DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.

020

UNIVERSITY OF MISKOLC
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND INFORMATICS

DETECTION OF THE DAMAGES OF COMPOSITE MACHINE AND

VEHICLE STRUCTURES WITH ACOUSTIC METHODS

PHD THESES

Prepared by
Saad Jabber Nazal Alsarayefi
Engineering of Mechanics … (BSc),
Engineering of Mechanics/ Design … (MSc)

ISTVÁN SÁLYI DOCTORAL SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCES

TOPIC FIELD OF DESIGN OF MACHINES AND STRUCTURES
TOPIC GROUP OF DESIGN OF MACHINES AND ELEMENTS

Head of Doctoral School

Dr. Gabriella Bognár Vadászné
DSc, Full Professor

Head of Topic Group

Dr. Gabriella Bognár Vadászné

Scientific Supervisor
Dr. Gabriella Bognár Vadászné
Dr. Károly Jálics

Miskolc
2022

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

CONTENTS

CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................................... II
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................................IV
LIST OF TABLES .........................................................................................................................................VI
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ VII
SUPERVISOR’S RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................................VIII
1. INTRODUCTION, GLOBAL AIM OF THE RESEARCH WORK .................................................. 9
2. COMPOSITE MATERIALS ................................................................................................................ 11
2.1. Historical Overview ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.2. Concept of Composite Materials ..................................................................................................... 12
2.3. Classification of Composite Materials ............................................................................................ 14
2.3.1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) .................................................................................. 14
2.3.2. The Reinforcement of PMCs ................................................................................................ 15
2.3.3. Properties of Polymer Composite Materials ........................................................................ 15
2.3.4. Factors Affecting Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites .............................................. 15
2.3.5. Applications of PMCs .......................................................................................................... 16
2.3.6. Polymer Matrix Composite Classifications ......................................................................... 16
2.3.7. Processing of PMCs ............................................................................................................. 17
3. DAMAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS .................................................................................... 18
3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 18
3.2. Brief Description of the Most Frequent Occurring Damages ......................................................... 22
3.2.1. Matrix Cracking ................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.2. Delamination ....................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3. Fiber-matrix deboning ......................................................................................................... 22
3.2.4. Fiber Fracture ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.3. Fatigue In Composite Materials ..................................................................................................... 24

4. DAMAGE DETECTION METHODS IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS ......................................... 26

4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 26
4.2. Ultrasonic Inspection Technique .................................................................................................... 27
4.3. Thermography ................................................................................................................................. 27
4.4. Modal Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 28
4.5. Radiography .................................................................................................................................... 29
4.6. Guided Waves ................................................................................................................................. 29
4.7. Vibration Decay Rate ...................................................................................................................... 30
4.8. Acoustic Emission (AE) ................................................................................................................... 31

5. INVESTIGATIONS ON (FIBER GLASS / POLYMER) SPECIMEN ............................................ 33

5.1. Optimization of the Fiber Size for a Fiber Glass – Epoxy Composite ............................................ 33
5.1.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.2. Multi Scale Approach .......................................................................................................... 34
5.1.3. Classification and Characteristics of the Glass Fiber ......................................................... 36
5.1.4. Classification and Characteristics of Epoxy ........................................................................ 36
5.1.5. Optimization Algorithm ....................................................................................................... 37
5.1.6. Optimization Problem .......................................................................................................... 38
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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020
5.1.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 39
5.2. Micromechanical Analysis of Glass Fiber/Epoxy Lamina .............................................................. 39
5.2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.2. Micromechanical Analysis ................................................................................................... 40
5.2.3. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 40
5.2.4. Materials .............................................................................................................................. 42
5.2.5. Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................ 43
5.2.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 47
6. EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS FOR INVISTIGATING THE NVH
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE VEHICLE COMPONENTS THROUGH VISIBLE
AND NOT VISIBLE DAMAGES ........................................................................................................ 48
6.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 48
6.2. The Test Specimen ........................................................................................................................... 49
6.3. Possible Damages in Composites ................................................................................................... 49
6.4. Generation of Artificial Damage in the Composite Specimen......................................................... 49
6.5. Methodology.................................................................................................................................... 50
6.6. Performing the Test ......................................................................................................................... 51
6.7. Results of the Test............................................................................................................................ 52
6.8. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 54

7. DAMAGE DETECTION IN A FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPONENT BY THE

VIBRATION DECAY RATE AND THE DAMPING BEHAVIOUR .............................................. 55
7.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 55
7.2. Vibration Decay Rate ...................................................................................................................... 56
7.3. Damping of Materials ..................................................................................................................... 57
7.4. The Relation between Loss Factor and Decay Time ....................................................................... 57
7.5. Experimental Work.......................................................................................................................... 58
7.5.1. The Test Specimen ............................................................................................................... 58
7.5.2. Creating Damages in the Specimen ..................................................................................... 59
7.5.3. Test Equipment .................................................................................................................... 59
7.5.4. Performing the Test ............................................................................................................. 59
7.6. Test Results ..................................................................................................................................... 60
7.6.1. Vibration Decay Rate........................................................................................................... 60
7.6.2. The Loss Factor ................................................................................................................... 60
7.7. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 61

8. MODAL ANALYSIS OF PRE-TENSILE-LOADED COMPOSITE PLATES ............................... 62

8.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 62
8.2. Experimental Work.......................................................................................................................... 62
8.2.1. Specimen .............................................................................................................................. 62
8.2.2. Measurement Setup .............................................................................................................. 63
8.3. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 63
8.4. Computed Tomography (CT) Scanning of the Specimen................................................................. 65
8.5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 66

9. THESIS ................................................................................................................................................... 67
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 69
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC OF THE RESEARCH FIELD ..................... 75

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1. Chronology of Structural Materials Developments [14]. .......................................... 12

Figure 2. 2. Classification of Composite According to the Reinforcement .................................. 14

Figure 3. 1. Intralaminar Cracks [7]. ............................................................................................. 19

Figure 3. 2. Delamination [9]. ....................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3. 3. Translaminar Failure[7]. ............................................................................................ 20
Figure 3. 4. Matrix Crack and Delamination initiation[10]. ......................................................... 22
Figure 3. 5. Fiber-Matrix Debonding [10]. ................................................................................... 23
Figure 3. 6. Fiber Fracture [9]. ...................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3. 7. Fatigue Strength for Different Materials Including Composite [7]. .......................... 24
Figure 3. 8. Schematic Illustration of Fatigue Life Diagram for a Unidirectional Composite, .... 24
Figure 3. 9. Static Fiber Breakage in Region I [31]. ..................................................................... 25
Figure 3. 10. Fiber Bridged Matrix Cracking in Region II [31]. ................................................... 25

Figure 4. 1. Internally Hidden Damage with External Visible Damage [10]................................ 26

Figure 4. 2. Barely Visible Impact Damage [10]. ......................................................................... 26
Figure 4. 3. Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques, a- A-Scan, b- C-Scan [10]. ................................. 27
Figure 4. 4. Schematic of Thermography Results [10]. ................................................................ 27
Figure 4. 5. Schematic Representation of Modal Analysis test. ................................................... 28
Figure 4. 6. Schematic of Radiography Principle [10]. ................................................................. 29
Figure 4. 7. Schematic Representation of Vibration Decay Rate Test. ......................................... 30
Figure 4. 8. Schematic Representation of AE Test [41]................................................................ 32
Figure 4. 9. The Characteristics of a Recorded Burst-type AE Event [41]. .................................. 32

Figure 5. 1. Overview of Multi-scale Approach. .......................................................................... 34

Figure 5. 2. Schematic Representation of Unit Cells. ................................................................... 35
Figure 5. 3. Square Unit Cell with Four-Fiber Arrangement. ....................................................... 35
Figure 5. 4. The Convergence of the PSO on Maximum Strength Equation. ............................... 38
Figure 5. 5. Variation of E1 with Fiber Volume Fraction for all Fibers. ....................................... 43
Figure 5. 6.Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ............................................................. 44
Figure 5. 7. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ........................................................... 44
Figure 5. 8. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. .......................................................... 45
Figure 5. 9. Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ............................................................ 45
Figure 5. 10. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ......................................................... 45
Figure 5. 11. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ........................................................ 46
Figure 5. 12. Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction. .......................................................... 46
Figure 5. 13. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ....................................................... 46
Figure 5. 14. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction. ......................................................... 47

Figure 6. 1. The Rectangular FRP Test Specimen. ....................................................................... 49

Figure 6. 2. Damage of the Specimen (left: side of the impact; right: back side) ......................... 50

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020
Figure 6. 3. Typical Excitation Spectrum, FRF and Coherence During the Measurements (upper:
autopower of excitation; middle: FRF; lower: coherence)............................................................ 52
Figure 6. 4. The Average of the Measured FRFs for the Uncracked and Cracked Specimen (from
20 to 800 Hz). ................................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 6. 5. The Average of the Measured FRFs for the Uncracked and Cracked Specimen (from
100 to 200 Hz). .............................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 6. 6. Two Mode Shapes of the Cracked Plate by 132 Hz (left) and 142 Hz (right),
Displacement in the Z direction. ................................................................................................... 54

Figure 7. 1. Decay Rate Curve ...................................................................................................... 58

Figure 7. 2. The Test Specimen with Three Conditions................................................................ 59
Figure 7. 3. RT 60 Decay Rate of the Three Cases. ...................................................................... 60
Figure 7. 4. The Loss Factor of the Three Cases........................................................................... 61

Figure 8. 1. The Test Set Up. ........................................................................................................ 63

Figure 8. 2. The Resonance Frequencies of the First Specimen (5mm thick). ............................. 64
Figure 8. 3. CT Scanning Views of the Specimen. ....................................................................... 65
Figure 8. 4. Distance Between the Tow Points of the Woven Fiber in the Specimens (left:
unloaded), (right: the max.loaded). ............................................................................................... 66

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2. 1. Properties of Some Polymer Matrix Materials [15, 19]. ............................................ 16

Table 3. 1. Damages During the Processing, Manufacturing Process or Service Life [10]. ......... 21
Table 3. 2. Few Types of Manufacturing Defects with Their Effects of the Mechanical
Properties. ...................................................................................................................................... 21

Table 5. 1. Glass Fiber Main Classes and the Physical Properties. ............................................... 36
Table 5. 2. Glass Fiber Characteristics. ......................................................................................... 36
Table 5. 3. Epoxy Characteristics.................................................................................................. 37
Table 5. 4. Best Possible Results for the Constrained Problem. ................................................... 39
Table 5. 5. Chemical Compositions of Glass Fibers In wt%. ....................................................... 42
Table 5. 6. The Properties of the Used Constituents of the Composite Materials. .................................... 42

Table 8. 1. The Material Technical Data Sheet (Quattroplast Company). .................................... 62

Table 8. 2. Differences of the Resonance Frequencies of the Unloaded and Max. loaded Probe of
(5mm Thickness). ......................................................................................................................... 64

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Acoustic Emission (Gm) .............................................................................42

(AE) .............................................................................. 32 Matrix Young’s Modulus
angular frequency (Em)..............................................................................36
(ω) ............................................................................... 58 Mean-Field Homogenization
Carbon / Carbon Composite (MFH) ...........................................................................35
(C/Cs) ........................................................................... 15 Metal Matrix Composite
Ceramic Matrix Composite (MMCs) ........................................................................15
(CMCs) ......................................................................... 15 Noise, Vibration and Harshness
cylindrical assemblage model (NVH) ...........................................................................49
(CAM) .......................................................................... 41 non-destructive inspection
Damping ratio (NDI) .............................................................................27
(ξ). .............................................................................. ..58 non-destructive tests
Fiber reinforced polymer (NDTs) ..........................................................................32
(FRP) ............................................................................ 10 Particle Swarm Optimisation
Fiber Tensile Strength (PSO) ............................................................................35
(Fft) ............................................................................... 36 periodic microstructure model
Fiber Volume Fraction (PMM) ..........................................................................41
vf 36 Poisson ratio
Fiber Young’s Modulus (Ѵ12) ............................................................................40
(Ef) ............................................................................... 36 Polyether ether ketone
frequency response function (PEEK) ...........................................................................18
(FRF) ............................................................................ 29 Polymer Matrix Composite
Glass fiber reinforced polymers (PMCs) ..........................................................................15
(GFRPs) ........................................................................ 16 power dissipated
in plane shear modulus (Dp) ..............................................................................58
(G12) ............................................................................ 40 representative volume element
Interlaminar shear strength (RVE) ............................................................................34
(ILSS) ............................................................................ 22 Resin Transfer Molding
Lehr’s damping (RTM) ...........................................................................18
(D). ............................................................................... 58 reverberation time
Logarithmic decrement (RT60)...........................................................................31
(Λ). ............................................................................... 58 rule of mixture
Longitudinal Tensile Strength (ROM)...........................................................................40
F1t ............................................................................... 36 scanning electron microscope
longitudinal young modulus (SEM)............................................................................24
(E1) .............................................................................. 40 structural health monitoring
Loss factor (SHM) ...........................................................................11
(η).................................................................................58 total stored mechanical energy
Loss tangent under steady-state sinusoidal (E). ................................................................................58
excitation transverse young modulus
(tan φ) ......................................................................... 58 (E2) ...............................................................................40
Matrix Shear Modulus Gm

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

SUPERVISOR’S RECOMMENDATIONS

PhD candidate Saad Jabber Nazal Alsarayefi has been under our supervision for the
last 5 years.
From September 2017 to August 2021, he was a full-time PhD student at the Sályi
István Sályi Doctoral School of Mechanical Engineering, in the framework of the
"Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship Programme", affiliated to the Institute of
Mechanical and Product Design / Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Information
Technology. He was awarded a one-year extension of the fellowship from 2021 to the
present. His research work on the detection of damage in composite materials by
acoustic methods is a very important and active research area in the automotive and
aviation industries today. An increasing number of vehicle and aircraft components are
made of composite structures, which has a cost and safety dimension. For this reason,
well-timed damage detection can save costs and, not exaggeratedly, lives.

