Problematic Soils and Their Management

o Content Creator: Dr. Shweta Shambhavi, Bihar Agricultural University,

Bhagalpur

o Course Reviewer: Dibyendu Mukhopadhyay, Uttar Banga Krishi

Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar
Lesson Lesson Title
No.
1 Concept of Soil Quality and Soil Health
2 Soil Quality Indicators
3 Soil Quality Assessment
4 On Farm Soil Health Assessment
5 Distribution of Wasteland in India
6 Distribution of Problem Soils in India
7 Distribution of Problem Soils under various Agro-
ecological Regions of India
8 Saline Soils - Properties and its Impact in Agriculture
9 Reclamation and Management of Saline Soils
10 Sodic Soils - Properties, Management & Reclamation
11 Acid Soils - Properties, Types of Acidity and its Impact
12 Management of Acid Soils
13 Acid Sulphate Soils - Properties, Management &
Reclamation
14 Eroded Soils – Types and Factors Responsible for Soil
Erosion
 Problematic Soils and Their Management

15 Monitoring, Measuring and Remediation of Eroded Soils

16 Compacted Soils
17 Flooded Soils – Concepts and Properties
18 Nutrient Transformation under Flooded Soils
19 Polluted Soils – Sources, Extent and Impact
20 Remediation Technique for Polluted Soils
21 Quality and Standards of Irrigation Water
22 Use of Saline Water in Agriculture
23 Utilization of Remote Sensing and GIS for Diagnosis and
Management of Problem Soils
24 Role of Trees in Bio-remediation of Problem Soils
25 Land Capability Classification - Understanding its
Importance
26 Land Suitability Classification - Concepts

Disclaimer: The data provided in this PDF is sourced from the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and is intended only for educational and research
purposes. It is distributed free of cost and must not be sold, modified, or used
commercially.
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 1 Concept of Soil Quality and Health

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Understand and express the capacity of soils to perform their
designated ecological functions from the standpoint of a layman and
a professional.
• Define the physical, chemical and biological aspects of soil quality.
• Understanding the influence of management interventions such as;
tillage, application of fertiliser and manure, irrigation, pesticides,
production potential of crop, fallowing etc. on soil health.

Glossary of terms
1. Soil quality: It is the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function
within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain biological
productivity, maintain environmental quality, and sustain plant,
animal, and human health.
2. Soil health: It is defined as being a state of dynamic equilibrium
between flora and fauna and their surrounding soil environment in
which all the metabolic activities of the former proceed optimally
without any hindrance, stress or impedance from the latter.
3. Soil Resilience: Ability of a system to return after disturbance to a
new dynamic equilibrium or ability of a soil to resist adverse
changes under a given set of ecological and land use condition and
return to its original dynamic equilibrium even after disturbance.
4. Soil Resistance: Defined as the capacity of a soil to continue to
function without changing elsewhere throughout the disturbance.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

1.1 Introduction
Soil health in terms of its quality is a researchable area of interest. Soil
quality by definitions are more or less different, but they always relate to
the functions of the soil to supply nutrients and other physico-chemical
conditions for plant growth, to promote and sustain crop production, to
provide habitat to soil organisms, to ameliorate environmental pollution,
to resist degradation of land and to maintain or improve human and animal
health. More explicitly, soil quality can be defined as: The capacity of a
specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem
boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance
water and air quality, and support human health and habitation (Karlen et
al., 1997).
By soil quality we mean suitability or limitation of a soil for a
particular use. Some (pl. specify) defines it as the “fitness for use” and
others as the capacity of the “soil to function”. For improving and
ensuring soil quality, the main considerations should be identification and
development of suitable methods to measure their quality.
Subsequently, the management sensitive key indicators of soil quality
should be identified and used for monitoring and predicting the changes
periodically.
1.2 Why soil quality?
Soils are fundamental to the well being and productivity of
agricultural and natural ecosystems. Soil quality is a concept being
developed to characterize the usefulness and health of soils. In the United

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

States, soil quality includes soil fertility, potential productivity, resource

sustainability and environmental quality. A general definition of soil quality
is the degree of fitness of a soil for a specific use (Gregorich et al., 1994).
The existence of multiple definitions suggests that the soil quality concept
continue to evolve.
Resonance for assessing soil quality in an agriculture or managed
system may be somewhat different than resonance for assessing soil
quality in a natural ecosystem. In an agriculture contest, soil quality may
be managed to maximize crop production without adverse environmental
effect, while in a natural ecosystem, soil quality may be observed, as a
baseline value or set against which future change in the system may be
compared.
1.3 Soil Quality and Soil Health
The term soil quality and soil health are often used interchangeably
in the scientific literature; scientists, in general prefer “soil quality” and
producers/farmers prefer “soil health”. When farmers are asked to
recognize a healthy soil, they list different soil properties. Most frequently
mentioned were biological and physical properties of surface horizons.
Besides, farmers also use to indicate plant, animal and human health, and
water properties to judge the health of their soils.
Soil quality: It is the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within
ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity,
maintain environmental quality, and sustain plant, animal, and human
health (Doran and Parkin, 1994).

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil health: It is defined as being a state of dynamic equilibrium between

flora and fauna and their surrounding soil environment in which all the
metabolic activities of the former proceed optimally without any
hindrance, stress or impedance from the latter.
**Soil health is considered as the state of a soil at a particular time,
equivalent to the dynamic soil properties that change in short term, while
soil quality may be considered as soil usefulness for a particular purpose
over a long time scale, equivalent to intrinsic or static soil quality.
1.4 Soil Degradation, Soil Resilience and Resistance
Soil degradation is an antonym of soil quality. Soil degradation is a major
concern of the day because of its adverse impacts on productivity, human
and animal health, air and water quality, especially on local, regional and
global scales.
Soil Resilience means ability of a system to return after disturbance to a
new dynamic equilibrium or ability of a soil to resist adverse changes
under a given set of ecological and land use condition and return to its
original dynamic equilibrium even after disturbance. A disturbance is
broadly defined as any event that causes a significant change from the
normal pattern functioning in an ecosystem.
Soil Resistance is defined as the capacity of a soil to continue to function
without any change throughout disturbance. The magnitude of decline
in the capacity to function defines the degree of resistance. A small
decline indicates a high resistance, whereas a relatively large decline
indicates a low resistance to change through a disturbance.

