i on fr om t he f i l e or a dd new i nfor ma t i on
in t he f i l e he goes t
o t he
fi ll i ng ca binet a nd r et r i eve t he fi l e whi c h he ha s a lr ea dy st or ed i n t he fi l li ng ca
bi net . Aft er upda t ing t he
i nf or ma t ion i n t he fi l e he st or es t he fi l e ba ck t o t he fil l i ng ca binet . In t he a bove
exa mp l e Da t a ba se is t he
fi ll i ng ca binet wher e t he i nf or m
a t i on is st or ed i n t he for m of fi l es. And t he a na l ogy of DBMS is t he off ic e
cl er i c, whos e j ob is t o or ga ni z e a nd r et r i eve f il es.

You shoul d be qu it e fa mi l ia r wit h t he r ibbon a s pr esent ed i n t he MS Wor d a nd MS

Excel. T he si mi la r
r ibbonisa va i la bl e i nMS Ac
c ess . T hesa mer ibb on isa lsopr es ent i n Acc ess wit hf ew modi f ica t i ons. T her e
is a ddit i on of t hr ee new t a bs i. e. C r ea t e, Exter na l da t a and Da t a ba se T ools a s
shown i n t he F i gur e 227.

Fi gure
227
: MS Access ri bb
on

T o cr ea t e a new da t a ba se
C lic k on Bla nk da t a base opt i on a s shown i n F i gur e 228

T ype Da t a ba se na me a nd br ows e t o l oca t i on wher e you sa ve t he new da t a ba se.

C lic k C r ea t e but t on t o cr ea t e da t
a ba se. (F igur e 229).

Fi gure
228
: C reat e Blank Dat abase

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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Fi gure
229
: N aming and savi ngdat abase

Nav igatio n Pane l

When your da t a ba seiscr ea t ed new wi ndowscr eena ppea r a ndb y defa ult t a bl e isa
dded. Ont he l eft s i de of
t he wi ndow is na vi ga t i on pa nel (F i gur e 230) her e you wi ll s ee a ll your sa ved t a
bles, for ms, qu er i es a nd
r epor t s. On t he R ight of t he na vi ga t i on pa ne i
s wor ki ng or vi ew pa nel. You ca n vi ew t a bl e da t a , quer y
out put , gener a t e r ep or t s a nd for m her e.

Fi gure
230
: Blank Dat abase

E xter nal d at a
Exter na lda t a ta bisusedt oi mp or t ,expor t , col l ect a ndsha r eda t a bet ween di ff er ent
da t a ba ses. Youca na lso
exp or t a nd i mp or t da t a fr om ex c el docu ment a s shown i n t he F i gur e 231.

Fi gure
231
: Ext ernal dat a
Ribbon

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Mod ule 226

270. 270.

226.

Dat ab ase: MS Access (Cre ati ng and M anag i ng T ab les

)

C r ea t eTa bint heR ibb onhelpsyout opr ovi dequi c ka ndea sywa yt ocr ea t et a bles, for
ms, r epor t a ndqu er i es
a sshown i n t he F igur e 232.

Fi gure
232
: C reat e tab

T ab les G ro up

Ta bles i n Ac c ess a r e
used t o st or e da t a . It is a set of c ol u mns a nd r ows. Ea ch colu mn i n t a ble is r ef er r
ed t o
a sa fiel d. Ea ch va lu e i n t he f i el d si gnif i es a singl e t yp e of da t a. Numb er s of R ec
or d a r e nu mb er of r ows i n
a Ta ble henc e ea c h r ow of a ta ble is r ef er r ed t o a sa sing
l e r ec or d.

E xerc ise : Cre ate Co urses T ab le

271. 271.

1.

C lic k on C r ea t e t a b (F igur e 232).

272. 272.

2.
273. 273.

3.
274. 274.

4.

R ena me t he
275. 275.

5.

In D es i gn vi ew c li c k on sec ond r ow i n f i el d na me c olu mn.