The results of candidate’s research work were continuously published and presented in
scientific journals, in doctoral seminars, doctoral forums, and international
conferences, and in conference proceedings. The work has the possibility for extension,
since there are further questions which occurred during the work, and which could not
be answered within the scope of the work.
In 2019, he successfully passed the complex examination with 100% in the theoretical
part and 86.6% in the thesis part.On 5 March 2021, he received his undergraduate
degree from the doctoral school with 278.5 credits. The departmental examination was
successfully completed on 8 June 2022.
The candidate often worked independently and proactively, always following
instructions. During his doctoral studies, he continued to develop his knowledge,
affinity for research and ability to deliver presentations. He has acquired new
knowledge and competences that he will be able to use in his future academic life.

Miskolc. 14.06.2022

Gabriella Vadászné Bognár Jálics Károly

Prof. Dr. PhD.

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 DOI: 10.14750/ME.2023.020

1. INTRODUCTION, GLOBAL AIM OF THE RESEARCH WORK

A composite material is a combination of two or more distinct materials that formed to

have enhanced mechanical properties and performance that are superior to those of the
constituents if they act individually. One of the combined materials is called the
reinforcement which is stiffer and stronger while the other one is called the matrix. The
insured advantageous properties of composite materials have steadily extended their
use in various fields of engineering.
Composite materials usages have been remarkably increased in almost all industry
sectors. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in particular, are significantly
adopted in aerospace and automobile structures to satisfy the need for materials that are
light in weight, costly effective, and good impact absorbents [1]. Fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) is a major class of composite materials that generally consists of a
polymer as a matrix reinforced with a fiber. Usually, the fiber might be glass, carbon,
and Kevlar. However, other types of fiber sometimes are used such as wood, paper, or
asbestos etc. [2].
Branched from the two main categories, thermoplastics and thermoset, polymer also
could be of many types such as polyester, vinylester, polyurethane, and epoxy. Due to
commercial needs, Glass or carbon is the most commonly used fibers as reinforcement
to a matrix of thermosetting polymer such as epoxy and polyester to have FRP
composite materials [3, 4]. Moreover, thermoplastics matrices are still preferred to be
used because of their property of reformed after the initial production. Regarding the
application of FRP composites, their usage is remarkable in the aerospace and
automobile industry field, ships and offshores platforms, sport goods, and chemical
processing equipment. Also, FRP composite have exist in new markets of biomedical
devices and civil structures.
New style of reinforcement forms such as carbon nanotube and nanoparticles with high
performance resin systems have been used to produce new advanced forms of FRP
composite rising their usage to an impressive range [5].
Generally, the most important properties of FRP composites that making them
attractive to industries sectors are high specific strength, high specific stiffness, high
fracture resistance, good abrasion, corrosion, impact, and fatigue resistance, and low
cost [6].
On the other hand, damages may arise in the FRP components during operation putting
the structure in a risk [7]. Due to the heterogeneous microstructure of the materials and
big difference of the constituent’s properties, the mechanism of the damage is not
smoothly predicted and understood. Also, the interface presence and the fiber
orientations give anisotropy in overall properties of the materials [7, 8].
The diagnosed damages of composite materials are broadly classified under three main
categories based on the structure of the material. These main categories are the micro-
structure level, the macro-structure level, and the coupled micro-macro level
mechanism failure. Under all three levels, the damages of composite materials could be
[9]:
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• Fiber Fracture
• Fiber Bending
• Fiber Buckling
• Matrix Cracking
• Delamination
• Fiber-Matrix Debonding
• others

Fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) are more and more utilized in the vehicle and
machine industry. FRP components can show damages that are not visible after impact,
crash.
A component that is not visibly damaged loses its load capacity or its original energy
absorption capacity. This can lead to undefined component failure during further load.
A recorded failure history can provide important information concerning a possible
propagation of damages to complete failure. Damaged FRP components can be
detected and replaced by means of damage detection methods. Costs can be reduced,
because components no longer have to be replaced as a precautionary measure.
In order to have an early prediction of existence of visible or non-visible damages in
composite structure and avoid failure, many structural health monitoring (SHM)
methods have been revealed. Among these methods are guided waves method, acoustic
emission methods, wave field imaging, modal analysis, frequency response function
method, and others [9, 10]. Thus, a lot of attention has been paid to the issue of
damages detection in composite materials structures using acoustic emission and
vibration-based methods.
The global aim of this work is to the identification and tracking of non-visible damage
(delamination, fiber and matrix fractures) due to a test bench load using online and/or
offline acoustic based measurements.

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2. COMPOSITE MATERIALS

2.1. Historical Overview

There were remarkable uses of composite materials during the ancient time. For
example, back to 1500 BC, straw reinforced walls were introduced for the first time as
a composite material by Mesopotamians and Egyptians. Also, there were chariots made
of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. A laminated writing material from the papyrus
plant was made [11].
After the BC era, the first composite Mongolians bow was invented in 1200 AD. The
bows were made by combining of wood, bone, and glue taken from animal, and they
were pressed and wrapped with birch bark. Because of their significant strength and
accuracy, Mongolian bows had led Genghis Khan to achieve the victories. Thus, at that
time, these weapons became the most used powerful ones because of the composite
materials [12].
The discovery of natural plastics and resin extruded from plants and animals was not
enough to start the new era for composite materials. The first developed plastics such
as phenolic resins, polystyrene, vinyl and polyester were produced in early 1990-s, but
plastics without reinforcement are still not a perfect material to provide sufficient
strength if used in structural applications. The need for strong and rigid materials has
led to invent for the first time the glass fibers by Owens Corning in 1935. The
combination of glass fibers and polymer creates a significant strong lightweight
structure. The application of fiber reinforced polymer has seen the light from that time,
reaching the incredible various applications till now [13].
Throughout the time, more durable composite materials were introduced, until the
World War II, when advanced achievement occurred by real use of FRP materials. By
1945, Military application used more than 7 million pounds of glass fibers. In addition,
it was observed that the composite materials are perfect selection to boats, leading to
introduce the first composite boat hull in 1946. Moreover, the largest consumption of
composite materials by 1960s was by the marine. The composite automotive body was
manufactured and tested for the first time in 1947, until the 1970s, when the
consumption of composite in automotive industries got over that of marine as the
number one automotive market increased and lasted till today. Continuously,
composite materials advanced in many engineering sectors until late 1970s and early
1980s, when they first used in infrastructure applications in Asia and Europe. During
1990s, in Aberfeldy, Scotland, a composites pedestrian bridge was built.
In the last two decades of previous century, composites were widely used to obtain
good performance structure of spacecraft and military aircraft after were being used
only as insulators and radar-domes relaying on their electromagnetic properties.
Moreover, the composites are used to produce tools that protect human against impacts
and fire. Using more environmental friendly deign such as natural fibers in introducing
composite is also used [11–13].
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The increasingly success of using composite materials in terms of quality and quantity
can be recognized by the accessibility and reproducibility of the manufacturing
technologies. The new design and production operations must be done according to the
variable parameters that lead to the optimum design such as shape, strength, cost,
durability, etc.

Figure 2. 1. Chronology of Structural Materials Developments [14].

2.2. Concept of Composite Materials

Composite material is a combination of materials (two or more) that are chemically

distinct, insoluble, and different in properties. The objective aim of composite
materials is to obtain performance properties that are superior to those of the
constituents such as combining the flexibility and weight of a polymer with the
strength of a ceramic in one material to have all properties.
In particular, composites consist of three components, the matrix as the continuous
phase, the reinforcements as the discontinuous or phase, and the fine interphase
region, also known as the interface [11].
Some examples of composite materials: (a) plywood is a laminar composite of layers
of wood veneer, (b) fiberglass is a fiber reinforced composite containing stiff, strong

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glass fibers in a softer polymer matrix , and (c) concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix [15]
The advantages of the matrix are giving a bulky form to the composite product, holding
the embedded materials, and distributing the load to the secondary phase so the
reinforcement materials can bear the stress and the load can be shares [16].
The most used reinforcements in composites are continuous fibers, discontinuous
fibers, whiskers, and particles. The reinforcement type chosen for a composite material
is of great importance as it determines the outstanding properties of the finished part
such as load-bearing ability, strength, impact resistance and specific stiffness.
A Fiber reinforced material has a much higher strength in fiber direction compared to
the same material in other orientation, so continuous, aligned fibers are the most
efficient reinforcement form and are mostly used in the applications that require high-
performance. In order to achieve specific properties such as better impact resistance,
continuous fiber might be converted into many types by using textile technology
providing two- and three-dimensional fabrics and braids.
The unique combination of matrix and reinforcement depends on the interface structure
to obtain the intended properties of the composite materials. The interface of
reinforcement-matrix in composite materials determines its performance because some
reinforcements are not compatible with the matrices in term of their physical and/or
chemical properties leading to pre-operation failure of the composites.
The compatibility between fiber and matrix or the the fiber–matrix interface has been
proved to be a factor that has primary impact on the overall mechanical properties of
composite structures. Achieving the intended transferring of the stress from the matrix
to the reinforcement is highly conditioned by having strong chemical and physical
interfacial interaction between the matrix and the fiber. Weak interfacial contact
because of inert surface fiber for example, is very likely to cause composite failure that
based on interfacial debonding [17].
In Polymer composite for example, coupling of covalent bonds between polymer
matrix and fiber is a strong desirable interaction. However, secondary forces such as
Van der Waal forces or hydrogen bond can occur between the constituents.
To attain superior mechanical behaviour, the interfacial adhesion should be strong. The
matrix molecules can be anchored to the fiber surface by chemical reaction
(adsorption), which determines the extent of interfacial adhesion. The interface is also
called as the mesophase [18].
The advantages of using composite materials in all sector of application can be
summarized by the following:
• High specific strength.
• High specific stiffness, long fatigue life.
• High creep resistance.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Low density.
• Low thermal conductivity.
• Better wear resistance.
• Improved corrosion resistance.
• Better temperature dependent behaviour.
Although that the great importance of composite materials, there are limitations of
using them. These limitations can be summarized by the following:

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• Properties of many important composites are anisotropic - the properties differ

depending on the direction in which they are measured – this may be an
advantage or a disadvantage
• Many of the polymer-based composites are subject to attack by chemicals or
solvents, just as the polymers themselves are susceptible to attack
• Composite materials are generally expensive
• Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials are often slow and
costly.

2.3. Classification of Composite Materials

Based on their material phases, composites can be classified into more than one distinct way.
For example, regarding the material of the matrix, the composite materials can be classified into
the following:
• Polymer Matrix Composite, PMCs
• Metal Matrix Composite, MMCs
• Ceramic Matrix Composite, CMCs
• Carbon / Carbon Composite, C/Cs

Regarding the reinforcement phase, composite materials can also be classified as:
• Fiber Reinforced Composites (continuous/ short)
• Particulate Reinforced Composites
• Whisker Reinforced Composites
• Flakes Reinforced Composites
• Structural Composites (Laminated / Sandwich)

Figure 2. 2. Classification of Composite According to the Reinforcement

2.3.1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

They are the dominant type of composites that used nowadays in most of the
commercial applications. The main advantages of polymers as matrix are easy process-
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ability, low cost, good chemical resistance, and low specific gravity. However, there
are other properties that limit its use such as low strength, low modulus, and low
operating temperatures. The Reinforcement of polymers by strong fibrous network
leads to the development of PMCs, which is characterized by higher level of properties
that make the PMCs are as beneficial materials as they are nowadays [19].

2.3.2. The Reinforcement of PMCs

The high strength and stiffness of advanced PMCs are obtained by the continuous fiber
reinforcing. Glass, graphite, and aramid are the dominant types that are currently used
in this class of composite materials based on their mechanical and physical properties.
Glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs) have shown the structural and durability
demands in all types of interior and exterior applications. Good mechanical properties
have led to the entry of GFRPs in the automotive industry. however they exhibit some
disadvantages such as their relatively high fiber density, difficulty in machining, and
poor recycling property [20].
During the past decade, the chance of using natural fibers as reinforcement for
thermoplastic and thermoset matrices has been explored as they have been successfully
utilized by automobile manufacturers and suppliers for door panels, seat backs,
headliners, package trays, dashboards, and interior parts. Recently, Natural fibers have
also attracted the attention of researchers, engineers and scientists as an alternative
reinforcement material for fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites [3, 19].