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil quality encompasses at least six diverse simultaneous functions:

i) Biomass production
ii) Filtering, buffering and transformation
iii) Source of Biodiversity
iv) Infrastructure developments
v) Geogenic source of origin
vi) Cultural heritages of land form
1.5 Multiple functions of soils
Soil performs multiple functions:
i) providing physical support to terrestrial plants,
ii) supplying fundamental resources viz., water, nutrients and oxygen
required for terrestrial primary production
iii) providing habitat to a variety of soil organisms, with taxonomic
identity and functions of several organisms still unknown/lesser
known to the scientific and wider community,
iv) regulating hydrological and mineral/nutrient cycling, with significant
impacts on global climate,
v) detoxification of organic and inorganic substances, leading to
purification of water resources
vi) resisting erosion
A given soil function is achieved through several mechanisms/processes
and a given mechanism/process may contribute to several functions. Thus,
litter decomposition and mineralization contribute to detoxification as well
as nutrient supply/agricultural production functions of soil. The overall

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

assessment about whether a soil is good or bad depends on the objective

of assessment and the net outcome of different soil processes and
functions in given conditions. Thus, a soil may supply huge quantities of
nutrients supporting high primary production but may not provide suitable
habitats to many soil organisms, e.g., cropping soon after deforestation
using agrochemicals. One may get high crop productivity but with
contamination of water and infected food products, a situation of high
production but low detoxification function. In situations where low
agricultural productivity is the one and the only problem faced by the
mankind, one may ignore functions of soil other than production function
(i.e., capacity of soil to supply water, nutrients and oxygen and to reduce
crop yield losses due to pests and diseases). However, in the present
widespread scenario of multiple problems (including increased levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, soil erosion and land degradation,
production of infected crop products, depletion and pollution of water
resources, and depletion of biodiversity), there is a need of addressing
multiple functions of soil in an objective manner. The concept of soil
quality/health is essentially an elaboration of the concept of soil
productivity/fertility to deal with the multiple and complex problems faced
by the world today. This perspective of optimizing multiple functions
makes soil health an integral dimension of agroecosystem relating to
health and sustainable development. The soil functions can be weighted
according to the relative importance of each function in fulfilling the
management goals based on expert opinions. Regulation of each function

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

is determined by a large number of soil attributes and a single attribute or

a statistical/mathematical derivative of several attributes (in the form of
an index) can be viewed as an indicator of one or more soil functions if a
systematic relationship exists between the attribute(s) or its derivative
with the soil functions. As a single measurable soil attribute is unlikely to
be correlated with soil function(s) and measurement of ‘all’ soil attributes
is not practical, one needs to draw a minimum number of indicators
(minimum data set) (Doran and Parkin, 1996).
Table 1 Ecological functions of soil (FAO 1995) and their indicators
Ecological Functions of Soil Indicators of Proper Functioning
Production function High levels of crop yields and incomes
Biotic environmental High levels of species richness and
function/living space function functional dominance of beneficial
organisms
High levels of crop yields and incomes
and high quality food and habitation
Climate-regulative High levels of carbon stocks and slow
function/storage function rates of greenhouse gas emissions
Hydrologic function Adequate availability of water/reduced
risks floods
Waste and pollution control High levels of crop yields and incomes
function and high quality food and habitation
Archive or heritage function

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

Connective space function

1.6 Factors Affecting Soil Quality

The major causes of poor soil quality are:
i) Wider gap between nutrient demand and supply coupled with low
and imbalanced fertilizer use
ii) Emerging deficiency of secondary and micronutrients due to
improper use of inputs such as water, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
iii) Decline in organic matter content in soil and insufficient use of
organic inputs
iv) Acidification and Al3+ toxicity
v) Development of salinity and alkalinity in soils
vi) Development of adverse soil conditions such as heavy metal toxicity
vii) Disproportionate growth of microbial population responsible for soil

sickness
viii) Natural and man-made calamities such as erosion and deforestation

occurring due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, etc.

1.7 Strategies for Improving Soil Quality
The properties of soil which represent the dynamic soil quality can be
improved by several management practices which are described as
follows:
1.7.1 Enhancement of Organic Matter
Organic matter is considered as the storehouse of all nutrients maintaining
good soil quality. Regular additions of organic matter improve soil

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

structure, enhance water and nutrient holding capacity, protect soil from
erosion, hard setting and compaction and support a healthy community of
soil organisms. Practices that increase organic matter include: leaving crop
residues in the field, choosing crop rotations that include high residue
plants, using optimal nutrient and water management practices to grow
healthy plants with large amounts of roots and residue, growing cover
crops, applying manure or compost, using low or no tillage systems, using
sod-based rotations, growing perennial forage crops and mulching.
1.7.2 Reduction in the Intensity of Tillage
Reducing tillage minimizes the loss of organic matter and protects the soil
surface with plant residue. Tillage is used to loosen surface soil, prepare
the seedbed and control weeds and pests. But tillage can also break up soil
structure, speed up the decomposition and loss of organic matter, increase
the rate of erosion, destroy the habitat of helpful organisms and cause
compaction.
1.7.3 Efficient Management of Pests and Nutrients
Efficient pest and nutrient management means testing and monitoring soil
and pests; applying only the necessary chemicals, at the right time and
place to get the job done; and taking advantage of non-chemical
approaches to pest and nutrient management such as crop rotations, cover
crops and manure management. The terms integrated pest management
(IPM) and integrated nutrient managements (INM) are very much popular
nowadays. In case of IPM, the pests are managed without much

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

dependence on the chemicals. In case of INM also, dependence on

chemical fertilizers is reduced considerably.
1.7.4 Prevention of Soil Compaction
Soil compaction reduces the amount of air, water and space available to
roots and soil organisms. Compaction is caused by repeated traffic, heavy
traffic or traveling on wet soil. Deep compaction by heavy equipment is
difficult or impossible to rectify, so prevention is essential. Subsoil tillage is
only effective on soils with a clearly defined root-restricting plough pan. In
the absence of a plough pan, subsoil tillage to eliminate compaction can
reduce yield. Prevention is the best method to manage compaction and
not the tillage.
1.7.5 Maintenance of Ground Cover
Soil without adequate cover or bare soil is very much susceptible to wind
and water erosion, and to drying and crusting. Ground cover protects soil;
provides habitats for larger soil organisms, such as insects and earthworms
and can improve water availability. Ground can be covered by leaving crop
residue on the surface or by planting cover crops. In addition to ground
cover, living cover crops provide additional organic matter, and continuous
cover and food for soil organisms. Ground cover must be managed to
prevent problems with delayed soil warming in spring, diseases and
excessive build-up of phosphorus at the surface.
1.7.6 Diversification of Cropping Systems
Diversity is beneficial for several reasons. Each plant contributes a unique
root structure and type of residue to the soil. A diversity of soil organisms

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

can help control pest populations and a diversity of cultural practices can
reduce weed and disease pressures. Diversity across the landscape can be
increased by using buffer strips, small fields or contour strip cropping.
Diversity over time can be increased by using long crop rotations. Changing
vegetation across the landscape or over time not only increases plant
diversity, but also the types of insects, microorganisms and wildlife that
live in the soil.