276. 276.

6.
277. 277.

7.
278. 278.

8.

Add a new f
279. 279.

9.

T o r et ur n t o da t asheet vi ew c l ic k on vi ew but t on a nd s el ect .

280. 280.

10.

A P opup dia l ogu e box wi l l a ppea r t o sa ve t he c ha nges, cl ic k yes t o cont i nu e.

281. 281.

11.

In da t a sheet vi ew your newl y a dded f i el

ds a r e vis ibl e.
282. 282.

12.

Ins er t 10 cour ses da t a .

283. 283.

13.

C los e t a ble.

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Mod ule 227

284. 284.

227.

Dat ab ase: MS Access (Cre ati ng For ms

)
F or ms opt i on pr ovi des you t he a bi l it y t o ent er new r ecor d a nd na vi ga t e t hr ou
gh ex ist i ng r ec or ds ea si l y.
You ca n a rr a nge fi el ds i n di ff er ent la yout s
a dd Ic on a nd a lso a pply des i gns a s ca n be seen i n t he F i gur e
285. 285.

232.

Cre at i ng For m for S t ude nt T abl e

286. 286.

1.

S el ect st udent t a ble. Doub l e c li c k t o op en.

287. 287.

2.

C lic k C r ea t e t a b.
288. 288.

3.

F r om t he F or ms gr oup S el ect F or m (F i gur e 232).

289. 289.

4.

A F or m wi l l be cr ea t ed wit h T a ble F i el ds a s
La bels fol l owed b y T ext Box es (F i gur e 233)
290. 290.

5.
291. 291.

6.
292. 292.
7.

Your newl y cr ea t ed f or m wi l l show i n Na vi ga t i on P a ne. (F igur e 234)

Fi gure 233: St udent T abl e Form

Fi gure
233
4: Saved Form " student Form"

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Mod ule 228

293. 293.

228.

Dat ab ase: MS Access (Cre ati ng Repor ts

)

R ep or t sa r e or ga ni z ed a nd su mma r iz ed f or m of your dat a so you ca n pr int or vi

ew it onscr een. R ep or t sar e
oft en us e when you wa nt t o
a na l yz e your da t a or pr es ent it t o ot her s. It isa va ila bl e a sa n indep endent
gr oup of F igur e 232.

Cre at i ng Repo rt for S t ude nt T abl e

294. 294.

1.

S el ect st udent t a ble. Doub l e c li c k t o op en.

295. 295.
2.

C lic k C r ea t e t a b.
296. 296.

3.

F r om t he R ep or t s gr oup sel ect r ep or t (F igur e 235).

297. 297.

4.

A R ep or t
wil l b e gener a t ed a s shown i n F i gur e 236.
298. 298.

5.
299. 299.

6.
300. 300.

7.

In t he Na vi ga t i on P a ne you ca n see your newl y cr ea t ed for m b y t h

e na me you ha ve sa ved. (F i gur e
236)
301. 301.

8.

Fi gure
234
: Insert Report

Fi gure
235
: St udent T abl e Report

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Mod ule 229

302. 302.

229.

Dat ab ase: MS
Access (Q uery Wi zard )

Quer i es a r e t o r et r ieve or fet c h sp ec if ic da t a fr om your da t a base. T he qu er y

wiza r d gr oup ha s been shown
i n t he F i gur e 236.

Fi gure
236
: Query Group: Q
ueryW i zard

Que ry T ypes

T her e a r e four basic t yp es of qu er i es us ed t o ma nipula t e t he da t a ba ses. T hes e a

r e br ief l y des cr ib ed i n t h e
Ta ble 1 a long wit h gener ic synt a x.