2.3.3. Properties of Polymer Composite Materials

• High specific strength.

• High specific stiffness.
• High fracture resistance.
• Good abrasion resistance.
• Good impact resistance.
• Good corrosion resistance.
• Good fatigue resistance.
• Low cost

2.3.4. Factors Affecting Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites

• Interfacial Adhesion: The characteristics of PMCs are obtained based on the

combined characteristics of the reinforcing material, polymer matrix, and the
fiber-matrix interface. To attain superior mechanical behaviour, the
interfacial adhesion should be strong. The matrix molecules can be anchored
to the fiber surface by chemical or physical reaction, which determines the
extent of interfacial adhesion. The interface is also called as the mesophase.
The strongest anchoring of the matrix is achieved by the chemical reactions
such as the amine functionalized carbon nanotubes in epoxy resin [21].
• Shape and Orientation of Dispersed Phase Inclusions (Particles, Flakes,
Fibers, and Laminates): Particles are mainly used to improve properties or
lower the cost of isotropic materials and they do not have preferred
directions. Their shape can be spherical, cubic, platelet, or regular or
irregular geometry. The dimensions of the particulate reinforcements are

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approximately equal in all directions. Large particle and dispersion-

strengthened composites are the two subclasses of particle reinforced
composites. The laminar composite is composed of two sheets or panels. The
layers are stacked together so that the orientation of the high strength
direction varies with each successive layer [19].

2.3.5. Applications of PMCs

• Aerospace structures: The military, commercial airlines, Space shuttle, satellite

systems.
• Marine: Boat bodies, canoes, kayaks, and so on.
• Automotive: Body panels, leaf springs, drive shaft, bumpers, doors, racing car
bodies, and so on.
• Sports goods: Golf clubs, skis, fishing rods, tennis rackets, and so on.
• Biomedical applications: Medical implants, orthopaedic devices, X-ray tables.
• Electrical: Panels, housing, switchgear, insulators, and connectors.
• Chemical storage tanks, pressure vessels, piping, pump body, valves, and so on.

2.3.6. Polymer Matrix Composite Classifications

This type of matrix material composites can be classified into two groups
(thermoplastic and thermoset). Each type has it is own characteristics as shown below
[5]:

Thermoplastic
Thermoplastics consist of linear or branched chain molecules having weak
intermolecular bonds. They can be reshaped by application of heat and pressure and are
either semi crystalline or amorphous in structure. Examples include polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, nylons, polycarbonate, polyacetals, polyamide-imides,
polyether ether ketone, polysulfide, polyphenylene sulphide, polyether imide, and so
on.

Thermoset
Thermosets have cross-linked or network structures with covalent bonds with all
molecules. They do not soften but decompose on heating. Once solidified by cross-
linking process they cannot be reshaped. Common examples are epoxies, polyesters,
phenolics, aminoplasts, ureas, melamine, silicone, and polyimides .

Table 2. 1. Properties of Some Polymer Matrix Materials [15, 19].

Matrix Materials Density Tensile Tensile

(g/cm3) Strength Modulus
(MPa) (GPa)
Polyethylene 0.90-0.98 25-35 0.4-1.1
Thermoplastics Polypropylene 0.90-0.94 28-40 0.5-1.3
Polycarbonates 1.20-1.22 65 2-3
Polyamides 1.13-1.41 78 2.6-3

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Polyphenlyne 1.34 90-95 3.4-3.6

Sulphide

Polyethermide 1.27 40 5-5.5

Polyether ether 1.26-1.32 95-220 4-20
ketone
(PEEK)
Phenolic 1.1-1.40 45-50 3.5-3.9
Epoxy 1.1-1.70 50-70 2.3-2.5
Thermosets Bismaleimides 1.15-1.36 70-80 25-28
Cyanate Esters 1.18-1.30 50-90 2.6-3.1
Polyimides 1.42-1.85 90-120 n.d

2.3.7. Processing of PMCs

There are different methods for fabricating PMCs. Generally, all of the methods
involve the following basic steps [22, 23]:
• Impregnation of the fiber with the resin,
• Forming of the structure,
• Curing (thermoset matrices) or thermal processing (thermoplastic matrices), and
• Finishing.

Below are the commonly used techniques of fabricating PMCs.:

• Spray Lay-up Method
• Wet lay-up, Hand lay-up Method
• Vacuum Bagging Method
• Filament Winding Method
• Pultrusion Method
• Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
• Compression Molding Method
• Injection Molding Method

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3. DAMAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

3.1. Introduction

Although of the attractive properties of composite materials mentioned earlier, there

are critical issues that may limit their usage. The most revealed aspect of these issues is
the damages of composite materials. Damages may arise in composite materials,
putting the structure in a risk. Due to the heterogynous microstructure of the materials
and big difference of the constituent’s properties, the mechanism of the damage is clear
Also, the interface presence and the fiber orientations give anisotropy in overall
properties of the materials.
The mechanism of damages in composite materials is not easily predicted and
understood due to the nature of the material. Defects and fracture generally may occur
during the manufacturing process or service life of the structure or parts. The damage
mechanisms in a fibrous composite are broadly categorized as:
A- Micro-level damage: This can be classified into fiber level damage and matrix
level damage mechanisms. Regarding both levels, many damages can occur
such as fiber breaking, fiber buckling, fiber bending, fiber splitting, and matrix
cracking.
B- Macro-level damage: The macro-level mechanisms are laminate level
mechanisms. It is seen that the adjacent layers are bonded together by a thin
layer of resin between them. This interface layer transfers the displacement and
force from one layer to another layer. When this interface layer weakens or
damages completely, it causes the adjacent layers to separate. This mode of
failure is called delamination.
C- Coupled Micro-Macro Level Failure Mechanisms: The through thickness
transverse crack may propagate to neighbouring lamina causing it to break [15].

In other words, depending on the stress applies to the composite part and the
reinforcement type of the composite itself; there are basic stages of the damage
process. The damages that occur in the beginning require low energy consumption,
such as damages of the matrix phase and of interface. Furthermore, the later occurring
damages or deeper damages such as fiber breakage require higher amount of energy
consumption [24].
The zone of lower strength in the composite parts such the matrix or the interface is the
area of the first step of damage causing failure of that could also called the
intralaminar cracks as shown in figure 3.2. In this type of crack, the strain reaches its
maximum value of breaking, usually causing parallel and spaced defects. The damages
caused by this type usually occur in the area where the fiber orientation is not parallel
to the loading axis. Their impact on the overall material strength are little [7].
Moreover, there is a damage called interlaminar when the cracks appear in a ply of
laminated composites. In this failure, the stresses of the intralaminar cracks lead to the
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cracks to propagate at the interface of the adjacent layers caused delamination, see
figure 3.2. The source of delamination could be manufacturing flaws of any other
impacts.

Figure 3. 1. Intralaminar Cracks [7].

Figure 3. 2. Delamination [9].

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The damage size of the matrix may go through the thickness reaching certain level that
cause the lamina to break resulting from the fiber breaking. This is the translaminar
failure which is the last stage of the composite part deterioration which occurs at the
zone of high-applied load, figure 3.3.

10μm

Figure 3. 3. Translaminar Failure[7].

As mentioned above, the damages of composite materials can also be grouped based on
the occurrence occasion. For example, there are defects or damages that occur during
the manufacturing process which includes material processing and part manufacturing.
The other occasion of damages occurring is during service life damages. Below are
brief description of the three occurrence occasions [10]:

• Material Processing: This process includes the production and preparation of the
constituents of the composite materials of a prepreg such as the process of pre-
impregnated composite fibers. The defects in this stage might occur because of
improper storage or quality control and batch certification procedures leading to
material variations.
• Component or part manufacture: it is the process of making the composite part
or component according to previous required need or design. Damages in this
stage induced defects occur during either the layup and cure or the machining
and assembly of the components.
• In-service Period. This stage is where the composite structure faces all the risks
of operation time. Damages here might be a result of environmental or
mechanical actions. In service damages occur because of impact and handling,
overloading, heating, chemical attack, ultraviolet radiation, fatigue, or other
reason.
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Table 3. 1. Damages During the Processing, Manufacturing Process or Service Life [10].

Material Processing Component Manufacturing In service Damages

Damages Damages
Fiber distribution variance Contamination Corner/edge crack
Fiber faults Corner/edge splitting Corner radius delamination
Fiber/matrix debond Cracks Creep
Fiber misalignment Delamination Delamination
Miscollination Debond Debond
Over-aged prepreg Excessive ply overlap Erosion
Prepreg variability Fastener holes Fiber kinks
Fiber kinks Fracture
Fiber misalignment Matrix cracking
Fracture Matrix crazing
Voids Surface damage
Porosity Surface oxidation
Missing plies Surface swelling
Variation in density Translaminar cracks
Warping Fiber buckling

ply waviness

inclusions such as dust or

pre-preg backing paper

Since the manufacture of composite materials is a delicate process, special care must
be taken. However, damages occur even though the great care that has been given
during the process. According to some studies manufacturing defects has noticeable
effects of the mechanical properties of the composite parts [25–27].

Table 3. 2. Few Types of Manufacturing Defects with Their Effects of the Mechanical Properties.

Defects type Mechanical Property Effects

Fiber waviness Tensile modulus No loss
Tensile strength 20% loss
Poisson's ratio 100% increase
10 % voiding Compressive strength 15 % loss
Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) 30 % loss
Interlaminar shear modulus 30 % loss
Paper inclusion ILSS 25 % loss
Compressive strength 20 % loss
Cut fiber tow Tensile strength 25 % loss
Compressive strength 11 % loss
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3.2. Brief Description of the Most Frequent Occurring Damages

3.2.1. Matrix Cracking

It is a very common mode of failure that mostly occurs in polymer matrix composites.
This type of damage could be generated because of the overloading of various
operation conditions. The crack could occur at low level of load consumption low
fracture energy varying based on the epoxy composites (lower energy) or the
thermoplastic composites (higher energy). In most cases, the matrix crack is measured
to be localized damage and sometime hard to detect. However, under certain conditions
such as fatigue loading, it leads to delamination.
3.2.2. Delamination

It is one of the most frequently occurring types of damage in long fiber composite
materials. When the matrix crack propagates within the interface of plies in the
laminate and when it is parallel to fiber orientation, delamination occurs by separating
the plies and result in significant reduction in compression and shear strength of the
structure. In fact, the compression strength of composite part is at a risk of being
reduced to 50 percent by small areas of delamination [25].
Delamination mostly occur because of an impact or un accurate manufacturing and it
may initiate and propagate under static or cyclic tensile loading [28]. It was stated that
the delamination is at the most sever level if the relative angle between the separated
plies is the greatest [29]. Based on the matrix material, the energy consumption in the
delamination fracture differs between 100 J/m2 in epoxy based composite and 300 J/m2
in thermoplastic based composites [25].

Figure 3. 4. Matrix Crack and Delamination initiation[10].

3.2.3. Fiber-matrix deboning

It affects the interface by separation of the matrix and the fiber. The interface
debonding happens if the applied stress exceeds the local strength. It is not easily
predicted by vision or by conventional detection methods because it is a localized
failure mode. The resulted debonding amount basically depends on the quality of
surface treatment of the fibers during the fabrication of the pre-preg. Low level of

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surface treatment usually make the fiber suitable to easier debonding resulting in rough
fracture surface with three dimensional view when using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM), while highly treated fibers tendency to debonding is less and the
fracture is planar with the crack propagation across the fiber [25].

Figure 3. 5. Fiber-Matrix Debonding [10].

3.2.4. Fiber Fracture

This type of damage has significant effect on the stiffness and strength particularly
tensile strength of fiber reinforced composites because the fiber is the most load-
bearing constituent in this kind of materials. There were many investigations
suggesting that failure of composite components can occur by fracturing of even small
number of fibers [25, 28].
The reason behind fiber fracture could be:
• Transverse impact loading which often creates immediate zones of localized
fiber fracture in the point of impact.
• Compression fatigue cycling also has been proven to generate of large, angled
cracks in the 0-degree fibers in a (0 degrees ± 45 degrees) laminate.

Figure 3. 6. Fiber Fracture [9].

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3.3. Fatigue In Composite Materials

Significant number of the working conditions of mechanical parts includes cyclic

loading. This brings the risk of fatigue failure of the part even within the limits of
loading amounts that is below the elastic limits of the materials. Thus, optimising the
design and obtaining the reliability that ensure a safe service life, require a knowledge
of the fatigue behaviour and the mechanical properties of the composite materials.

Figure 3. 7. Fatigue Strength for Different Materials Including Composite [7].

Although that the fatigue analysis and calculations tools of metals are not appropriate
for that of composites, many calculations have presented that fatigue strength in
tension for composite materials is superior to metallic material such as titanium alloy
or aluminium alloy. Also, it was verified that the fatigue does not act as an obstacle in
the composite use, nor assistant to the propagation of composite damages [7, 30].

Figure 3. 8. Schematic Illustration of Fatigue Life Diagram for a Unidirectional Composite,

Showing Three Regions with Different Damage Mechanisms [31] .
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According to Talreja (1981) that the fatigue life diagram resulted data can be classified
into three regions. The first region (region I) is called the static region in which the
fiber failure is not progressive. It appears as a horizontal scatter in the diagram.