1.8 Soil quality: Indicator of sustainable land management

Developing sustainable land management systems is complicated by the
need to consider their utility to humans, their efficiency of resource use,
and their ability to maintain a balance with the environment that is
favourable both for humans and most of the other species. In particular,
we are challenged to develop agricultural management systems that
balance the needs for production of food and fiber with those for
maintenance of the environment. More simply, “a sustainable agriculture
— sustains the people and preserves the land.” Soil quality is
conceptualized as the major linkage between the strategies for agricultural
conservation management practices and achievement of the major goals
of sustainable agriculture. In short, the assessment of soil quality or health,
and direction of change with time, is the primary indicator of sustainable
land management (Karlen et al., 1997). Although soil’s contribution to
plant productivity is widely recognized, soil condition also impacts water
and air quality. The quality of surface and sub-surface water has been
jeopardized in many parts of the world by intensive land management

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

practices leading to the imbalance of C, N, and water cycling in soil. Human

alterations of the nitrogen cycle have almost doubled the rate of nitrogen
input to terrestrial ecosystems over the past 30 years resulting in large
increases in the transfer of nitrogen from land to the atmosphere and to
rivers, estuaries, and coastal oceans. Soil management practices such as
tillage, cropping patterns, and application of pesticide and fertilizer
influence water quality. In addition, these management practices can also
affect atmospheric quality through changes in the soil’s capacity to
produce or consume Green House Gases (GHGs) such as, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, and methane. The present threat of global climate change
and ozone depletion, through elevated levels of greenhouse gases and
altered hydrological cycles, necessitates a better understanding of the
influence of land management on soil processes. In summary, the quality
and health of soil determine agricultural sustainability, environmental
quality, and as a consequence of both, plant, animal, and human health.
Scientists make a significant contribution to sustainable land management
by translating scientific knowledge and information on soil function into
practical tools and approaches by which land managers can assess the
sustainability of their management practices. Specifically, assessment of
soil quality/health is needed to identify problem production areas, make
realistic estimates of food production, monitor changes in sustainability
and environmental quality as related to agricultural management, and to
assist Government agencies in formulating and evaluating sustainable
agricultural and land-use policies. Use of one given approach for assessing

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

or indexing soil quality is fraught with complexity and precludes its

practical or meaningful use by land managers or policy makers. However,
the use of simple indicators of soil quality and health which have meaning
to farmers and other land managers will likely be the most fruitful means
of linking science with practice in assessing the sustainability of
management practices (Doran and Zeiss, 2000).

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References

Doran, J.W. and Parkin, T.B. (1996). Quantitative indicators of soil quality: a
minimum data set. In: Doran, J.W., Jones, A.J. (Eds.), Methods for
Assessing Soil Quality. Soil Science Society of America, Special
Publication 49, Madison, WI, pp. 25–37.
Doran, J.W. and Parkin, T.B. (1994). Defining and assessing soil quality. Pp.
3-21. In: J.W. Doran, D.C. Coleman, D.F. Bezdicek, and B.A. Stewart
(eds.) Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment. SSSA
Special Publication No. 35. Soil Science Society of America, Inc. and
the American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Madison, WI.
Doran, J.W. and Zeiss, M.R. (2000). Soil health and sustainability: managing
the biotic component of soil quality. Applied Soil Ecology, 15, 3–11.
FAO (1995). Planning for sustainable use of land resources? Towards a new
approach. Land and Water Bulletin 2.

14
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 2 Soil Quality Indicators

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Develop an understanding of the measures of the soils’ capacities to
perform their designated functions.
• Differentiate between basic soil properties and their use / function as
indicators of soil quality

Glossary of terms
1. Aggregate stability: Aggregate stability refers to the resistance of soil
aggregates to breakdown by water and mechanical force.
2. Biological Indicators: Biological indicators reflect on the organisms
that form the soil food web responsible for decomposition of organic
matter and nutrient cycling. Information about the numbers of
organisms, both individuals and species, that perform similar jobs or
niches, can indicate a soil's ability to function or bounce back after
disturbance (resistance and resilience).
3. Chemical Indicators: Chemical indicators give you information about
the equilibrium between soil solution (soil water and nutrients) and
exchange sites (clay particles, organic matter); plant health; the
nutritional requirements of plant and soil animal communities; and
levels of soil contaminants and their availability for uptake by
animals and plants.
4. Physical Indicators: Physical indicators provide information about
soil hydrologic characteristics, such as water entry and retention on
plant available forms. Some indicators are related to nutrient

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

availability by their influence on rooting volume and aeration status

while the others indicating about the erosion status.
5. Soil Infiltration: Soil water infiltration measures the rate at which
water enters into the soil surface, and are transmitted through the
immediate soil depth.
6. Soil Quality Indicator: Is a simple attribute of the soil which may be
measured to assess quality with respect to a given function.
7. Visual Indicators: Visual indicators of soil health may be obtained
from observation or photographic interpretation.
2.1 Introduction
A soil-quality indicator is a simple attribute of the soil which may be
measured to assess quality with respect to a given function. It is important
to be able to select attributes that are appropriate for the task considering
the complex nature of the soil and the exceptionally large number of pre-
determined soil parameters. The selection of soil indicators will vary,
depending upon the nature of the soil function under consideration. These
soil attributes can be classified in three broad groupings: physical,
chemical, or biological indicators. Many of the physical and chemical soil
attributes are permanent in time (inherent parameters). In contrast,
biological and some physical attributes are dynamic and exceptionally
sensitive to changes in soil conditions and in management practices
(dynamic parameters). They appear to be very responsive to different
agricultural soil conservation and management practices such as non-
tillage, organic amendments, and crop rotation.

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

2.2 Soil Health Indicators

Minimum dataset required to be documented in soil health must be
sufficient to indicate about health of the soil, to decide best suited crop/(s)
for the field and to prescribe manure and or fertilizers for highest or
targeted yields of crops. But, it is surprising that, most of the soil testing
laboratories incorporate only the dataset related to nutrient status, pH,
electrical conductivity and organic carbon content of the supplied soil
sample in respective soil health card. In the opinion of authors (mention
authors), this data set is incomplete and required to be modified. For
example, dose and scheduling of nitrogenous fertilizer depends greatly on
textural classes of soil and data set related to this parameter is not supplied
with health card. Doran et al (1996) have proposed the minimum data set
of physical, chemical and biological indicators for determining the quality
or health of the soil (Advances in Agronomy) are as under:
Physical Indicators
➢ Texture
➢ Depth of soil and rooting
➢ Infiltration and soil bulk density
➢ Water holding capacity
Chemical Indicators
➢ Total soil organic matter
➢ Active organic matter
➢ pH
➢ Electrical conductivity

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

➢ Extractable N, P and K
Biological Indicators
➢ Microbial biomass C and N
➢ Potentially mineralizable N
➢ Specific respiration
➢ Macro organism numbers

2.2.1 Physical Indicators

Physical indicators of soil health reflect the capacity to accept, store,
transmit and supply water, oxygen and nutrients within ecosystem. The
study of these indicators includes monitoring of soil structure through pore
size distribution, aggregate stability, saturated hydraulic conductivity,
infiltration, bulk density, and surface crust. Rooting depth provides a good
indicator of buffering against water, air and nutrient stress. Soil surface
cover can be used as an indicator of soil surface protection against raindrop
impact, and hence enhanced infiltration, reduced surface crust, and