Ta ble 1: Ba si c Quer i es
Q ue ry

Descr ipt io n

G ener ic S Q L S ynt ax

S elect

Us ed t o r et r i ev e
sel ect ed da t a one or
mor e f i el d ca n b e
sel ect ed by using
com ma a s sep er a t or or
use * t o s el ect a ll t a bl e
fi el ds, foll owedb yt a ble
na me fr om wher e t h e
da t a is t o be r et r i eved.
You ca n a lso a dd
W
HER E cla use t o set
cr it er ia for sel ect i on.

S ELECT

F R OM
t a ble_ na me1, t a bl e_na me2;

OR

S ELECT * F R OM
t a ble_ na me, t a ble_ na me2;

OR

S ELECT *F R OM
t a ble_ na me, t a bl e_na me2
WHER E some cr it er ia ;

Ins er t

Us ed t o a dd new
r ec or ds.

INS ERT INT O

t a ble_ na me ( fi el d1,
fi el d2, . . . fiel dN ) VAL UES

Up da t e

Us ed t o upda t e exist i ng
r ec or ds i n da t a ba se.
Gi ven some cr it er ia in
WHER E cla use.

UP D AT E ta ble_ na me
S ET fiel d1= newva lu e1,
fi el d2= newva lu e2

Del et e

Us ed t o r emove da t a
fr om da t a ba se.

DELET EF R OM
t a ble_ n
a me WHER E
some cr it er ia ;

Q ue ry S tude nt T ab le us i ng Wi zard
303. 303.

1.

C lic k C r ea t e t a b. Fr om t he Qu er y gr oup sel ect Quer y Wiza r d (F i gur e 236).

304. 304.

2.

F r om p opup wi ndow s el ect si mp l e qu er y a nd c l ic k OK.

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305. 305.

3.

Anot her window wil la ppea r . S el ect t a blefr om whi c hyouwa nt t oqu er y
r esult si nour ca seit ist h e
st udent t a ble.
306. 306.

4.

S el ect sna me a nd ss ems fr om t he disp la yed f i el ds a s shown i n F i gur e 237

307. 307.

5.

When done cl i ck next a nd next a ga in.

308. 308.

6.

B ef or e you cl ic k fi nis h
ent er i ng

t he na me you wa nt t o gi ve your qu er y. F or
exa mp l e,
309. 309.

7.

Your qu er y wi llb er epr es ent ed i na t a blef or m wit ht wosel ect edf i el dsst udent na
mea nds emest er .
310. 310.

8.

S a ve qu er y a s you sa ved your r epor t a nd for m (F i gur e 238).

Fi gure
237
: C reat i ng Query usi ng wi zar d

Fi gure
238
: Query Resul t af t ersavi ng

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S QL st a nds for S tr uct ur ed Qu er y La ngua ge. T his is t he most commonl y us ed synt a

x for quer yi ng a
r ela t i ona l
da t a ba se. Micr osoft Ac c ess P r ovides S QL Vi ew f ea t ur e t o view t he S QL S ynt a x of
t he Qu er y
gener a t ed. T o vi ew t he S QL S ynt a x of your Quer y r ight clic k on qu er y t a b a nd S el
ect S QL Vi ew a s shown
i n t he F i gur e 239.
Fi gure
239
: SQL Vi ew

Q ue ry Desig n V iew

Quer y des i gn vi ew (s ee F i gur e 240) ca n b e us ed t o des i gn or cr ea t e a quer y wit h

a ddit i on of fur t her
pa ra met er s such a s Wher e C la use, S or t or Or der By c la use a nd ot her
usefu l f ea t ur es.

Fi gure
240
: SQL Vi ew Query Synt ax

E xerc ise : Q uery S t ude nt T abl e

311. 311.

1.

C lic k C r ea t e t a b. Fr om t he Qu er y gr oup sel ect Quer y Des i gn (F i gur

e 241).
312. 312.

2.

F r om p opup wi ndow s el ect t a bl e na me.

313. 313.

3.
You ca n a dd mu lt ip l e t a bl es t o p er for m qu er y a s wel l for si mp l ic it y we wi ll us e
one t a bl e, c li c k
Add a nd t hen cl os e.
314. 314.