Figure 3. 9. Static Fiber Breakage in Region I [31].

At a certain number of the cyclic load, region II is deviating from region I and
extending down to the fatigue limit. In region II, a progressive crack mechanism occurs
when a fiber-bridged matrix crack happens.

Figure 3. 10. Fiber Bridged Matrix Cracking in Region II [31].

Region III is the final region of the fatigue life diagram which lies below the fatigue
limit, where no fatigue failure occurs.

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4. DAMAGE DETECTION METHODS IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS

4.1. Introduction

In order to have an early prediction of existence of visible or non-visible damages in

composite structure and avoid failure, many structural health monitoring (SHM)
methods have been revealed. Among these methods is what is known as non-
destructive inspection (NDI) methods. These methods are used in different ways to
indicate the damage location and evaluate the damage in term of size, type, and shape.
Moreover, the information gathered from these methods help in post-repair quality
insurance [10].
Visual examination is simply the initial basic way of damage assessment. It provides
the inspector with simple information like the location of the damaged area and the
severity of the damage. After that, following the extent and the range of damages
require more sensitive non-destructive methods. When dealing with defects of
composite materials and structures, information and details provided by the NDI
method are of great importance because of the complexity and the anisotropy of the
materials. The damage might be hidden with barely visible or no dent on the surface
requiring and accurate inspection methods [25].

Figure 4. 1. Internally Hidden Damage with External Visible Damage [10].

Figure 4. 2. Barely Visible Impact Damage [10].

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4.2. Ultrasonic Inspection Technique

It is one of the most conventional methods that used to inspect damages in composite
materials (particularly laminated composites). It involves placing a transducer at the
composited panel to assess its quality. Two principal methods of the ultrasonic
techniques are used based on the transducer placement. A-Scan methods (Pulse echo)
which involves using same transducer that emitted the original pulse, or C-Scan which
involves placing a transducer at the rear of the panel through transmission [25].

Figure 4. 3. Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques, a- A-Scan, b- C-Scan [10].

Both methods involve directing ultrasonic signal towards the component of interest. In
other words, as the sound pass through the area of interest, it measures the change in
the sound attenuation or the amplitude loss. the process involves immersing he test
probe in water or coating it with grease, or transmitting the signal through jet of water,
in order to maintain maximum transmission of the ultrasonic energy [32].

4.3. Thermography

This NDI technique stands upon measuring the response to the dissipation thermal
energy and temperature induced through the defected composite part. There are two
analysis types involved in this inspection method, namely active and passive
thermography techniques. The passive analysis determines the internal damages when
observing that the rate of thermal energy dissipation is reduced, which can be observed
by infrared sensitive camera. The active one is relied on vibration or load cycling the
specimen, and in case of damage, the increased localized stresses generate heat.
Generally, the thermography methods require experienced inspector and standards to
verify the results [33].

Figure 4. 4. Schematic of Thermography Results [10].

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4.4. Modal Analysis

The experimental modal analysis is a technique that has been used to study dynamic
characteristics of mechanical components. Furthermore, in recent years the modal
analysis has been used to measure the performance and efficiency loss of working
structures because of eventual degradation of individual components. The progression
of such factors leads gradually to change the material performance resulting in changes
the variation characteristics. The characteristics meant in such cases are modal
frequencies, mode shapes and damping properties of structural components. These
parameters can be delivered by modal analysis testing. the experimental modal analysis
are proven to be able to test in site structures and with even large scales [34].
There are two methods used for the excitation of the structure for modal measurements.
Namely, these two methods are the input-output (active excitation) and output only
(operational excitation). In the Input-output methods of excitation, the procedure
involved consists of an ex-citing function introduced to initiate vibration of the
structure. Typically, the forms of excitation entail are impact hammers, drop weights,
shakers, or displacement-release. The waveforms used in modal analysis can be of
various natures, including harmonic and random input, as well as impulsive excitation.
In the Output only method, excitation is present if the structure is in service and under
some form of external excitation, e.g., traffic or wind loads. In field testing, dynamic
properties are extracted by placing several motion sensors (commonly accelerometers)
at predetermined locations along the structure. To suit the need for full-motion
recording, triaxial accelerometers are commonly given preference. The objective of
placing sensors in multiple locations is to attain a sufficient amount of frequency
response functions (FRF), such that individual modes can be identified from the modal
test. Herein, the highest measurable mode de-pends largely on the optimal placement
of accelerometers; i.e., the extraction of higher modes demands a higher number of
accelerometers.

Figure 4. 5. Schematic Representation of Modal Analysis test.

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4.5. Radiography

There are two main methods of the radiography technique, X-ray and neutron
radiography. Generally, the method depends on the absorption differentiation of the
radiation by the examined component.

Figure 4. 6. Schematic of Radiography Principle [10].

The X-ray type requires experienced operator and expensive equipment and it is the
perfect choice for the honeycomb sandwich panel inspection. It provides a permanent
record and can be enhanced with dye penetrants. The Neutron radiography provides
higher resolution of results but it is very costly [10].

4.6. Guided Waves

Guided wave-based technique is one of the most conventional non-destructive methods

that used in damage investigation of composite materials. These methods are popular
because of its ability to detect small size damages as well as the large detection area
and the low attenuation. However, theoretical simulation of guided wave propagation
in large composite structures may create in some cases a complex finite element
models that would be hard or impossible to solve and analyse [35].
There are many methods of the guided wave-based techniques such as lamb waves,
wave field imaging, Rapid methods and others. Lamb-waves are the most popular one
among them. They are an elastic wave that their particle movement is directed by two
parallel planes. There is a well-recognized property of the lamb wave which is its
reflection and scattering from damages of the parts giving this method the ability to
localize defects in the structures. The Lamb waves interact with delamination in a way
that causes mode conversion in both sub-laminates at the start and end of the
delamination region. As it is proved that the delamination causes a stiffness reduction
in the affected areas, many researchers found that the velocities of lamb waves
movement in the delamination area are different from those of undamaged components
[36].

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4.7. Vibration Decay Rate

It is one of the method that customized by the author to be used as a technique for
composite material damages inspection [37]. Generally, there are several methods for
the experimental determination of the damping of materials. One of these methods is
the determination of the decay rate, which gives a relatively simple method for the loss
factor determination [38]. The measurement of vibration decay rate is pretty like the
measurement of the acoustic decay rate, which is well known in the room acoustics.
The only difference is the usage of vibration sensor, e.g., accelerometer instead of
microphones.
The probe whose decay rate is determined, must be excited with a mechanical impulse
(e.g., impact hammer) or with a burst random signal (electro-dynamic shaker) and the
time signal of the accelerometer on the structure is measured (impulse response). After
the stop of the excitation the gradual drop of the acceleration level within a certain time
can be observed in the signal. The length of this time is depending on the internal
damping of the material [39]. Additional effect, e.g., the noise radiation can act like a
damping, but this phenomenon is neglected in this investigation.
The drop of the energy level by 106 (or by 60 dB) in the measured time is called in the
acoustics the reverberation time (RT60). The Reverberation Time (RT60) is the time
that the sound pressure level takes to decrease by 60 dB after a sound source is
abruptly switched off.
The RT60 decay rate must be filtered and the envelope should be created (e.g., by
Schröder integration) in order to get the decay rates for every third octave frequency
band. The Schröder integration is necessary to avoid the random error in the decay rate
curves. The filtered T60 is considered for the further calculation of the loss factor over
the frequency by the following formula [40]:

f: is the mid frequency of a third octave band in Hz,

T60: is the decay rate for each third octave mid frequency in s.
Value of 2,2: can be derived from the energy drop to the one millionth of the initial
value.

Figure 4. 7. Schematic Representation of Vibration Decay Rate Test.

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4.8. Acoustic Emission (AE)

Acoustic emission technique is a non-destructive test that has been proved to have
significant importance in inspecting the composite materials. As the component is
under stress and undergoes defects and deformation, there will be a transient elastic
stress waves generated as a result, so the technique includes the generation,
propagation and then detection of the resulted stress waves [41].
Typically, there will be a transducer that detects the stress waves that propagate to the
surface of the material. It is worthy to mention that the ability of the sensors
(transducer) to detect the surface displacement of the investigated part is a condition to
make use of the acoustic emission technique. The transducers or sensors are most
commonly made of a piezoelectric material which are suited to be able to convert the
surface displacement resulted from the acoustic waves into a signal which then can be
recorded and stored for further analysis. Transducers are directly connected to the
measured surface with the help of special gluey or adhesive material that can enhance
the vibration transmission from the structure to the transducer.
Generally, the acoustic events are developed by applying a load from an active source.
The source is an active damage, flaw, or nonconformity in the material. The term
active belongs to the fact that at the given load, the flaw or damage is generated and
progressed. This could be considered as a major drawback of using AE technique when
compared to others that could detect passive damages. In spite of the ability of AE
technique to detect almost all the failure modes of the composite which involve (matrix
cracking, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, fiber fracture, and ply delamination), it
is not easy to distinguish among them which could be another disadvantage of the AE
method. Other limitations of using AE methods could be:
• Tendency of composite materials to attenuate and disperse of propagating
stress waves which may require using several transducers on large or
complex structures.
• Requires experienced operators to set up the system and interpret the
results because it has complex output to be understood and analysed.
• The condition of applied loading is not always reproducible.
• There is a need of extensive pre-amplification because the energy of the
AE events is relatively very small.
• Always requires a filtering off the background noise which is not an easy
task.

However, there are noticeable advantages of using AE technique for composite

materials inspection. Below are some of them:
• The deep analysed output of the AE technique can locate the “flaw” over
the entire surface of parts and structures without a point-by-point scanning
as some other non-destructive tests (NDTs) require.
• The AE technique is reasonably sensitive to small changes in defects.
• It is portable and recordable.
• The online monitoring which means a real-time continuous monitoring of
the “nonconformity” also while structures in service.

During the monitoring process of the AE, there is a challenging step includes how to
determine whether it is transient (burst) signal or continuous signal. As it is stated that
the continuous type of AE signal is belonging to friction phenomena with in the

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damaged region, it is usually disregarded in the signal processing. Thus, the

investigations and studies of AE focus on the burst type one because they are linked
with development of flaws in the composite parts [10, 25, 41].

Figure 4. 8. Schematic Representation of AE Test [41].

Figure 4. 9. The Characteristics of a Recorded Burst-type AE Event [41].

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5. INVESTIGATIONS ON (FIBER GLASS / POLYMER) SPECIMEN

Fiber reinforced composite is a rapidly growing class of materials because of the

importance of having low weight with high strength material. Mainly, polymer matrix
reinforced with fibers, such as glass, carbon, or aramid is extensively used in almost all
engineering sector applications. As reinforcement, the fiber is the most commonly used
with ceramics, metals, and polymers to have materials with the advantages of high
strength, stiffness, toughness, wear and corrosion resistance, and reduced cost. Namely,
GFRP Material is used as specimen with definite dimensions to do our tests. Thus, the
material was theoretically investigated to have an overview of it. The investigations
done are studying the influence of the fiber size on the unit cell design of such material
and doing a micromechanical analysis on a lamina of such material.

5.1. Optimization of the Fiber Size for a Fiber Glass – Epoxy Composite
5.1.1. Introduction

Over decades, many works of literature have been done to investigate the influence of
the size of different types of fibers on the overall characteristics of the composite
materials. S. T. Pinho [42] studied the effect of fiber size on the strength and toughness
of fiber reinforced composite. F. Ramsteiner [43] investigated the influence of fiber
diameter on the tensile behaviour of short-glass-fiber reinforced polymers. Hamdullah
Çuvalci [44] has researched the effect of glass fiber content on the mechanical
properties of a composite material. These researchers and others have confirmed that
the fiber diameter has significant effects on the mechanical characteristics of the
composite materials.
Glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), e.g., Glass fiber / Epoxy is a class of plastic
matrix composites that is reinforced by glass to mechanically enhance strength and
stiffness of plastics. The resin (matrix) supports the fiber and adds more protection
because of its ability of providing bonding between the two materials. As a result,
GFRP presents flexible option for structural design due to its accessibility of
manufacturing, high durability and structural efficiency (strength to weight ratio), and
low production cost [45, 46]. Thus, the GFRP use has significantly expanded to the
structural parts of airplanes, automobiles, marine, civil construction industries, sport
goods.
Although, when designing composite materials, it is normal to take the matrix
characteristics into account, in such cases, the essential factors which make changes in
the material features are fiber size (diameter, length), fiber orientation, fiber contents
and others [47]. This work studies the relationship between the fiber diameter
(optimum) and the longitudinal tensile strength when designing materials based on
representative volume element (RVE) or a unit cell, using an optimisation algorithm.