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

reduced soil erosion and runoff. Soil water infiltration measures the rate at
which water enters soil surface, and transmitted through the immediate
soil depth. Rainfall is rapidly absorbed by soil with high infiltration rate. But
as the soil structure deteriorates, usually with the loss of organic matter,
there is increase in exchangeable sodium and low electrolyte
concentration and the infiltration rate of a soil becomes low. This increases
the tendency for soil erosion and runoff in sloping soils and water logging
in flat soils. Aggregate stability refers to the resistance of soil aggregates to
breakdown by water and mechanical force. Aggregate stability is affected
by quality and quantity of organic matter, types of clays, wetting and
drying, freezing and thawing, types and amounts of electrolyte, biological
activity, cropping systems and tillage practices. For monitoring trends in
soil health, sampling procedures for aggregate stability need to be
standardized. Bulk density that varies with the structural condition of the
soil is altered by cultivation, loss of organic matter, and compression by
animals and agricultural machinery, resulting in compact plough layer. It
generally increases with depth in-soil profile. In cracking clay soils such as
Vertisols, it varies with water content.
Table 1 Major soil physical indicators and related processes

Indicator Processes and soil functions

A. Mechanical
Texture Crusting, gaseous diffusion, infiltration
Bulk density Compaction, root growth, infiltration

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Aggregation Erosion, crusting, infiltration, gaseous diffusion

Pore size Water retention, and transmission, root growth and
distribution and gaseous exchange
continuity
B. Hydrological
Available water Drought stress, biomass production, soil organic
capacity matter content
Non-limiting water Drought, water imbalance, soil structure
range
Infiltration rate Runoff, erosion, leaching
C. Rooting zone
Effective rooting Root growth, nutrient and water use efficiencies
depth
Soil temperature Heat flux, soil warming activity and species diversity
of soil fauna Source: Lal (1994)

2.2.2 Chemical Indicators

Dominant chemical indicators include soil pH, electrical conductivity,
adsorption and cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic matter, and
available nutrients. The other useful indicators, especially those which are
needed for plant growth and development can also be included. Soil pH is
an indicator that can provide trends in change in soil health in terms of
acidification (surface and sub-surface), soil salinization, electrical
conductivity exchangeable sodium (soil structural stability), increased

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

incidence of root disease: influence root growth, biological activity, and

nutrient availability (e.g. P availability at either high pH >8.5 or low pH <5;
Zn availability at high pH >8.5). The change in soil pH also provide capacity
of the soil for pesticide retention and breakdown as well as the mobility of
certain pesticides through the soil. These processes affect soil health on-
farm and have effects beyond farm gate. Electrical conductivity is a
measure of salt concentration and therefore, its measure can provide
trends in salinity for both soil and water.
Organic matter is fundamental in maintenance of soil health because
it is essential for optimal functioning of a number of processes important
to sustainable ecosystems. Soil organic matter is a source and sinks of C
and N and partly of P and S. It affects micronutrient availability through
complexation, chelation and production of organic acids, thus altering soil
pH. Conversely, it ties up metals present in toxic amounts (e.g. Cu, As, Hg).
Organic matter is essential for good soil structure especially in low clay
content soils, as it contributes towards both formation and stabilization of
soil aggregates. Other functions include: contribution to cation exchange
capacity especially in low clay content in soils, as it contributes toward both
formation and stabilization of soil aggregates. Trends in available plant
nutrients, for example, N, P, S and K indicate sustainable land use,
especially, if the nutrient concentration and availability are approaching
but remain above the critical or threshold values. In the long-term, nutrient
balance of the system (e.g. input efficiency = output) is essential to
sustainability. Thus, available nutrients are indicators of the capacity to

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

support crop growth, potential crop yield, grain protein content, and
conversely, excessive amounts may be a potential environmental hazard
(e.g. algal biomass, eutrophication).
2.2.3 Biological Indicators
There are myriads of organisms in the thin layer of the soil surface
which play key roles in the decomposition of soil organic matter, nutrient
cycling, soil pollutant degradation, and the formation and stability of soil
structure. They adapt to changes in their environment, such as stress due
to drought, flooding, substrate shortages (e.g., food shortages), and
contaminants. Soil biota also responds rapidly to soil management and
land use changes and can be candidates for soil quality indicators. There
are, however, limitations in directly measuring soil organisms as indicators
of soil quality. Because of this, biological dynamic properties (respiration,
Particulate Organic Matter, Particulate Mineral Nitrogen, and enzymes)
are often selected as surrogates for measurement of processes mediated
by soil biota. Phospholipid fatty acids and DNA are also gaining popularity
in academic and research laboratories. Soil respiration is measured at the
field and in field office. Earthworms, which are not often diverse and are
easy to count, are the only biota that have been considered usable as
biological indicators by personnel regardless of special training and that
are presently measured in the field by determination of their abundance.
Biological indicators may reflect the overall number, type, and activity of
microorganisms and the diversity of the living organisms in soil, particularly
the microbial population. Some biological indicators are linked to the

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

organic matter fractions (POM, β-glucosidase), nitrogen pools (PMN), or

soil biota (respiration).
Table 2 Major soil chemical, nutritional and biological indicators and
related soil processes
Indicator Processes and soil functions
pH Acidification and soil reaction, nutrient availability
Base saturation Adsorption and desorption, solubilization
Cation exchange Ion exchange, leaching
capacity
Total and plant Soil fertility, nutrient reserves
available nutrients
Soil organic matter Structural formation, mineralization, biomass
carbon, nutrient retention
Earthworm Nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition,
population and formation of soil structure
other soil, macro
fauna and activity
Soil biomass Microbial transformations and respiration,
carbon formation of soil structure and organo-mineral
complexes
Total soil organic Soil nutrient source and sink, bio-mass carbon, soil
carbon respiration and gaseous fluxes
Source: Lal (1994)

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

2.2.4 Visual Indicators

Visual indicators of soil health may be obtained from observation or
photographic interpretation. Exposure of subsoil, change in soil color,
ephemeral gullies, pounding, runoff, plant response, weed species, and
decomposition are only a few examples of potential locally determined
indicators. Visual evidence can be a clear indication that soil quality is
threatened or changing.
2.3 Criteria for indicators of soil quality
Criteria for indicators of soil quality and health relate mainly to their utility
in defining ecosystem processes and integrating physical, chemical, and
biological properties, their sensitivity to management and climatic
variations, and their accessibility and utility to agricultural specialists,
producers, conservationists, and policy makers. Measurements of soil
organisms meet many (though not all) of the criteria for useful indicators
of sustainable land management. For this reason, soil organisms (including
their abundance, diversity, food web structure, and community stability)
were the focus of the conference published in this issue (FAO, 1995). Most
of the subsequent papers in this issue address the questions of which of
the presently known organisms and ecological parameters are most useful
as indicators. But any indicator of soil health or soil quality should meet the
following five criteria.
2.3.1 Sensitivity to variations in management