4.

Ta ble wit h is a l l fi el ds wi l l be shown in a sma l l box.

315. 315.

5.

F r om t he opt i ons shown a t t he b ot t om. C

li c k on t ext box a nd fr om dr op down menu s el ect fi el d
316. 316.

6.

mest er . Her e our cr it er ia is

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317. 317.

7.

In t he cr it er ia box of t he f i el d ss ems t yp e 3.
318. 318.

8.

R ep ea t st ep 5 t o sel ect r ema ini ng fi el ds of t he t a bl e.

319. 319.

9.

When ha ppy wit h t he s el ect i on cl ic k R un on t he t op l eft cor ner of t he Qu er y T ools

(F igur e 240).
Fi gure
241
: Query Desi gn Vi e w

Fi gu r e
242
: C reat e Query Usi ng Desi gn Vi e w

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Mod ule 23
0
320. 320.

230.

Web page Deve lop me nt (Note pad E dito r)

In t his modul e, you wil l l ea r n wha t is web pa ge, how it ca n be devel op ed usi ng not
epa d edit or .

What is a Webp ag e?

A web pa ge is not hi ng mor e t ha n a fi l e, a HT ML fil e t o b e exa ct . It 's ca ll ed HT ML

beca us e web pa g e
docu ment s ha ve t he fi l e ext ensi on
. ht ml
or
. ht m.
A web br ows er displa ys a web pa ge on a monit or or
mob i l e devic e. W e ca n us e W ebP a ges t o displa y i nf or ma t i on
t o a la r ge a udi enc e. W ebP a ges pr ovi des a n
opp or t unit y t o ma r ket your business a t a lar ger sca l e a nd l et t he wor l d know
your exist enc e.

Hyp er T ext Mar kup La ngua ge is a ma r kup la ngua ge t ha t web br ows er s use t o int er
pr et a nd comp os e t ext ,
i ma gesa ndot her ma t e
r ia li nt ovisua lor a udibl e webpages. Defa ult cha r a ct er ist icsfor ever yit emofHTML
ma r kupa r edefi nedi nt hebr ows er . T hepur poseofawebbr ows er ist or ea dHT MLdocu
ment sa ndcomp os e
t hem i nt o visib l e or a udibl e web pa ges. Whenever you op en a HTML doc
u ment i n a web br ows er , t he web
br ows er does not disp la y t he HT ML ta gs, but uses t he t a gs t o int er pr et t he c ont
ent of t he pa ge.

HT MLel ement sfor mt hebuil di ngbl oc ksofa llwebs it es.HT MLa ll owsi ma gesa ndobj ect
st obeemb edde d
a ndca nb eus edt ocr ea t e

i nt er a ct ive f or ms. It pr ovi desa mea nst ocr ea t est r uct ur eddocu ment sby denot in g
st r uct ura lsema nt i csf or t ext suc ha shea di ngs, par a gra phs, l ist s, li nks, qu ot esa ndot
her it ems. It ca n emb e d
scr ipt s wr it t en i n la ngua ges such a s Ja va S cr ipt whi c h a ff ect t
he b eha vi or of HT ML web pa ges.
321. 321.

1.1

H T ML E le me nts:
AnHT MLel ement ha sa sta rt inga nd endi ngt a g. C ont ent ispla cedbet weenst a r ta
ndendt a g. Element sca n
ha ve va r ious a t tr ibut es.
322. 322.

1.

T he t ext bet ween t a gs <ht ml> a nd </ ht ml> descr ib es t he st a r ta nd end of web
pa ge.
323. 323.

2.

T he t ext b et ween t a gs <body> a nd </ body> r epr es ent s t he c ont ent of t he pa ge t ha

t is vis ible t o t h e
end us er .
324. 324.

3.

T he t ext bet ween t a gs <h1> a nd </ h1> is pr es ent ed a s a fir st hea di ng.
325. 325.

4.