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Swarm intelligence optimisation algorithms are used to estimate the optimal size of the
glass fiber of circular cross-section of a glass-epoxy composite. Finding the best fiber
size in a composite material has significant benefits on cost reduction. A comparative
study was done to select optimal fiber diameter that can satisfy the optimal longitudinal
tensile strength. Particle Swarm Optimisation algorithm (PSO) and artificial bee colony
algorithm ABC are proposed for this comparative study.
5.1.2. Multi Scale Approach

Traditionally, simulation models were developed for one specific scale of magnitude
(Macroscopic, Microscopic or Nano). In practice, it would be impossible to compute
the vibration simulation for GFRP parts in the micro scale, because of the very fine
calculation model and the resulting huge number of elements. The general idea of the
multi-scale approach is to de-fine a context between models of different scales by
reasonably linking results of adjacent scales. The multi-scale approach is widely used
in science [48].
In this case the multi-scale method is used to derive the material properties (Young´s
modulus and density) in the macro-structure based on the detailed information in its
micro-structure. The micro-structure corresponds to the scale in which heterogeneities
can be modelled for several small and representative local sections of a part, while the
macro structure of the part is modelled homogeneously with Young´s modulus and
density values differing among defined sections.
In the macro scale model, it is assumed that the properties of each material point (node
of the macro model) can be described by mapping information from a representative
volume element (RVE). This approach was firstly suggested by Drugan and Willis
[49]. This RVE contains the information of underlying the inhomogeneous
microstructure. Original material properties like Young`s Modulus and density are used
for a classical solid mechanic analysis of the inhomogeneous RVE. In a
homogenization step substitute Young`s Modulus and density are determined for the
RVE based on the equivalence of stress and strain. These new substitute properties are
called Boundary Conditions (BC) for macro nodes and are mapped to the relevant
nodes of the macro scale model (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5. 1. Overview of Multi-scale Approach.

A Mean-Field Homogenization (MFH) is used in this step, which is based on the

relation between volume averages and stress or strain fields in each phase of a RVE. In
first-order homogenization substitute materials are computed with real constitutive
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rules (constant volume, density and energy). A typical example of MFH is the Mori-
Tanaka model [50] which is successfully applicable to two-phase composites with
identical and aligned with ellipsoidal inclusions. The single inclusion problem (2D)
was solved analytically by J.D. Eshelby [51]. 3D application has to be solved
numerically (double inclusion problem). The model assumes that each inclusion of the
RVE behaves as if it was alone in an infinite body made of the real matrix material.
The BCs in the double inclusion problem correspond to the volume average of the
strain field in the matrix phase of the real RVE.
Depending on the possible periodic distribution of the fiber in the composite materials,
the RVE or unit cell might be of square or hexagonal packing array as shown in
(Figure 5.2).

Figure 5. 2. Schematic Representation of Unit Cells.

In the theory of composite materials, the unit cell is modelled based on assumption
such as the homogeneity of the composite material [11]. Taking into consideration the
square unit cell with four fiber arrangement (Figure 3), the longitudinal tensile strength
can be calculated using the equation:

(5.1)

where :
F1t: Longitudinal Tensile Strength
Fft: Fiber Tensile Strength
vf: Fiber Volume Fraction
Em: Matrix Young’s Modulus
Ef: Fiber Young’s Modulus

Figure 5. 3. Square Unit Cell with Four-Fiber Arrangement.

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Since the volume fraction of the fiber is:

(5.2)

A direct relationship exists between the fiber and the longitudinal tensile strength.

5.1.3. Classification and Characteristics of the Glass Fiber

The two phases of the material were chosen to be glass as fiber and epoxy as a matrix.
The classifications of the most used glass fibers with their physical properties are
shown below.

Table 5. 1. Glass Fiber Main Classes and the Physical Properties.

Class of GF Physical Properties

E-Glass Higher strength and electrical resistivity

S-Glass Highest tensile strength
R-Glass Higher strength and acid corrosion resistance
C-Glass Higher Corrosion resistance
D-Glass Low dielectric constant

Based on equation (5.1), mechanical characteristics of the fiber and matrix are needed
regardless of the fiber diameter which determines the volume of the fiber consequently
by the fiber volume fraction (Vf). These characteristics are Fiber Young’s Modulus
(Ef), Matrix Young’s Modulus (Em), and Fiber Tensile Strength (Fft). Table 2 shows the
required characteristics of the glass fiber.

Table 5. 2. Glass Fiber Characteristics.

Glass Fiber Ef, GPa Fft, GPa

E-Glass 72.35 3.45

S-Glass 85 4.8
R-Glass 86 4.4
C-Glass 69 3.31
D-Glass 55 2.5

5.1.4. Classification and Characteristics of Epoxy

The contribution of epoxy resins in the composite material is by producing strength,

durability, and chemical resistance. Their performance at elevated temperature with hot
and wet service is high. Because of the outstanding adhesive ability that the epoxies
have, they are able to bond very well with different types of fiber producing composite
material with attractive properties. From this point, epoxies are taking a major part in
the polymer matrix use for composite materials. Epoxy resin is widely used as a
structural matrix in high-performance polymer composites for aeronautical and
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astronautical applications. According to many literatures, epoxy resins are classified to

many types. The table below presents some types of epoxies as a matrix with their
modulus of elasticity that required for equation (5.1).

Table 5. 3. Epoxy Characteristics.

Epoxy Em, GPa

8551-7 4.098
8552 4.667
9310/9360 @23c 3.12
9310/9360 @149c 1.4
9420/9470 (A) @23c 2.66
9420/9470 (B) @23c 2.83
HPT1072/1062-M @23C 3.383

5.1.5. Optimization Algorithm

Particle swarm optimisation PSO is a powerful and efficient optimisation algorithm

which is widely used for a wide range of applications. PSO mimics the swarm
behaviour of fish and birds, we can call the members of the swarm and the swarm itself
as particles and population respectively, and every agent is a candidate solution to the
optimisation problem. The position and velocity of a specific particle is denoted by:

where k is the index of the agent in the swarm and x is the search area while (t) is the iteration
number of the algorithm. The standard PSO is as follows

(5.3)

(5.4)

• : denote the velocity of particle k in time step (t+1) and the jth component for this velocity

• , : a random number in the range 0 to 1

• , : acceleration coefficient

• : inertia coefficient

• : inertia term

• : cognitive component

• : social component

• Equations (5.1) and (5.2) are the main rules that PSO employ for the search process.

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5.1.6. Optimization Problem

Strength problem is a maximisation optimisation problem which depends on six main

parameters, and the whole issue can be described as follow:

Consider

Maximise

(5.5)

Subject to

•
•

•
•

The above-mentioned constraints were chosen based on characteristics in Table 5.2 and
Table 5.3 considering the minimum and maximum values in these tables. Figure 5.4
shows the performance of PSO on this constrained optimisation problem where it is
required to find the best possible set of variables that can meet the requirement of the
constraints. It is worth to mention that for the set of variables in Table 5.4, the
corresponding maximum Fft is 2.8241e+09 while vf is 0.5027.

Figure 5. 4. The Convergence of the PSO on Maximum Strength Equation.

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Table 5. 4. Best Possible Results for the Constrained Problem.

Parameter d mm ax mm ay mm Em. GPa Fft. GPa Ef. GPa

Value 4.0e-05 5.0e-05 5.0e-05 5 5 40

5.1.7. Conclusion

Design of composite material based on micromechanical analysis was adapted.

Micromechanical analysis evaluates the characteristics of heterogeneous composite
layer by representing it as homogeneous – anisotropic material. The analysis estimates
the overall properties of the composite depending on other known (by tests)
characteristics of the material. So, it determines the strength and stiffness of the
composite with in the fiber, matrix, and the interface. Micromechanical analysis is
done under assumptions such as that the fibers are distributed periodically, the fibers
are infinitely long, and each layer of the materials has homogeneity of orthotropic
properties. Square RVE (unit cell) was adapted in this work.
Optimum design of Glass fiber-Epoxy composite material has been conducted through
this study. Particle swarm optimisation was used to find the best design parameters
including spatial elements of the unit cell as well as a given set of strength values for
both Glass-fiber and Epoxy. For this problem, under given constraints, PSO was
efficient enough to find the best possible design parameters within only five iterations.
The longitudinal tensile strength was optimally calculated considering the constraints
of the problem such as the fiber volume fraction which was found as 0.5027 as
optimum. From that, optimum diameter of fiber and the dimensions of the square unit
cell were also found based on equation (5.2).

5.2. Micromechanical Analysis of Glass Fiber/Epoxy Lamina

5.2.1. Introduction

When designing a composite material, the properties can be controlled by many

parameters such as fiber or matrix content (volume fraction), fiber size and spacing,
layer sequence and fiber orientation. The achievement of required properties is based
on selecting among the above parameters. For example, the strength in the fiber
direction of unidirectional composite materials is larger than this in other direction and
there is a linear increment between the fiber volume fraction and the longitudinal
Young modulus [52]. Researchers have done a lot of work on determining the
properties of composite materials by developing many analytical and numerical
methods and models. Rule of mixture or inverse rule of mixture and Halphin-Tsai are
approaches of the analytical methods. Numerical approaches include the unit cell
methods and periodic microstructure methods [52–57].
Current work deals with the evaluation of the engineering constants such as
longitudinal young modulus E1, transverse young modulus E2, in plane shear modulus
G12, and Poisson ratio Ѵ12 of unidirectional fiber reinforced composite. These
properties are calculated by theory of elasticity based on a representative volume
element (RVE) or a unit cell. The methods used are the rule of mixture (ROM),

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Halphin-Tsai, cylindrical assemblage model (CAM), and periodic microstructure

model (PMM). A square unit cell was adopted to carry out the micromechanics
calculation in this work.
Current work investigates the mechanical behaviour of a unidirectional fiber reinforced
polymer composite lamina consisting of fibers embedded in epoxy resin as a matrix.
Micromechanical analysis is done on a square-patterned unit cell of the above
composite to predict the longitudinal modulus (E1), Transverse modulus (E2), In-plane
shear modulus (G12) and Major Poisson’s ratio (Ѵ12). These engineering constants are
evaluated to three types of fiber (E-Glass, R-Glass, and S- Glass) with various fiber
volume fraction based on theory of elasticity approach. Computer Aided Design
Environment for Composites (CADEC) software is used to do the numerical analysis.
This theoretical investigation helps to realize the bearing ability of unidirectional fiber
reinforced composite subjected to longitudinal load by analyzing the engineering
design constants.

5.2.2. Micromechanical Analysis

The purpose of micromechanics is to study composite materials, considering the

constituent materials interaction in detail. It lets the analyzer to compute the
characteristics of a heterogeneous composite layer or a lamina by representing it as a
homogenous-anisotropic material [58]. Furthermore, it determines the stiffness and
strength of a composite material by studying the stresses and strains at a micro-
structural level for the fiber, matrix, and the interface of the fiber and matrix. The
results of micromechanics help to understand the load sharing between the
constituents, the fiber arrangement of the composite and its influence on the material,
as well as helping the designer to predict the average properties of the lamina and
design the material by predicting the constituent content (volume fraction), their
distribution and orientation [59]. To carry out the micromechanics analysis, there are
assumptions that must be taken into account such as that the fibers are distributed in a
periodic fashion within the matrix, fibers are infinitely long, each layer has orthotropic
properties, and the bonds between the fibers and matrix are perfect.

5.2.3. Methodology

The focus of current work is to evaluate the engineering properties of a fiber reinforced
composite material of a unidirectional fiber based on square array of RVE. The
analysis is done using analytical methods such as rule of mixture, Halphin-Tsai,
cylindrical assemblage model CAM, and periodic microstructure model PMM. These
methods were used individually to calculate modulus in the direction of the fibers E1,
modulus in the transverse-to-fiber direction E2, In-plane shear modulus G12, and In-
plane Poisson's ratio Ѵ12. All calculations are done based on the assumption that the
material is anisotropic and homogenous and all formulas are applied to a unit cell [59].

Rule of Mixture
For a unit cell, the longitudinal modulus:

(5.6)
Poisson’s ratio:

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(5.7)
where:
Ef: Fiber elastic modulus
Vf: Fiber volume fraction
Em: Matrix elastic modulus
Vm: Matrix volume fraction
Ѵf : Fiber Poisson’s ratio
Ѵm : Matrix Poisson’s ratio
Ѵ12: Poisson’s ratio for plane 1-2

Inverse Rule of Mixture

The modulus that is perpendicular to fiber direction (Transverse Modulus) E2:

(5.8)

Halpin-Tsai Equation
The results of this equation are more accurate and beneficial for analytical evaluation and design
purposes

(5.9)
where:

(5.10)

for circular and square fiber, for rectangular fiber

Cylindrical Assemblage Model (CAM) Formula

Shear Modulus in the 1-2 Planes G12:

(5.11)

where: Gm: Matrix Shear Modulus

Gf: Fiber shear modulus

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Periodic Micro-Structure Model (PMM) Formula

(5.12)

where: .[59]

5.2.4. Materials

The study is carried out on three types of materials which are E-galss/Epoxy, S-
glass/Epoxy, and R-glass/Epoxy with different fiber volume fraction Vf, and the results
are compared and analyzed.
Glass fiber in general is formed from bulk glass. Glass is an amorphous substance
manufactured from a blend of sand, limestone, and other oxidic compounds. Thus, the
main chemical constituent of glass fibers (45–75%) is silica (SiO2).
There are various types of glass fibers have been found by controlling the chemical
composition and the manufacturing processes [59]. All types can have the typical glass
properties such as hardness, corrosion resistance, light weight, and low cost, leading to
make glass fibers one of the most used fiber in industrial composite materials. The
glass fiber types are E, D, C, S, and R glass which they all have similar stiffness but
different strength and different resistance atmosphere degradation resistance. The types
used in this study are E-glass (E for electric) which used with applications that need
high strength and high chemical resistance. S-Glass (S for strength), has high strength
but it is very costly comparing with other types. R- Glass is the European version of
American high-performance S-Glass. It is distinguished by the high strength and
modulus, high temperature resistance, and good fatigue stability [60].