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

To be useful as an indicator of the sustainability of land management

practices, a soil parameter must respond to changes in management
sensitively. Specifically, ‘the indicators should be sensitive enough to
reflect the influence of management and climate on long-term changes in
soil quality but not be so sensitive as to be influenced by short-term
weather patterns. Soil organisms meet this criterion, because they respond
sensitively to anthropogenic disturbance.
2.3.2 Well correlated with beneficial soil functions
Soil health is worth quantifying because soils and their biota provide
ecosystems functions that benefit humans. These ecosystem services can
be of considerable value and include soil functions of storing and releasing
water, decomposing plant and animal residues, transforming and recycling
nutrients, sequestering and detoxifying organic toxicants, and promoting
plant health by suppressing plant-pathogenic microbes and phytophagous
fauna. It is often possible and desirable to measure soil function directly.
2.3.3 Useful for elucidating ecosystem processes
To aid farmers, ranchers, conservationists, foresters, and other land
managers in selecting appropriate interventions, an indicator of soil quality
must do more than merely predicting whether a soil will provide a
beneficial function. The indicator should also elucidate why the soil will or
will not function as desired. For example, plant productivity and health are
invaluable indicators because they are well correlated with multiple soil
functions. Nonetheless, if plant productivity or health are measured and
found to be lower than desired, it is not obvious what remedial action is

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

required. Therefore, indicators are needed that help land managers

understand the chain of cause and effect that links land management
decisions to ultimate productivity and health of plants and animals. Soil
organisms meet this criterion, because they play a direct role in many
ecosystem processes including conversion of nutrients into forms available
to plants and suppression of noxious organisms. Further, by affecting soil
structure, soil organisms play a critical indirect role in processes such as
changing the rate of water infiltration.
2.3.4 Comprehensible and useful to land managers
The ultimate determinant of soil quality and health is the farm owner or
operator, rancher, forester, golf course superintendant, conservationists,
etc. who actually manage the land. Thus, the land manager is the ultimate
judge of which indicators of soil quality are worth measuring. Considerable
thought and creativity are required to develop measurements of soil
organisms that are comprehensible and useful to land managers.
2.3.5 Easy and inexpensive to measure
Because the ultimate determinant of soil quality and health is the land
manager, indicators of soil quality and sustainability should be both
accessible to them and economic in terms of both time and money. This
argues against the use of species richness (‘biodiversity’) as an indicator,
because quantifying species richness requires substantial knowledge of
taxonomy and can be extremely time consuming and costly. However, it
may be possible to develop measures of functional diversity measurable
by non-taxonomists. In general, quantifying soil organisms neither is

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

inherently expensive nor requires much specialized. In summary,

measurements of soil organisms are sensitive to anthropogenic
perturbations, are well correlated with beneficial soil functions, and are
excellent teaching tools because they elucidate ecosystem processes.
However, it is a challenge to develop measurements of soil organisms that
are meaningful to land managers, and that can be quantified within the
time frame and skills available to land managers. Thus, as for any indicator,
the utility of quantifying soil organisms as part of a program for promoting
soil quality and health will depend on the objectives of the specific
program.
Table 3 Strategies for sustainable agricultural management and proposed
indicators of crop performance, soil and environmental health
Sustainability strategy Indicators for producers
Conserve soil organic matter through
Maintaining soil C & N levels by Direction/change in organic matter
Reducing tillage levels with time (visual or remote
sensing by color or chemical analysis)
Recycling plant and animal Specific OM potential for climate, soil,
manures and vegetation
And/or increasing plant Soil water storage
diversity, where C inputs≥C
outputs
Minimize soil erosion through
Conservation tillage Visual (gullies, rills, dust, etc.)

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

Increased protective cover Surface soil properties (topsoil depth,

(residue, stable aggregates, organic matter content/texture, water
cover crops, green fallow) infiltration, runoff, ponding, cover %)
Balance production and environment through
Conservation and integrated Crop characteristics (visual or remote
management systems sensing of yield, color, nutrient status,
(optimizing tillage, residue, plant vigor, and rooting characteristics)
water, and chemical use)
Synchronizing available N and P Soil physical condition/compaction
levels with crop needs during ;Soil and water nitrate levels
year
Amount and toxicity of pesticides used
Better use of renewable resources through
Relying less on fossil fuels and Input/output ratios of costs, energy,
petrochemicals and renewable/non-renewable
resources
More on renewable resources Leaching losses/soil acidification
and biodiversity (crop
rotations, legumes, manures,
IPM, etc.)
Crop characteristics (as listed above)
Nitrate levels in soil and water

15
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 3 Soil Quality Assessment

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Understanding the basic premise and practical requirement of
quantitative parameters along with functional relationships for
expressing soil quality.

Glossary of terms
1. Qualitative Assessment: A qualitative assessment is the
determination of the nature of an indicator.
2. Quantitative Assessment: A quantitative assessment is the accurate
measurement of an indicator.
3. Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) is a data compression technique designed for data that are in
the form of continuous measurements, though it has also been
applied to other kind of data, such as, presence/ absence of an
element or measurements in the form of discrete variables.

1.1. Introduction

Any evaluations of soil quality must consider the multiple soil uses (e.g.,
agricultural production, forest, rangeland, nature conservation, recreation,
or urban development). However, the most widely accepted concept of soil
quality and the most significant in a global context concerns agro-
ecosystems. In soil-quality evaluation or assessment, the two main
questions that must be answered are: (i) how does the soil function; and
(ii) what procedures are appropriate for making the evaluation. After

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

answering those questions, a range of parameter values or indexes that

indicate a soil is functioning at full potential can be calculated using
landscape characteristics, knowledge of pedogenesis, and a more
complete understanding of the dynamic processes occurring within a soil.
Soil-quality assessment focuses on dynamic aspects to evaluate the
sustainability of soil management practices and on inherent soil factors.

1.2 Why is Soil Quality Assessment Necessary?

Periodic assessment is needed to identify the condition of soil resources at
all scales – within a lawn, field, farm, watershed, county, state, nation, or
the world. Why? Because historically, humankind has neglected its soil
resources more than once – often ending in failure of the dominant society
and culture (Hillel, 1991). Even after more than 1,000 years of
abandonment, soils of the Tikal rain forest have not recovered from the
Maya occupation (Olson, 1981). Similarly, the catastrophic land
management failures of the 1930’s began with ignorance of the Great
Plains’ soil resource, which was described as “indestructible and
immutable” in the 1909 Bureau of Soils Bulletin 55 (Whitney, 1909).
Implementation of a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) – fallow cropping system
and use of intensive tillage throughout the Great Plains contributed to the
“Dust Bowl” that fostered Hugh Bennett’s 1933 indictment of Americans
as “the great destroyers of land” (Baumhardt, 2003).