T het ext b et weent a gs<p>a nd</ p>ispr es ent ed oft he pa gea sonepa r a
gr a ph. Ea cht a gha sa sta t ing
t a g a nd a n endi ng t a g. S ome exc ept i ons a r e t her e whi c h wi l l be discuss ed la t er .

An el ement ca n ha ve mult ipl e el em ent s i n it b ef or e end t a g.

BLOC K el ement s a lwa ys st ar t a ft er a new l i ne a nd t he cont ent is displa yed i n t he

next
l i ne i n br ows er .
Exa mp l es: < h1>, <p>, <ul>, <ta ble>( wi ll b e us ed i n comi ng s ect i ons )

Inl i neel em ent sa r eusua llydisp la yedont hebr ows er wit hout st ar t inga newl i ne. Exa
mpl es:<b>, <t d>,<a >,
<i mg>

HT ML At t r ibutes

Element s ha ve a t tr ibut es t ha t pr ovi des a d

dit i ona l i nf or ma t i on a bout t ha t el em ent . At t r ibut es a r e cer t a in
na me t ha t comes i n b et ween st a r t ing a nd endi ng t a gs.

E xa mp le:

<i mg sr c=" VU l ogo. jp g" wi dt h= "100" hei ght ="150">

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i mg is
el ement .

sr c, wi dt h a nd hei ght a r e a t tr ibut es for i ma ge

t a g.

sr c defi nes t he l oca t i on of t he el ement .

Wi dt h a nd hei ght
r epr es ent

siz es of t he i ma ge.

Us i ng N ot epa d t o devel op HT MLpa ge

326. 326.

1.

Open a ny t ext edit or for exa mp l e

not epa d
327. 327.
2.

Wr it e t he code s hown i n t he F i gur e 243.

Fi gure
243
: HT ML code i n
N ot epad
328. 328.

3.

Now sa ve t he docu ment a s ht ml i llust r a t ed i n t he F i gur e 244.

Fi gure
244
: Savi ng as ht ml page

Doub l e cl i ck on t ha t ht ml f i l e a nd op en wit h a
ny of i nst a ll ed br ows er s. T he i c on wil l a ppea r as shown i n
t he F i gur e 245.

Fi gure
245
: Fi rs t web page out put
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Mod ule 23
1
329. 329.

231.
Web page Deve lop me nt (I ntro d uct io n to Dre amwe aver)

Alt hou ght heHT MLma r kupof

a webpa geca nb e wr it t en wit ha nyt ext edit or sucha sNot epa da sweha ve
wr it t en in t he la st modul e. However , when we a r e ma ki ng la r ge webpa ges wit h ma
ny dif f er ent t a gs, in t ha t
ca se, t he code b ec omes c ompl ex. T o cop e wit h suc h sit ua t ion, spec ia li z ed HT ML

edit or s a r e used.

H T ML editor
is a soft wa r e a pplica t i on f or cr ea t i ng web pa ges, spec ia li z ed HT M L edit or s ca n
off er
conveni enc e a nd a dded funct i ona lit y. F or exa mpl e, ma ny HT ML edit or s wor k not
onl y wit h HT ML, but
a lso wit h r ela t ed t ec hnol ogi es such a sC SS

(Ca sca di ng S t yl e S heet s), XML(Extens ible Ma r kup La ngua ge)

a nd Ja va S cr ipt . Anyone who wa nt s t o ma ke pr of ess i ona l web pa ges, he ha s t o use t
hes e t ec hnol ogi es.
Al most a ll pa ges t ha t you s ee now a da ys on t he I nt er net c onsist of (fu ll y or par t
ia ll y) c omp onent
s t ha t a r e
ma de fr om C S S , XMLa nd Ja va S cr ipt.