Table 5. 5. Chemical Compositions of Glass Fibers In wt%.

Type (SiO2) (Al2O3) Tio2 B2o3 CaO MgO Na2O K2o

E-glass 55.0 14.0 0.2 7.0 22.0 1.0 0.5 0.3
S-glass 65.0 25.0 n.d n.d n.d 10.0 n.d n.d
R-glass 60 24 n.d n.d 9.0 6.0 5.0 0.1

Table 5. 6. The Properties of the Used Constituents of the Composite Materials.

Material Modulus (GPa) Poisson’s Ratio

E-Glass 72 0.22
S-Glass 85 0.22
R-Glass 86 0.25
Epoxy 4.667 0.35

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5.2.5. Results and Discussion

Current analysis tries to distinguish among three types of laminas consisting of glass
fibers embedded in epoxy matrix, by evaluating the engineering constants. The three
types of glass fibers are E-glass, S-glass, and R-glass. Different Micromechanics
formulas based on different approached are used to predicts some of the constants and
then study them by comparing between the results.
The longitudinal modulus is evaluated for all types of materials by the ROM methods
and a comparison among the results is made as shown in the Figure 5.5.

Figure 5. 5. Variation of E1 with Fiber Volume Fraction for all Fibers.

• For all suggested volume fractions vf, the longitudinal young’s modulus E1 of
the E-glass / Epoxy is lower than those of R-glass / Epoxy and S-glass / Epoxy
which they seemed to have very close young’s modulus all over the variation of
vf. (see Fig.5.6).
• The longitudinal young’s modulus E1 increases linearly with increase in fiber
volume fraction for all the three types of composites materials proving the fact
that the strength of the unidirectional fiber composite is as high as the fiber
volume fraction high since the fiber is stiffer and stronger.

As shown in the Figures 5.6-5.14, that for each material the transverse modulus E2 is
calculated in two ways, rule of mixture ROM and Halphin-Tsai.
The in-plane shear modulus G12 is evaluated by the cylindrical assemblage model
CAM and the periodic microstructure model PMM.
The in-plane Poisson’s ratio for each type of materials is calculated based on the ROM
and PMM.
Comparison is made between each two different results of each constant. Furthermore,
variation of longitudinal young modulus with the volume fraction for all types of
composite materials is done. From above graphs, some findings can be stated
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(E-Glass / Epoxy lamina)

Figure 5. 6.Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

• The transverse young’s modulus E2 increases linearly with increase in fiber

volume fraction for all the three types of composites materials up to 80 % of
volume fraction and rapid increase happens after that.
• For all three types of materials, the magnitude of E2 computed by ROM is much
lower than this computed by Halphin-Tsai methods for all fiber volume
fractions, pulling to the mind the fact that the ROM equation under-estimates the
actual value for E2 while the Halphin-Tsai methods gives more accurate results
of it (see Figs.5.6, 5.9, 5.12).

Figure 5. 7. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

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Figure 5. 8. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

(R- Glass / Epoxy lamina)

Figure 5. 9. Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

Figure 5. 10. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

• In plane shear modulus G12 increases linearly with increase in fiber volume
fraction for all the three types of composites materials, but, after 80% of the Vf,
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there is noticeable difference of G12 computed by CAM and PMM methods

(see Figs.5.7, 5.10, 5.14).

Figure 5. 11. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

(S- Glass / Epoxy lamina)

Figure 5. 12. Variation of E2 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

Figure 5. 13. Variation of Ѵ12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

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Figure 5. 14. Variation of G12 with Fiber Volume Fraction.

• For all composites, Poisson’s ratio Ѵ12 is decreasing with increasing the fiber
volume fraction. However, for E-Glass/Epoxy, the magnitude of Ѵ12 computed
by ROM tries to stay at same level at the beginning of the curve, but rapid
decrease happens after that making noticeable difference with the magnitude of
this computed by PMM (see Figs.5.8, 5.11, 5.13).
Generally, it can be seen that the longitudinal modulus E1 is increasing with the
increase of fiber volume fraction. Also, there is a linear increment of the transverse
modulus E2 with the increment of fiber volume fraction. In addition, in plane Shear
modulus G12 increases linearly with increase in fiber volume fraction for all the three
types of glass fibers. However, for all composites, Poisson’s ratio Ѵ12 is decreasing
with increasing the fiber volume fraction.

5.2.6. Conclusion

This work is carried out to evaluate several elastic constants for three types of
unidirectional fiber reinforced composite materials (E-glass/Epoxy, S-Glass/Epoxy, R-
Glass/Epoxy), using some approaches of composite materials micromechanics. Focus
has been given to distinguish among the three types of the glass fibers. Square unit cell
is used with all necessary assumptions and CADEC software is used to compute the
engineering constants.
Elastic moduli E1 results are used to make comparison between the glass fiber types
and are calculated using the ROM equation. The results of E2 are found using the
ROM methods and Halphin-Tsai methods and are analyzed and compared between the
three types. Moreover, G12 is evaluated using the two methods CAM and PMM with
highlighting the results of each method. Poisson’s ratio Ѵ12 is also calculated with
ROM and PMM for all three types of composite materials. Current theoretical
investigation findings assist the designers and analyzers to expand their engineering
knowledge about unidirectional fiber reinforced composite and its design process
parameters. Future work will include a finite element results and comparison will be
done. A macro-mechanics analysis of a laminate will also be of a future interest study.

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6. EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS FOR INVISTIGATING THE

NVH CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITE VEHICLE
COMPONENTS THROUGH VISIBLE AND NOT VISIBLE DAMAGES

6.1. Introduction

Composite materials, e.g., fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), are more and more utilized
in the vehicle and machine industry. FRP components can show damages that are not
visible after impact or crash. A component that is damaged (even not visibly) loses its
load capacity, its original energy absorption capacity and its Noise, Vibration and
Harshness (NVH) behaviour can change significantly.
This experiment presents the investigation of the Noise, Vibration and Harshness
(NVH) behaviour of damaged and not damaged fiber reinforced polymer FRP test
probes with simple geometry. For that purpose, artificial defect/failure generation
procedure for the test probes will be developed and applied. Afterwards some NVH
measures, e.g., natural frequencies, modal damping and mode shapes will be evaluated.
The results will show on the one hand the sensitivity of the measurement method for
damages and on the other hand the change of the NVH characteristics of the probes
through damages.
In order to understand the change of the NVH behaviour of FRP vehicle components
through certain damages (e.g., fiber or matrix cracks) for the first instance the
investigation of simple test specimen is recommended. For that purpose, we organized
overall 20 pieces of specimen, which makes the repetition of the planned investigations
is possible, respectively do some statistics. The generation procedure of the damages
on the specimen should be also considered. The high-speed impact of balls, bullets, etc.
by means of drop tests, or gun seems to be simply realized.
One of the test methods, which can describe the NVH characteristics of a structure, is
the modal analysis. The method delivers the modal frequencies, mode shapes and
modal damping where the parameters can be more or less responsible for the NVH
behaviour of a vehicle. If the excitation meets a modal frequency, and the mode shape
at that modal frequency has good radiation efficiency or the path of vibration transfer
from that part to another in the vehicle is sufficient, this method will be applied for the
investigations. After getting the results of the modal test, they will be analyzed, and the
change of the modal behaviour between undamaged and damaged specimen will be
explained. At the end the eligibility, respectively the sensitivity of the modal analysis
method for crack detection at FRP should be verified.
The general composition of FRP is fiber (carbon, glass, etc.) and resin (polymer). The
common types of fibers are aramed, glass, carbon and basalt.
The resin can be of two categories:
- Thermoset Resins: it is common in structural uses. it cannot be reformed.
- Thermoplastic Resins: It has the property to be reformed.
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Common Types of Thermoset Resin are polyester, vinyl ester, polyurethane, and
epoxy.

6.2. The Test Specimen

For the further investigations we selected a glass reinforced plastic plate with the
material type of MF GC 201 (melamine resin laminate) due to the simple accessibility,
and similar types are often used by vehicles. The specimen had a simple rectangular
shape with the dimensions of 500x200x3 mm (Figure 6.1).

Figure 6. 1. The Rectangular FRP Test Specimen.

6.3. Possible Damages in Composites

The mechanism of damages in composite materials is not easily predicted and

understood due to the nature of the material. Defects and fracture generally may occur
during the manufacturing process or service life of the structure or parts. The damage
mechanisms in a fibrous composite are broadly categorized as:

A- Micro-level damage: This can be classified into fiber level damage and matrix
level damage mechanisms. Regarding the both level, there are many damages occur
such as (fiber breaking, fiber buckling, fiber bending, fiber splitting, and matrix
cracking).
B- Macro-level damage: The macro-level mechanisms are laminate level
mechanisms. It is seen that the adjacent layers are bonded together by a thin layer of
resin between them. This interface layer transfers the displacement and force from one
layer to another layer. When this interface layer weakens or damages completely, it
causes the adjacent layers to separate. This mode of failure is called delamination.
C- Coupled Micro-Macro Level Failure Mechanisms: The through thickness
transverse crack may propagate to neighbouring lamina causing it to break. (Ever
2010).

6.4. Generation of Artificial Damage in the Composite Specimen

In order to generate any type of damages (e.g., matrix cracks) in the material of the test
specimen, several experiments were performed. For the first considerations we thought
about a simple bearing ball drop test. Within our possibilities we could only reach
roughly 8.5 m drop height in the building of our institute, which proved as not
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sufficient to generate any damage. In this case the maximum kinetic energy of the
falling ball with m = 20 g weight was approx. Ekin = 1.6 J. We also increased the ball
weight to m = 40 g, resp. Ekin = 3.2 J, without success. We could not even find the
place of the ball-specimen contact.
Thus, we utilized an air gun, type Diana 300R cal.177, which has the kinetic energy of
Ekin = 7.5 J at the muzzle. The gun “fires” lead pellets with the weight of m = 0.53g
with a calculated speed at the muzzle of 170 m/s. After firing with this air gun from 10
m distance we could find the contact place, with a small, flat buckle. The hit could be
detected also on the back side of the plate. After the repetition of the shots from 7,5m,
5m, and 2,5 m we could only detect the small flat buckles without any cracks of the
specimen.
At the next firing tests, we reduced the distance to the specimen to 1.5 m and we shot
two times. At the first shot we could see only a small buckle (Figure 2 left: 1st impact),
but by the 2nd shot the specimen has cracked, we could produce a crack with a length
of 70 mm (Figure 6.2 left and right). So, we used that cracked specimen for the further
investigations.

Figure 6. 2. Damage of the Specimen (left: side of the impact; right: back side)

6.5. Methodology

For many years, modal analysis has been used to investigate vibration characteristics of
mechanical components, including aerospace components and rotational machinery.
Lately, the field of modal testing has been extended towards testing of existing
structures to comment on serviceability and loss in performance through eventual
degradation of individual components. A gradual change in material performance,
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promoted by the progression of the above-mentioned factors, will most likely result in
changes in the variation characteristics. Herein, modal frequencies, mode shapes and
damping properties of structural components. These can be extracted through modal
testing, which has proven suitable for in-situ testing of structures, even on the large
scale. In the following section, the methodology employed in modal testing will be
outlined and discussed.
To excite a structure for modal measurements, two methods of excitation can be
chosen, namely input-output (active excitation) and output only (operational
excitation). Input-output methods of excitation involve a contact procedure in which an
exciting function is introduced to initiate vibration of the structure. Typical forms of
excitation entail impact hammers, drop weights, shakers or displacement-release.
The waveforms used in modal analysis can be of various natures, including harmonic
and random input, as well as impulsive excitation. Output only excitation is present if
the structure is in service and under some form of external excitation, e.g., traffic or
wind loads.
In field testing, dynamic properties are extracted by placing several motion sensors
(commonly accelerometers) at predetermined locations along the structure. To suit the
need for full-motion recording, triaxial accelerometers are commonly given preference.
The objective of placing sensors in multiple locations is to attain a sufficient amount of
frequency response functions (FRF), such that individual modes can be identified from
the modal test. Herein, the highest measurable mode depends largely on the optimal
placement of accelerometers; i.e., the extraction of higher modes demands a higher
number of accelerometers [61].