1.3 Key concepts in soil quality assessment

1.3.1 Soil Quality Indicators

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil quality assessments are conducted by evaluating indicators. Indicators

can be physical, chemical, and biological properties, processes, or
characteristics of soils. They can also be morphological or visual features
of plants. Indicators are measured to monitor management induced
changes in the soil. Soil quality indicators are selected because of their
relationship to specific soil properties and soil quality (Figure 1). For
example, soil organic matter is a widely used indicator, because it can
provide information on various properties such as soil fertility, soil
structure, soil stability, and nutrient retention. Similarly, plant indicators,
such as rooting depth, can provide information about the bulk density or
compaction of the soil.
Indicators can be assessed by qualitative and/or quantitative techniques.
A qualitative assessment is the determination of the nature of an indicator
that determines the accurate measurement of an indicator. For example,
if erosion is the indicator being evaluated, a qualitative assessment would
be the observation of rills and gullies in the field, indicating that erosion is
occurring. A quantitative assessment would measure the amount of
erosion occurring in the field. In another example, a qualitative assessment
of infiltration would be the observation of excessive runoff water from a
field. A quantitative assessment would measure the infiltration rate.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 1 Chart depicting the role of various indicators, viz, physical,

chemical, and biological for assessing the quality of soil (Andrews et al.
2002)
1.3.2 Minimum Data Sets and Indicators
Since it is impractical to measure every ecosystem or soil property, many
researchers have proposed a minimum data set, which is the smallest set
of soil properties or indicators needed to measure or characterize soil
quality. Identifying key soil properties or attributes that are sensitive to
change in soil functions establish a minimum data set. Table 1 is an
example of a minimum data set, which shows the relationship of each
indicator to soil health concerns. A minimum data set does not usually
encompass all relevant properties for a region or farming system. It is an
example of a minimum set of indicators required to obtain a
comprehensive understanding of the soil evaluated.

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Each minimum data set is tailored to a particular region or soil map unit
(soil type) and includes only those properties relevant to the soil types,
farming system, and land uses of the areas being evaluated. For example,
a minimum data set for the Northeast United States would probably not
include such indicators as salt accumulation and electrical conductivity,
while a data set for areas with arid and semi-arid soils would include these
indicators. Compiling a minimum data set helps to identify locally relevant
indicators and to evaluate the link between indicators selected and
significant soil and plant properties for the region (Table 2).

Table 1 Key soil indicators for soil quality assessment

Selected Rationale for selection
indicator
Organic matter Defines soil fertility and soil structure, pesticide
and water retention, and use in process models
Topsoil-depth Estimate rooting volume for crop production and
erosion
Aggregation Soil structure, erosion resistance, crop
emergence an early indicator of soil management
effect
Texture Retention and transport of water and chemicals,
modeling use
Bulk density Plant root penetration, porosity, adjust analysis
to volumetric basis
Infiltration Runoff, leaching and erosion potential
pH Nutrient availability, pesticide absorption and
mobility, process models

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Electrical Defines crop growth, soil structure, water

conductivity infiltration; presently lacking in most process
models
Suspected Plant quality, and human and animal health
pollutants
Soil respiration Biological activity, process modeling; estimate of
biomass activity, early warning of management
effect on organic matter
Forms of N Availability of crops, leaching potential,
mineralization/ immobilization rates, process
modeling
Extractable N, Capacity to support plant growth, environmental
P and K quality indicator

Table 2 Interrelationship of soil indicators (based on Arshad and Martin

2002)
Selected Other soil quality indicators in the MIDS affecting
indicator the selected indicator
Aggregation Organic matter, microbial (especially, fungal)
activity, texture
Infiltration Organic matter, aggregation, electrical
conductivity, ex-changeable sodium percentage
(ESP)
Bulk density Organic matter, aggregation, topsoil-depth, ESP,
biological activity
Microbial Organic matter, aggregation, bulk density, pH,
biomass texture, ESP and/or respiration
Available Organic matter, pH, topsoil-depth, texture,
nutrients microbial parameters (mineralization and
immobilization rates)

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil Physical-chemical-biological characteristics

Principal Component Analysis

Select principal components with eigen values >1

and/or contribution to explain variability 75%

For each of the PC selected based on the criteria

above, identify variables with highly weighted
factor loadings, i.e variables with values within
10% of the highest factor loading or >0.40

If more than one variable/factor found under a single

principal component, find out correlation between
different variables/factors and retain those variables
with correlation coefficient <0.60 and select the
variable/factor with highest weighted factor loading
for minimum dataset

Figure 2 Approach to selection of variables/factors for minimum data set

(from Andrews et al. 2002)
1.4 Methods of Soil Quality Assessment
A variety of methods or approaches are currently used to measure and
assess soil quality. The methods discussed in this guide range from
primarily qualitative to purely quantitative. They are as follows:

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Soil Health Card

• Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS) Soil Health Card
Template (NRCS Template)
• Soil Quality Test Kit
• Laboratory analysis
These methods provide important information about soil quality, whether
the goal is to determine changes in soil health over time or to compare
management effects on soil quality in different fields or pastures. Various
combinations of these methodologies may be used. No single one is
inherently better or more effective.
Soil Health Cards: The soil health, or soil quality, assessment card is a
qualitative tool designed by and for farmers. The cards contain farmer-
selected soil quality indicators and associated ranking descriptions typical
of local producers. Generally, indicators listed, such as soil tilth, abundance
of earthworms, or water infiltration, can be assessed without the aid of
technical or laboratory equipment
NRCS Soil Health Card Template (NRCS Template): If qualitative soil
quality assessment information is desired for an NRCS conservation plan,
adapt for local use the NRCS Template that comes with this guide. Although
technically this template can be used as is, the indicators and rankings it
uses have been collated from various parts of the United States and are
very general.
Soil Quality Test Kit: The Soil Quality Test Kit, developed by the ARS, is an
on-farm soil quality assessment tool. It was modified and enhanced by the

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

NRCS Soil Quality Institute with NRCS field staff. The kit is used as a
screening tool to give a general direction or trend of soil quality; e.g.,
whether current management systems are maintaining, enhancing, or
degrading the soils. It can also be used to troubleshoot problem areas in
the field.
Laboratory Analysis: Soil testing laboratories throughout the countries
have tests for many soil properties that are useful for soil quality
evaluation. While some of these tests can also be done with the Soil Quality
Test Kit, farmers may not have the time to run the tests, or they may prefer
to obtain their results from an accredited laboratory.

1.5 General Indicator of Soil Quality (GISQ)

Soil organisms and biotic parameters (e.g., abundance, diversity, food web
structure, or community stability) meet most of the desired criteria of soil
quality indicators (Doran and Zeiss, 2000). The use of faunal groups as
indicators for soil quality needs a choice of organisms, that (a) form a
dominant group and occur in all soil types, (b) have high abundance and
high biodiversity and (c) play an important role in soil functioning, e.g.,
food webs. Velasquez et al. (2007) developed a general indicator of soil
quality (GISQ) based on estimation of around 50 soil properties related to
macrofauna, chemical fertility, physical state, organic matter fractions and
soil morphology. The computational procedure involved four steps: (i) PCA
analysis of the variables allowing testing of the significance of their
variation among land use types; (ii) identification of the variables that best

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

differentiate the sites according to the soil quality; (iii) creation of sub-
indicators of soil physical quality, chemical fertility, organic matter,
morphology and soil macrofauna, with values ranging from 0.1 to 1.0; (iv)
combination of all five sub-indicators into a general one. This indicator
allows the evaluation of soil quality and facilitates identification of problem
areas through the individual values of each sub-indicator.