In t his modu l e we wi l l be i nt r oduc i ng a t ol l known a s Adob e Dr ea mwea ver t ha t

ma kes it ea si er for web
pa ge devel op er s t o ut il iz e t he t ec hnol ogi es l i ke C S S a nd Ja va S cr ipt . We wi l l not
be ma king c ompl ex web
pa ges
int hisla b
however ;

wewil lbegoi ngt hr ou ghabasici nt r odu ct i onofAdob eDr ea mwea ver . Alt houg h
t her ear esever a lot her HT MLedit i ngt oolsa va ila bl e, weha vec hos ent hist oolbeca us
eit isa mongt he most
com monl y us ed t ool f or pr ofess i ona l web devel op men
t.

Adob eDr ea mwea ver isawebdes i gna nddevel op ment appli ca t iont ha t pr ovi desa visua
lWYS IW YGedit or
(Wha t You S ee Is Wha t You Get ) a nd a code edit or wit h st a nda r d f ea t ur es such a s
synt a x highl i ght i ng,
code c omp l et i on, a nd c ode c ol la psi ng a s wel l a s mor e

s op his t ica t ed f ea t ur es s uch a s r ea l

-
t i me s ynt a x
chec king a nd c ode i nt r osp ect i on for gener a t i ng c ode hi nt s t o a ss ist t he user i n
wr it i ng code.

Dr ea mwea ver is a power ful a pplica t i on for devel op i ng webs it es a nd mob i l e a

pplica t i ons. You ca n sa ve
t i me, wor k mo
r e eff ic i ent ly, a nd cr ea t e c omp el l i ng designs wit h t he c omp l et e s et of t ools. It is
lea di ng
soft wa r e for devel opi ng websit es a nd mob i l e a pplica t i ons. Usi ng it s power fu l HT
ML codi ng envir onment
a nd st a nda r d
-
s et t i ng visua l i nt er fa c e, you ca n cr ea t e enga gi ng
a nd dyna mic webs it es for a wi de r a nge of
devic es, wha t ever your level of des i gn or devel op ment exp er i enc e.

T he c om mon mi sc onc ept i on wit h Dr ea mwea ver is t ha t Dr ea mwea ver is des i

gned t o or is even ca pa bl e of
comp l et el y r emovi ng t he t ext edit or s li ke N ot epa d
f or HT ML a nd C S S codi ng fr om web des i gn. T his is
li ke sa yi ng t ha t a
ma c hi ne
-
ma de

f oot ba ll ca n c omp l et el y r ep la c e a
ma n
-
ma de

f oot ba ll A ma c hi ne ma d e
foot ba l l ca n ma ke good qua nt it y of f oot ba lls i n a com mer cia l pr oduct i on however ,
it ca nnot a chi eve t h e
dur a b
il it y a nd p er f ect i on of a ma n ma de f oot ba l l. As you ma y know, ma n
-
ma de f oot ba lls fr om S ia l kot a r e
st il l bei ng us ed i n i nt er na t i ona l t our na ment s even t hou gh we ha ve t he c hoi c e of
ma chi ne
-
ma de

f oot ba lls.
Dr ea mwea ver , li ke t he ma c hine t ha t ma kes foot ba l l, is des i gned t o ma ke your lif
e ea si er . You ma y never

T his is not a lt oget her a ba d t hi ng: it is si mp l y a sli

ght l y nar r ow p er spect i ve
on a la r ge f i el d. Dr ea mwea ver
is not desi gned t o c ompl et el y r emove t he ut i lit y of H T ML a nd C S S : it is mea nt t o
a ss ist you wit h your
HT ML a nd C SS a nd t o ma ke some of t he mor e mu nda ne a spect s of W eb P ublis hi ng l
ess t er r ibl e.

Dr ea mwea
ver i nt er fa c e ha s been shown i n t he F igur e 246.

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Fi gure
246
: Dreamweaver i nterf ace

T heDoc u me nttoo lb ar :
C ont a i nsbut t onst ha t pr ovi deopt i onsf or di ff er ent vi ewsoft heD ocu ment wi ndow
(such a s Des i gn vi ew a nd
C ode vi ew), va r i ous vi ewi ng opt i ons, a nd some c ommon op er a t ions such a s
pr evi ewi ng i n a br ows er .