6.6. Performing the Test

Before performing the tests, we defined overall 30 measurement points on the plate, to
be able to represent also the mode shapes, which tend to have more local displacement,
than global. This number of points should be sufficient enough for that. The distance of
the points was 50 mm along the long side, and 75 mm along the short side of the plate
(visible on Figure 1.). Measurement point Nr. 30 was also the excitation point.
For the measurements we used test equipment B&K Pulse frontend, B&K Pulse
Labshop, B&K 4397 uniaxial accelerometer, and Endevco 2202-10 impact hammer.
We decided to perform the fixed hammer excitation method. The schematic
representation of the measurement setup is described in Figure 3 [62]. We laid the plate
on both ends on elastic foam supports and placed 1 accelerometer on the 1st
measurement point. After that we hit on the excitation point, 10 times, the recorded
FRFs were averaged. We repeated the measurement also for the remaining
measurement points.
We checked during the test the quality of the FRFs, the coherences, the spectrum and
time signal of the excitation (e.g., to avoid double hits). A typical FRF, coherence and
auto power spectrum of excitation is shown in Figure 6.4. The quality of the measured
seems to be ok, the excitation shows no significant drop of level over the frequency,
the coherence, beside a few anti-resonances, is high, reaches the value of nearly 1.
Before the test on the probe, which was cracked by the shots, we also performed the
recording a few FRFs on 6 probes with the same material and dimension (incl. the
probe which was cracked later). The goal was to see the scatter of the resonance
frequencies on similar/same probes. The FRFs showed no significant differences
between the resonance frequencies.

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Figure 6. 3. Typical Excitation Spectrum, FRF and Coherence During the Measurements (upper:
autopower of excitation; middle: FRF; lower: coherence).

6.7. Results of the Test

At first sight on the average of the transfer functions (Figure 6.5), no significant
difference can be seen in the overall characteristics of the FRFs. From 550 Hz there is
some difference, but this is rather due to the poor excitation level, and the high
damping of the material. Beyond that frequency no more distinct resonances can be
found in the FRFs.
If we look at the individual resonances (roughly 20 pieces up to 500 Hz) in the range
from 110 to 190 Hz (Figure 6.6), differences in level of the peaks, and missing resp.
new peaks can be found in the averaged FRF of the cracked plate compared to the
uncracked one.
It can be stated that an existing crack in the material causes the appear and the
disappear of certain resonances. Presumably the modes are not appearing/disappearing,
they are always there, but due to the crack they will be simply better or worse excited,
depending on the frequency, mode shape and damping.
By performing the complete modal analysis, the assumption before could be boosted.
That means the resonance peaks changing (appearing or disappearing) significantly,
where a large relative displacement between the measurement points in the surrounding
of the crack of a mode shape can be observed. On our cracked specimen the crack is
ranging approximately from the measurement point 14 to 20, and here also a large
displacement can be observed.
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Figure 6. 4. The Average of the Measured FRFs for the Uncracked and Cracked Specimen (from
20 to 800 Hz).

Figure 6. 5. The Average of the Measured FRFs for the Uncracked and Cracked Specimen (from
100 to 200 Hz).

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Figure 6. 6. Two Mode Shapes of the Cracked Plate by 132 Hz (left) and 142 Hz (right),
Displacement in the Z direction.

6.8. Conclusion

The modal analysis can help in certain ideal conditions to detect a crack in FRP
material. The method can only work in the low frequency range due to the poor
excitation with impact hammers over 800 Hz. With an excitation with a light shaker
this limit can be raised, but due to the gradually growing modal density the
investigation of single resonances and modes will be difficult. In this case we know
about the crack, so we were waiting some change in the modal behaviour of the
specimen (the previous mentioned ideal condition). In real cases by a relatively
complex shaped vehicle component other effects have to be considered, even a not
optimal support of the component by the test can cause some change in the modal
behaviour. The modal analysis still has to be more investigated for the purpose of crack
detection in FRP, but also in general for other types of material. At the time of writing
this work, only a single test is existing, so the test has to be repeated several times, in
order to obtain the sensitivity of the method for external influences and for the crack
generation.

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7. DAMAGE DETECTION IN A FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPONENT BY

THE VIBRATION DECAY RATE AND THE DAMPING BEHAVIOUR

7.1. Introduction

Failures of composite materials due to poor anticipations of damages occur very

frequently. Damages in composite materials may exist as visible or non-visible with
different configurations and identities. Thus, investigation of damages existence in
composite materials has to have a prior attention to avoid the failure of structures.
Damages may arise in the FRP components during operation putting the structure in a
risk [7]. Due to the heterogynous microstructure of the materials and big difference of
the constituent’s properties, the mechanism of the damage is not smoothly predicted
and understood. Also, the interface presence and the fiber orientations give anisotropy
in overall properties of the materials [7, 8].
The diagnosed damages of composite materials are broadly classified under three main
categories based on the structure of the material. These main categories are the micro-
structure level, the macro-structure level, and the coupled micro-macro level
mechanism failure. Under all three levels, the damages of composite materials could be
[9]:
• Fiber Fracture
• Fiber Bending
• Fiber Buckling
• Matrix Cracking
• Delamination
• Fiber deboning
• Others.

In order to have an early prediction of existence of visible or non-visible damages in

composite structure and avoid failure, many structural health monitoring (SHM)
methods have been revealed. Among these methods are guided waves method, acoustic
emission methods, wave field imaging, modal analysis, frequency response function
method, and others [9, 10]. Thus, a lot of attention has been paid to the issue of
damages detection in composite materials structures using acoustic emission and
vibration-based methods [46, 63–69].
Vibration based damage detection methods are among the most widely used methods
in the topic of SHM for composite structure [70, 71]. Many researchers have been
studying the vibration characteristics in structural damage detections [72, 73] and
particularly for composite structure [46, 63, 69, 74–78].
On the other hand, the damping properties of composite materials are superior to other
metallic materials. Since, the assessment of damping properties of composites is not an
easy process, they are not commonly considered in the design and analysis
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processes[79]. Few researches and reviews were done regarding the topics of
composite materials damping [80–82]. However, damping of composites is distinctly
higher than that of other traditional engineering materials. Based on the designed
composite part, the damping depends on the fiber properties, the matrix properties, the
interface between them, the number of lamina and their sequence, and the attached
viscoelastic layers if exist[83].
Considering that the damages of composite materials have an effect on the vibration
decay rate, this chapter includes using the experimental measured decay rate to predict
the damage presence on the specimen. The measured decay rate shows an estimation of
the dynamic behaviour of the target part[84]. The focus of the current investigation is
to do laboratory work for measuring the vibration decay rate of a FRP composite
component.
In addition to that, Current chapter investigates the damping response offered by a
damaged fiber reinforced polymer plate. The plate is put under three different
conditions regarding the damage existence. The focus is to measure the loss factor in
all cases and determine whether there is difference among them to prove damage
presence in the composite part. The loss factor is experimentally measured by
measuring the vibration decay time RT60. The resulted data of loss factor show a well
distinguished difference that might lead to predict damages, and to do more expanded
analysis of this issue.
The focus of this experimental investigation is to analyse damping response of a
composite plate made of glass fiber reinforced polymer in order to predict damage
existence.
The loss factor which is obtained through the measurement of the decay time RT60 is
measured for the three cases of the plate. The obtained data of each one is investigated
individually and compared with each other attempting to conclude an overview of
damages presence in the tested component.
The composite material specimen undergoes three different states based on the damage
existence in it. In each state, the decay rate is done and the result data is measured.
Distinguish the difference in the response of the dynamic behaviour in each case is
analysed and considered to indicate the damage existence.

7.2. Vibration Decay Rate

Generally, there are several methods for the experimental determination of the
damping of materials. One of these methods is the determination of the vibration decay
rate, which gives a relatively simple method for the loss factor determination [38].
The measurement of vibration decay rate is pretty like the measurement of the acoustic
decay rate, which is well known in the room acoustics. The only difference is the usage
of vibration sensor, e.g., accelerometer instead of microphones. The probe whose
decay rate is determined, must be excited with a mechanical impulse (e.g., impact
hammer) or with a burst random signal (electro-dynamic shaker) and the time signal of
the accelerometer on the structure is measured (impulse response). After the stop of the
excitation the gradual drop of the acceleration level within a certain time can be
observed in the signal. The length of this time is depending on the internal damping of
the material [39]. Additional effect, e.g., the noise radiation can act like a damping, but
this phenomenon is neglected in this investigation. More details about the decay rate
are already provided in section 4.7.

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7.3. Damping of Materials

Materials have the capacity to extinct the vibration energy which is introduced to them.
The reason for this is the internal friction or damping in materials, which can be caused
by a variety of combinations of fundamental physical mechanisms, depending upon the
specific material.
For metals, these mechanisms include thermo-elasticity on both the micro and macro
scales, grain boundary viscosity, point-defect relaxations, eddy-current effects, stress-
induced ordering, and electronic effects[39].
For non-metallic materials, such as polymers and elastomers, the physical micro-
mechanisms operative is also known, and considerable phenomenological data have
been obtained. Due to the long-range molecular order associated with their giant
molecules, polymers exhibit rheological behaviour intermediate between that of a
crystalline solid and a simple liquid. The damping and stiffness are markedly
depending on frequency and temperature.
The loss factors correspond to pure internal damping, thus radiation losses and the
damping at the connections of some compounds (e.g. spot-welded connections) must
be separately treated [85].
The damping behaviour can be described with several measures; the mainly used are
shown below:
Bandwidth of half-power points under steady-state sinusoidal excitation,
Loss tangent under steady-state sinusoidal excitation (tan φ),
Logarithmic decrement (Λ),
Loss factor (η),
Damping ratio (ξ),
Lehr’s damping (D) etc.
There are certain interrelationships among these measures, e.g.:

(7.1)

7.4. The Relation between Loss Factor and Decay Time

Damping loss factor gives an indication about the dissipated energy in the structure. It
is a dimensionless quantity that defines as the ratio of amount of energy dissipated per
radian to the total energy of the system[86]. Or it is the ratio of the power dissipated
Dp , the total stored mechanical energy E, and the angular frequency ω [87].

ω (7.2)

where ω is the angular frequency where the loss factor calculated.

However, the estimation of the loss factor is also possible by the measurement of
vibration decay time RT60.
RT60 is defined as the time at within which the energy of the vibration is reduced to
one millionth of its initial value (-60 dB). In other words it could be defined as the time
in which the signal level is decreased by 60 dB after the source has been switched off
[88].
As mentioned in section 4.7, the filtered RT60 is related to loss factor over the
frequency by the following formula [36]:

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RT60 (7.3)

where
f: is the mid frequency of a third octave band in Hz.
RT60: is the decay rate for each third octave mid frequency in s.
The value of 2,2 is derived from the energy drop to the one millionth of the initial
value.

Figure 7. 1. Decay Rate Curve

7.5. Experimental Work

7.5.1. The Test Specimen

For the investigations, a material type of MF GC 201 (melamine resin laminate) is

selected. It is a glass reinforced polymer that consists of several layers of glass cloth
impregnated with melamine. The specimen has a simple rectangular shape with the
dimensions of 500 x 200 x 3 mm. The material tensile strength is 150 MPa while the
compressive strength is 275 MPa. The modulus of elasticity of the material is 1400
MPa.
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7.5.2. Creating Damages in the Specimen

Artificial Damage is created by the same way mentioned in section 6.4. Thus, the
specimen was tested three times based on the conditions undamaged, damaged1, and
damaged 2.

Figure 7. 2. The Test Specimen with Three Conditions.

7.5.3. Test Equipment

• B&K Pulse data acquisition

• B&K 4397 accelerometer
• Impact hammer (hand-made from a B&K 4397 accelerometer)
• The software
The specimen is elastically supported as it is shown in the schematic representation of the test set
up which is already explained in figure 4.7 of chapter 4.

7.5.4. Performing the Test

Three excitation points and one measurement point were determined to perform the
hits and record the results. The first excitation points is the middle of the specimen,
while the second and third were (10, 10) and (3, 5) from the lower edge respectively.
The measurement point is horizontally in the middle and vertically in the upper one-
third of the part.
As mentioned, the test is done three times according to the three different conditions of
the specimen. First time, the specimen is free of damages while the second time the
specimen is damaged, but the crack is barely seen by eye supposing that there are
damages in the microstructure of the part which may be detected by the resulting
signal. The third test is done when the specimen is fully cracked as there is a gap in the
spacemen.
During each time of the test, the excitation points are respectively hit ten times by the
hammer and the recorded data were averaged. All recorded data are analysed by the
Room Acoustic Wizard software and graphs are generated.

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7.6. Test Results

7.6.1. Vibration Decay Rate

The graph (7.7) shows the RT60 of all three states together. As it is clear in figure 7,
over 1000 Hz, there is a big difference can be seen among the three of them. The
damaged condition no.2 (grey line) showing the highest RT60 conflicting the fact that
a part of the material (a fragment) is missing, so the internal material damping is less.
Same fact can be applied to the damaged case no.1 (orange line) considering that there
is a crack so there is micro-displacement between the crack surfaces (Coulomb-
friction), so the damping is increased compared to the original specimen. In accordance
with the results above, the presence of damages can be estimated by the vibration
decay rate in specific condition.

Figure 7. 3. RT 60 Decay Rate of the Three Cases.