1.6 Development of Soil Quality Index (SQI)

1.6.1 Data Compression

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a data compression technique
designed for data that are in the form of continuous measurements,
though it has also been applied to other kind of data such as presence/
absence of an element or measurements in the form of discrete variables.
Ordination, a collective term for multivariate techniques that arrange sites
along axes on the basis of soil properties can help to show whether
important environmental variables have been overlooked. Ordination is
like a linear regression model, but with the major difference that the
explanatory variables here are theoretical variable and not known
environmental variables. Principal Components (PCs) for a data set are
defined as linear combinations of the variables that account for maximum
variance within the set by describing vectors of closest fit to the n
observations in p-dimensional feature space, subject to being orthogonal
to one another. The PCA output gives as many PCs as the input variables
but it is assumed that PCs receiving high eigen values (setting a threshold,

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

e.g., eigen values > 1) or those explaining variation in the data exceeding a
limit (e.g., > 5% of the variability) are ‘important’ and not the others.
Contribution of a variable to a particular PC is represented by a weight or
factor loading. Only the highly weighted variables are retained from each
PC and highly weighted factor loadings identified based on thresholds such
as those variables with absolute values within 10% of the highest factor
loading or > 0.4. When more than one factor is retained under a single PC,
multivariate correlation coefficients are employed to determine if
variables could be considered redundant and if the variables are
correlated, that with the highest value is chosen for multi dimensional
scaling (MDS).

1.6.2 Data Transformation

The selected indicators can be transformed following a linear or a non-
linear scoring rule. For ‘more is better’ indicators, each observation is
divided by the highest observed value such that the highest observed value
received a score of 1. For ‘less is better’ indicators, the lowest observed
value (in the numerator) is divided by each observation (in the
denominator) such that the lowest observed value receives a score of 1.
For some indicators, observations are scored as ‘higher is better’ up to a
threshold value and as ‘lower is better’ above the threshold. The values of
different variables can be transformed to a common range, between 0.1 to
1.0 with homothetic transformation:
y = 0.1 + (x-b)/(a-b) * 0.9

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

where, y = value of the variable after transformation, x= the variable to

transform, a = the maximum value of the variable, and b = the
minimum value of the variable
Non-linear scoring functions are constructed based on literature review
and consensus of the collaborating researchers. Masto et al. (2007) used
the following equation for deriving non-linear scores:
Non-linear score (y) = 1/1+e –b (x-a)
where, x = soil property value, a = the baseline or value of the soil property
(the scoring function equals 0.5 and equals the midpoint between
the upper threshold value and the lower threshold value), and b =
slope. The upper threshold value is the soil property value for which
the score equals 1 and which corresponds to the most favourable
level. The lower threshold value is the soil property value where the
score equals 0 and which corresponds to an unacceptable level.
Baselines are generally regarded as the minimum target values.
1.6.3 Data Integration
There are basically two ways of integrating indicators to derive one soil
quality index – by summing the scores from MDS indicators and by
summing MDS variables after weighting them by considering the %
variation explained by a PC, standardized to unity, as the weight for
variable(s) chosen under a given PC.

1.7 Integrated Approach for soil quality assessment

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

For integrated soil-quality assessment, the development of relationships

between all the soil-quality indicators and the numerous soil functions may
be a monumental task. Therefore, a stepwise agro-ecological approach for
soil-quality evaluation and monitoring was proposed by De la Rosa (2005).
Two steps relating to: (i) inherent soil quality, and (ii) dynamic soil quality
are involved.
Step 1: Land evaluation is an appropriate procedure for analyzing inherent
soil quality from the point of view of long-term agro-ecological changes.
Within this complex context, land-evaluation models may serve as a first
step to develop a soil quality assessment procedure (Arshad and Martin,
2002). The first step will result in defining agro-ecological zones, land
suitability, and vulnerability classes.
Step 2: A short-term evaluation and monitoring procedure would be
basically considered for the soil biological quality in each agro-ecological
zone defined in the first step. By measuring appropriate indicators,
changes in soil dynamic quality can be assessed. These indicators would be
compared with the desired values (critical limits or threshold level), at
different time intervals (Arshad and Martin, 2002) (Figure 3). This
comparison of single indicator should be of natural soils that have not been
disturbed with soils that have been under a certain use and management
system for a number of years. Because soil biological parameters are most
variable and sensitive to management practices, a monitoring system
(observed change over time) would provide information on the
effectiveness of the selected farming system, land-use practices,

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

technologies, and policies. For example, dehydrogenase activity in

Mediterranean forest soils proved to be very sensitive to both natural and
management changes, and showed a quick response to the induced
changes. Also, enzyme activities have been found to be very responsive to
different agricultural management practices such as non-tillage. Because
of the complex nature of the soil and its high spatial and temporal
variability, it is appropriate to develop soil-quality assessment based on
biological indicators after the traditional land evaluation using basically
physico-chemical parameters. This agro-ecological approach should focus
on dynamic soil aspects (biological factors) but with awareness of inherent
soil aspects (physical and chemical factors).
Soil physico-chemical quality
- Physical indicators
- Chemical indicators
- Visible indicators

Long-term
evaluation

Agro-ecological zones identification

per specific land uses or soil functions

Soil biological quality

- Biological indicators
- Chemical pollutants

Short-term
evaluation

Sustainable soil use and management

Good agricultural practices for soil protection

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 3 Graphical representation of a stepwise agro-ecological approach

for soil-quality assessment
Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References

Andrews, S.S., Karlen, D.L. and Mitchell, J.P. (2002). A comparison of soil
quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in
Northern California. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 90,
25-45.
Arshad, M. A. and Martin, S. (2002). Identifying critical limits for soil quality
indicators in agro-ecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment, 88, 153–160.
Baumhardt, R.L. (2003). Dust Bowl Era. Pp. 187-191. In: B.A.Stewart and
T.A. Howell (eds.) Encyclopaedia of Water Science, Marcel-Dekker,
NY.
De la Rosa, D. (2005). Soil quality evaluation and monitoring based on land
evaluation. Land Degradation & Development, 16, 551–559.
Doran, J.W. and Zeiss, M.R. (2000). Soil health and sustainability: managing
the biotic component of soil quality. Applied Soil Ecology, 15, 3–11.
Hillel, D. (1991). Out of the Earth: Civilization and the life of the soil. Univ.
of California Press, Los Angeles.
Masto, R.E., Chhonkar, P.K., Singh, D. and Patra, A.K. (2007). Soil quality
response to long-term nutrient and crop management on a semi-arid
inceptisol. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 118, 130-142.