T heMe nuandInse rtbar

:Acr oss t het opoft hea pplica t ionwi ndowcont a i nsawor kspa c eswit c her , menus
a nd ot her a pplica t i on c ont r ols. T o displa y t he S t a nda r d
t oolba r , sel ect Vi ew

> T oolba r s >S t a nda r d. T he t oolba r cont a i ns but t ons f or common op er a t ions fr
om t he F i l e a nd E dit menus
ver y s i mi la r t o MS Wor d: N ew, Open, Br ows e i n Br i dge, S a ve, S a ve Al l, Pr int C
ode, C ut , C opy, P ast e,
Undo, a nd R edo.

T heDoc ume ntwi n

dow :
Displa yst hecur r ent docu men t a syoucr ea t ea nd edit it . T oswit c ht oadocu ment ,
cl ic k it s t ab. T he Docu ment Wi ndow is t he ma in wor ks pa ce wher e you ins er t a nd a
rra nge t he el em ent s on
your web pa ge. Most of your wor k i ns er t ing t ext a nd i ma ges on your
web pa ge is done i n t he D ocu ment
Wi ndow.

You ca n s el ect a ny of t he vi ews. Descr ipt i on of t he i mp or t a nt vi ews is gi ven b el

ow.

Desig n vi ew:
A desi gn envir onment for visua l page la yout , visua l edit i ng, a nd ra pid a pplica t i on
devel op ment . In t his vi ew, Dr ea mwea
ver disp la ys a full y edit a bl e, visua l r epr es ent a t i on of t he docu ment ,
si mi la r t o wha t you would s ee when viewi ng t he pa ge i n a br ows er .

Code view :
A ha nd
-
c odi ng envir onment for wr it i ng a nd edit i ng HT ML, Ja va S cr ipt ,

S pli t Code v iew :

A spl it ver si on of C ode

vi ew t ha t l et s you s cr oll t o wor k on di ff er ent s ect i ons of t he

docu ment a t t he sa me t i me.

Code and Desig n view :

Let s you s ee bot h C ode view a nd D esi gn view for t he sa me docu ment in a singl e
wi ndow.
L ive view:
S i mi la r t o Des i gn vi ew, Live vi ew displ a ys a m
or e r ea l ist ic r epr es ent a t ion of wha t your
docu ment wil l l ook li ke i n a br ows er , a nd l et s you i nt er a ct wit h t he docu ment
exa ct l y a s you wou l d i n a
br ows er . Live vi ew is not edit a bl e. However , you ca n e dit i n C ode vi ew a nd r efr es
h Live vi ew t o s ee your
cha ng
es.

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L ive Code view:

Onl y a va ila bl e when vi ewi ng a doc u ment in Live vi ew. Live C ode vi ew disp la ys t he
a ct ua l code t ha t a br ows er uses t o ex ecut e t he pa ge, a nd ca n dyna mica l l y cha nge
a s you i nt er a ct wit h t h e
pa ge i n l ive vi ew. Live C ode vi ew is not edit a bl e.

Pro per ti es Ins pec tor

a s shown i n t he F i gur e 247 a lso ca ll ed t he T a g Inspect or . T he P r oper t y I nsp ect
or is
used t o displa y a nd edit a tt r ibut es or pr oper t i es of a ny el ement t ha t is sel ect ed i n
t he Docu ment Wi ndow.
C lic k t he P r op er t y I nsp ect or 's Hide but t on t
o hi de t he pa nel t emp or a r il y.

Fi gure
247
: Propert i es panel
Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

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VU
P ag e
377

of
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330. 330.

232.

Web page Deve lop me nt (I nser ti ng T ab les us i ng

Dre amw eav er)

F ir st sa ve t he docu ment t ha t you got a ft er cl ic king new HT ML docu ment i n t he

welc ome scr een a s shown
i n t he F i gur e 248.