7.6.2. The Loss Factor

Figure (8.6) shows the relation of the loss factors for the three different damage conditions of the
same specimen. Up to 1000 Hz there is no difference in damping behaviour. Beyond 1000 Hz
significant differences of the loss factors can be observed.
The loss factor of the damaged-1 specimen is three times higher as that of the original. The
damage-1 condition means only a barely visible crack in the plate, so that micro-sliding occurs.
This is producing the Coulomb-friction between the cracked surfaces, which is finally dissipating
the vibration energy faster than in the original condition.
In case of damaged-2, material area of (0.5 x 2 cm) is cracked out from the specimen, so this
area fragment is practically missing. In this case, over 1000 Hz, the loss factor is roughly half as
high as in original condition. Due to the missing material fragment the Coulomb-friction cannot
take effect, so the loss factor is reduced. In addition, the missing material fragment means also
less internal damping generating micro-mechanisms, with the result of less damping than the
original. It is quite surprising, that so small missing part causes a significant drop of the loss
factor.

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As it is shown in the two graphs that the difference among the three conditions of the specimens
are clear over 100 Hz. This can be explained as the modal behaviour (the mode shapes) of the
plate is the main reason for that frequency range. As it shown that n this frequency range (1000 -
4000Hz) the mode shapes are affected strongly by the cracks. The dimension of the specimen,
the length of the crack, the gab created, and the material type are all causing such frequency
ranges because these factors all have influence on the dambing of the materials.

Figure 7. 4. The Loss Factor of the Three Cases.

7.7. Conclusion

As the composite materials usage has been significantly increased in major industry
fields, the monitoring of damages presence in the composite parts and structure has to
take a major importance. The damages in composite materials might exist non-visibly
due to fatigue or crack. Thus, acoustic emission methods are used to predict damages
existence in composite structure. Vibration decay rate is an acoustic method that has
been used in this experimental investigation. The investigation used a composite
material specimen that is made of glass fiber reinforced polymer. The specimen is put
under three different damage conditions. The first is free of damages and the other two
are different damage levels. The measured RT60 showed a clear difference after
1000 Hz of frequency between all three cases proving that this method is able to
estimate the presence of damages in the part.
The damping response is studied under three different conditions based on damage existence.
Firstly, the plate is investigated as free of damages. After that, two artificial damages are made
respectively in the plate and studied separately.
The loss factor is measured for all cases to determine whether there is difference among them in
order to prove damage presence in the composite part. The measurement of the loss factor is
experimentally done by evaluating the vibration decay time RT60. A well-distinguished
difference is revealed by the resulted data proving the difference occurring by the damages of the
plate. The results may lead to expand the research by focusing on the location and identity of the
damages.

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8. MODAL ANALYSIS OF PRE-TENSILE-LOADED COMPOSITE PLATES

8.1. Introduction
The goal of the investigation was to determine the modal behaviour of the specimen with
different preload condition, resp. with different material damage condition resulting from the
tensile loading. Two specimens with different geometry were used for the tests. The first one was
a probe with 250x25x3 mm dimensions, the second was slightly different, with the same surface
area but with 5 mm thickness. The specimen was put into a tensile pull machine and was loaded
with different loads. The 3 mm thick probes were loaded with forces, which caused 2 mm, 4 mm
and 6 mm length extension. The 4th probe was kept unloaded; it served as the reference probe.
Similar to that the 5 mm thick probes were also loaded, with 2,5 mm, 5 mm and 7,5 mm length
extension of the probes. The 4th was kept unloaded. After loading the probes, the force was
released, so the probes could take their unloaded length. The goal of the tensile loads was to
create damages inside material structure of the probes.

8.2. Experimental Work

8.2.1. Specimen

Two composite plates of (250x25x5) mm and (250x25x3) mm were used in this test. The plates
are made of glass fiber reinforcing epoxy resin. The specimens were provided by Quattroplast
Hungary Company.

Table 8. 1. The Material Technical Data Sheet (Quattroplast Company).

Property Unit Method Value

Density g/cm3 DIN EN ISO 1183 1.9
Flexural modulus MPa ISO 178 24000
Tensile strength (parallel) MPa ISO 527 300
Compressive strength MPa ISO 604 350
(perpendicular)
Flexural stress at rupture MPa ISO 178 340
(perpendicular)
Interlaminar resistance N DIN 53463 3000
Compressive strength MPa ISO 604 180
(parallel)
Impact strength, Charpy kJ/m2 ISO 179 33
(parallel)

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8.2.2. Measurement Setup

The probes were put onto a TIRA TV 50009 electrodynamic vibration test system (shaker) as
shown in figure 8.1. The shaker can provide a 9 N excitation force as maximum. The probes
were mounted sequentially on the shaker interconnected with a PCB 288D01 impedance head.
The probes were glued on the mounting plate of the impedance head with HBM X60 two
components cold curing glue at the half length of the probes. With the impedance head the
exciting force and the vibrational acceleration at the exciting point could be measured.
Roughly 90 mm from the middle of the probe (only one side) a reflective patch was fixed on the
probe surface. At this point the vibration of the probe due to the excitation was measured with an
out of plane laser doppler vibrometer Ometron VH-1000 (B&K 8338).
The measured signals (force, acceleration, velocity) were connected to a 4 channel DAQ (B&K
Photon +). The measurement software created the desired functions, in this case the frequency
response functions (FRF) between force and acceleration (m/s2/N) and force and velocity
(m/s/N), the coherences for each FRFs. The FRF acceleration over force (a/F) is called inertance,
the velocity over force (v/F) is called mobility.

Figure 8. 1. The Test Set Up.

8.3. Results and Discussion

The FRF functions, inertance and mobility were represented in diagrams for each probe (Figure
8.2). The curves are showing the resonance frequencies of the probes. Additionally, a FEM
model of the probe was created and FEM calculations were performed in order to determine the
mode shapes for each resonance frequency. (Performing the FEM calculation was easier and
faster than to perform a measurement, since for the measurement roughly 40 points had to be
measured sequentially on the probe to represent the probe geometry with a proper accuracy.)
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The FRRs are showing that the resonance frequencies of the unloaded probe have higher
frequency resonances than the loaded ones. The differences in frequencies for each resonance
(for unloaded and max. loaded (7,5 mm) probe) are the following (Table 8.1):

Table 8. 2. Differences of the Resonance Frequencies of the Unloaded and Max. loaded Probe of
(5mm Thickness).

Nr. Unloded Max. loaded Difference

probe probe
1. 323 Hz 311 Hz 12 Hz
2. 1635 Hz 1615 Hz 23 Hz
3. 4054 Hz 3910 Hz 144 Hz
4. 7525 Hz 7128 Hz 398 Hz
5. 11466 Hz 10938 Hz 528 Hz
6. 15915 Hz 15280 Hz 635 Hz

The results are showing that the damage of the probe material due to external loading through a
tensile test machine has a significant effect on the resonance frequencies of the probes. It means
that the probes behave less stiff as in unloaded condition. This behaviour can be explained
through the damage of the matrix or the glass fiber. Which of them, resp. in which dimension is
responsible for the stiffness falling can only be explained with CT tests which is shown in the
next chapter.

Figure 8. 2. The Resonance Frequencies of the First Specimen (5mm thick).

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Going upwards in the frequency axis the mode shapes became more and more complex. The
global modes (e.g., the first bending mode) are less affected; the more complex modes are more
affected from the internal material damage.
The above-described behaviour also can be noticed for the probes with less extension (2,5 mm
and 5 mm), of course with less difference in the resonance frequencies.

8.4. Computed Tomography (CT) Scanning of the Specimen

Figure 8.3 shows some CT scan views of the specimen. In order to figure out the change in the
microstructure, the focus was on the woven fabric in the front view.
At First sight, it is not clear that there is flaw or defect in the material constituents between the
unloaded and the loaded cases of the specimen. Thus, to invistigate more deeply, Distances
between every two points of the woven fabric of the unloaded and the maximum loaded
specimen are measured.

Figure 8. 3. CT Scanning Views of the Specimen.

The results show that approximately the distances between the points in the woven fiber of the
microstructure image in the unloaded case is 1.004 mm while in the max loaded case is 1.57 mm
as it shown in figure 8.4.
This could be also an indication of the damage effect because there is a different displacement
between the measured points of two specimens. It might be an indication of beginning of damage
such as fiber matrix debonding or delamination.
Although there is very slight displacement between the woven fibers, it is clear that the modal
analysis method is more sensitive to detect such damages.

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Figure 8. 4. Distance Between the Tow Points of the Woven Fiber in the Specimens (left:
unloaded), (right: the max.loaded).

8.5. Conclusions

The modal behavior of glass fiber reinforced epoxy specimen with different pre-tensile loaded
conditions is studied. The found results show that the damage of the probe material due to
external tensile loading has a significant effect on the resonance frequencies of the probes. The
probes behave less stiff as in unloaded condition. This behavior can be explained through the
damage of the matrix or the glass fiber. CT scan is done to the specimens and the results shows
an indication of damge in materials becasue there is slight displacemet between the woven fiber
which can be explained as begining of fiber delamination or fiber matrix debonding. It is clearly
indicated in this investigation that the modal analysis method is more sensitive to detect such
damages.

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9. THESIS

1. I used particle swarm optimization (PSO) to find the best design parameters including
spatial elements of the unit cell as well as a given set of strength values for both Glass-
fiber and Epoxy. A comparative study is done to select optimal fiber diameter that can
satisfy the optimal longitudinal tensile strength. Thus, I proved that PSO was efficient
enough to find the best possible design parameters within only five iterations [K2].

2. I used the micromechanical theories to prove that the longitudinal modulus E1 is

increasing with the increase of fiber volume fraction. Also, there is a linear increment of
the transverse modulus E2 with the increment of fiber volume fraction. In addition, in
plane Shear modulus G12 increases linearly with increase in fiber volume fraction for all
the three types of glass fibers. However, for all composites, Poisson’s ratio Ѵ12 is
decreasing with increasing the fiber volume fraction. The investigation is done on three
types of glass fibers reinforced polymer lamina [K5].

3. I investigated the noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) behavior of damaged and not
damaged fiber reinforced polymer FRP plate by using the modal analysis method. The
results that we found showed that the modal analysis is an effective tool for detecting
such damages because it is clearly observed that the method is sensitive of to the damage
existence. Also, it is indicated that there are changes in the NVH characteristics of the
specimens due to the damages [K1].

4. I experimentally used the vibration decay rate as a method to detect damages in a FRP
component. Measurement of reverberation time RT60 is executed in three different
damage conditions of a specimen made of fiber reinforced polymer. I proved that the
method is able to estimate the presence of damages in the part as the measured RT60
showed a clear difference over 1000 Hz of frequency between all three cases (undamaged
/ damaged 1/ damaged 2) specimens [K4].

5. I investigated the damping response offered by a damaged fiber reinforced polymer plate.
The plate is elastically supported and put under three different conditions regarding the
damage existence. I found that the loss factor of the damaged-1 specimen is three times
higher than that of the original. In case of damaged-2, over 1000 Hz, the loss factor is
roughly half as high as in the original condition. In my investigation, I found that the
damping behavior of the composite specimen gives clear indication about the damage
status of the material [K6].

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6. I studied the modal behavior of glass fiber reinforced epoxy specimen with different pre
tensile-loaded conditions. The results I found show that the damage of the probe material
due to external tensile loading has a significant effect on the resonance frequencies of the
probes. I proved, that the probes behave less stiff as in unloaded condition. This behavior
can be explained as that the load has caused damage in the matrix or in the reinforcement
part or in both.

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC OF THE RESEARCH FIELD

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC OF THE RESEARCH FIELD

K1. Alsarayefi, S. J., and Jalics. K. "The change of the NVH characteristics of composite
vehicle components as a result of visible and not visible damages." In Advances and
Trends in Engineering Sciences and Technologies III: Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on Engineering Sciences and Technologies (ESaT 2018), September 12-14,
2018, High Tatras Mountains, Tatranské Matliare, Slovak Republic, p. 9. CRC Press,
2019.
K2. Alsarayefi, S., Gafil, H.N. and Jalics. K. "Optimization of the fiber size for a fiber glass
epoxy composite." Design of Machines and Structures 9, no. 1 (2019): 5-12.
K3. Alsarayefi, S., and Jalics. K. "Application of Experimental Modal Analysis to Investigate
Damage to Fiber Reinforced Composites." Multidisciplinary Sciences 9, no. 4 (2019): 275-
282.
K4. Alsarayefi, S., and Jalics. K. "Damage Detection in a Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Component by the Vibration Decay Rate." JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RESEARCH IN
DYNAMICAL AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 12, no. SP8 (2020): 644-650.
K5. Alsarayefi, S., and Jalics. K. "Micromechanical Analysis of Glass Fiber/Epoxy Lamina."
In Vehicle and Automotive Engineering, pp. 101-111. Springer, Singapore, 2020.
K6. Alsarayefi, S., and Jalics. K. "Anticipation of damage presence in a fiber reinforced
polymer plate through damping behavior." Engineering Solid Mechanics 9, no. 3 (2021):
263-270.
K7. Alsarayefi, S., and Jalics. K. "Kísérleti modális elemzés alkalmazása szálerősítéses
kompozitok károsodásának vizsgálatához." Multidiszciplináris Tudományok 9, no. 4
(2019): 275-282.

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