Fi gure
248
: Add new page

Now a dd HT ML pa ge a s shown i n t h
e F i gur e 249.

Fi gure
249
: Adding HT ML page

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

CS101

VU
P ag e
378

of
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C opy rig htVi rtual U ni v ersi ty ofP aki stan

Now gi ve a na me t o t he pa ge a s shown i n t he F i gur e 250.

Fi gure
250
: N ami ng t he page

T o ins er t t a ble, just go t o t he I ns er t t a b a nd a dd t he t a bl e a s shown i n t he F i

gur e 251.

Fi gure
251
: Insert T able

You ca n t hen sp ec if y nu mb er of r ows a nd c olu mns a s shown i n t he F i gur e 252.

Fi gure
252
: Rows and col umns

You ca n t hen a djust t he siz e of t he r ows a s shown i n t he F i gur e 253.

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

CS101

VU

P ag e
379

of
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C opy rig htVi rtual U ni v ersi ty ofP aki stan

Fi gure
253
: Adjus ti ng row si zes

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

CS101

VU

P ag e
380

of
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C opy rig htVi rtual U ni v ersi ty ofP aki stan

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331. 331.

233.

Web page Deve lop me nt (I nser ti ng L ists)

Bul l et ed l ist s mi ght b e fa mi lia r t o you if you ha ve wor ked wit h wor d pr oc ess i ng
or des kt op pub lis hi ng
a pplica t i ons. List s ar e a helpfu l wa y t o pr es ent i nf or ma t ion t o
a r ea der wit hout t he f or ma l c onst r a int s of a
pa ra gra ph. T heya r eesp ec ia l l yi mp or t a nt ont heW eb. S tudi esi ndica t et ha t peop l
et yp ica l l yski mwebpa ges
i nst ea d of r ea di ng t hem fr om b egi nni ng t o end. Cr ea t ing l ist s wi ll ma ke it ea si er
for your vis it or s t o g
et t he
most fr om your websit e wit hout sift i ng t hr ou gh sever a l pa ra gra phs of t ext .

On t he

event s. ht ml
pa ge, cl ic k a nd dr a g t o highli ght t he t ext whi c h you wa nt t o put in t he l ist .

Ma ke sur e you ha ve t he HT ML butt on s el ect ed i n t he P r oper t y Insp ect or a t t he

bot t om of your pa ge, a nd

cl ic k t he Unor der ed List but t on a s shown i n t he F igur e 254. T he hi ghl i ght ed t ext
bec omes i ndent ed, a nd a
bull et p oi nt is pla c ed a t t he b egi nni ng of ea c h l i ne.

Fi gure
254
: Adding unorder
ed li st

Us e t he Unor der ed List but t on i n t he P r oper t y I nsp ect or t o cr ea t e a bull et ed l

ist .

C lic k t he Or der ed List but t on t o t he r i ght of t he Unor der ed List but t on. T he bul l
et s cha nge t o s eq
u ent ia l
nu mb er s.

C hoos e F or ma t > List > Pr oper t i es t o op en t he L ist Prop er t i es dia l og box. C hoos
e Bul l et ed L ist fr om t h e
List t ype dr op
-
down menu t o r et ur n t o your fir st st yl e of list . T he Nu mb er ed List a nd Bull et ed L
ist opti ons
i n t he List t yp e dr op
-
down
menu a lso a l low you t o swit ch b et ween or der ed a nd u nor der ed l ist s.

F r om t he S t yl e dr op
-
down menu (s ee F i gur e 255), choose S qua r e. T his cha nges t he defa ult cir cula r
bull et s t o s qua r e bull et s. C lic k OK t o exit t he L ist P r oper t i es dia l og b ox.

Fi gure
255
: L i st of propert i es

Intr oduct i on t o Com put in g

CS101

VU

P ag e
381

of
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4