16
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 4 On Farm Soil Health Assessment

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Understand and demonstrate the prominent characteristics /
morphology / rapid test parameters of healthy soils.
• Learn about soil texture and structure, soil colour, soil tilth,
infiltration, drainage and water holding capacity.
• Understand about soil biological diversity and interrelationships
between soil, plant, animal and human health

4.1. Introduction
On farm assessment of soil quality and health is recommended to assist
farmers evaluate the effects of their management decisions on soil
productivity. This approach permits interaction between researchers,
extension and political personnel while providing interpretation to link on
farm-based knowledge to soil health information. The main challenge is
to develop soil quality and soil health standards to assess changes which
are practical and useful to farmers.

4.2 In-field soil health assessment

Qualitative, on-farm, in-field assessment of soil health does not need to

involve special analyses, only the informed observation and interpretation
of soil characteristics are considered This is usually done by visual
assessment, but the smell and feel of soil may also be involved. Field test
kits for measuring several indicators are also available (e.g. NRCS soil
quality test kit). While this approach is more subjective and therefore can

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

reflect user bias, the results can be very informative in making

management decisions when detailed guidelines and training have been
provided. Guided, in-field assessment can also be particularly effective to
increase awareness and understanding of how important it is to maintain
healthy soils, and the importance of key soil processes. Some specific soil
indicators, such as compaction measurement using a penetrometer in the
root zone, are always measured better directly in the field than in a
laboratory.

Proposed indicators for measuring the sustainability of agricultural

systems at the farm level

Farmer/society needs (acceptable) Resource/environmental

conservation
(adequate/acceptable)
Yields Soil organic matter
Profits Topsoil depth
Risk/stability Soil protective cover (%)
Input/output ratio (energy and costs) Leachable salts (NO3) (soil
electrical conductivity)

4.2.1 Scorecards: The use of scorecards for on farm soil quality

assessment is emphasized where qualitative observations of soil health
are scored to obtain an overall measure of soil quality and soil health.
These cards may be developed to evaluate soil health through
farmers’ observation of soil physical, chemical and biological properties.

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

For example, such as, observation on earthworm numbers can yield a

general index of biological activity in the soil.
4.2.2 Soil quality test kits: Assessment tools such as soil quality test kits
focus on farmer based evaluations and education regarding various soil
and smallholder management practices. Further, they aim to produce an
educational tool to increase public awareness of the importance of soil
quality.
4.2.3 Soil quality indices: Various soil quality indexing approaches are
available and can be applied to derive a range of critical test values within
which soil quality and soil health assessment parameters can be fitted.

4.3 Developing and using in-field assessments

• Participatory approach in developing qualitative soil health

monitoring procedures locally have had significant educational value
and opened up communication among farmers and between farmers
and other agriculture professionals.
• A number of score cards and kits for measuring soil health in the field
have been developed. These have used more than 30 physical
indicators and more than 10 biological, chemical, and crop
observation based indicators of soil health (Table 1). In this
approach, soil physical characteristics might be scored for soil ‘feel’,
crusting, water infiltration, retention or drainage, and compaction.
Soil biological properties might include soil smell (low score for sour,
putrid or chemical odors vs. high score for ‘earthy,’ sweet, fresh

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

aroma), soil color and mottling (which reflects balance of aerobic vs.
anaerobic bacterial activity), and earthworm or overall biological
activity through in-field respiration measures. Crop indicators of soil
functioning such as root proliferation and health, signs of
compaction (such as thick angular roots), legume nodulation, and
signs of residue decomposition can also provide useful information.
• The rating scales used in soil health score cards vary from just a few
categories (“poor, fair, or good”) to scales of 1 to 10. The descriptions
that define categories or rating scales are best based on local
terminology and preferences. High quality photographs are an
excellent way to train users and achieve somewhat standardized
scoring (Table 2).

4.4 Soil Health Report

The raw data from the individual indicators and background information
about sample location and management history are synthesized into an
auto generated and grower friendly report. The standard soil health test
report presents soil health information for a field in a way that enables
the identification of areas where soil management efforts may be
targeted.
The soil health test report is presented on a single page and consists of
different sections laid out in visually enhanced format to present
information to the growers and agricultural service providers. The
sections of the report include:

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

1. Background Information: The information collected during

sampling is presented in this section. This includes the farm name
and contact information, the sample number, the date of sampling,
the local extension educator name, current crop and tillage and
their history over the past 2 years, drainage and slope conditions,
soil type and soil texture.
2. Indicator list: This section gives a list of indicators that were
measured for soil health assessment. They are colour coded to
separate the physical, biological and chemical indicators.
3. Indicator values: This presents the values of the indicators that
were measured either in the laboratory or field.
4. Ratings: This section presents the scores and colour coded ratings
of the soil quality indicators. The indicators are scored on a scale
of 1-100 based on scoring functions developed for individual
indicators. In addition, the indicators are rated with colour codes
depending on their scores. Generally, a score of less than 30 is
regarded as low and receives a red colour code. A score from 30-
70 is considered medium and is colour coded yellow. A score value
higher than 70 is regarded as high and colour coded green.
5. Constraints: If the ratings of a particular indicator is poor/low (red
colour code), the respective soil health constraints will be
highlighted in this section. This is very useful tool for identifying
areas to target their management efforts.

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

6. Overall quality score: An overall quality score is computed from

individual indicator scores. This core is further rated as follows: less
than 40% is regarded as very low, 40-55% is low, 55-70% is medium,
70-80% is high and greater than 85% is regarded as very high. The
highest possible quality score is 100 and the least score is 0, thus it
is a relative overall soil health status indicator.
Table 1 Selected Soil indicators

Table No 2: Brief Descriptions of the selected soil health

assessment indicators

7
Problematic soils and their Management

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

SOIL HEALTH TEST REPORT (COMPREHENSIVE)

Name of farmer: Sample ID:
Location: Agent:
Field/ Treatments: Agent E mail:
Tillage: Soil Texture:
Crops grown: Date sampled:
Indicators
Valu Rating Constra
e int
PHYSICAL Aggregate 18 18 Aeration, infiltration,
stability rooting
Available water 0.18 64
capacity
Surface hardness 348 2 Rooting, Water
transmission
Subsurface 472 3 Subsurface pan, deep
hardness compaction
BIOLOGICAL Organic matter 1.7 9 Energy storage, C
sequestration
Active carbon 312 5 Soil biological activity
Potential 2.0 0 N supply capacity
mineraliz
able
Root health rating 7.0
nitrogen 25
CHEMICAL pH 7.3 89
Extractable 17.0 100
phosphorus
Extractable 73 100
potassium
Minor Elements 100
Overall quality score (Out of 100): 43.0 Low
Measured soil textural class: Silt Loam
Sand (%): 37.0 Silt (%): 55.0 Clay (%): 8.0

Location (GPS): Latitude and Longitude

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

9
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 5 Distribution of Waste land in India

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Learn about the geographic distribution of area under wastelands
across various states of India.
• Understand the underlying reasons for development of wastelands
and approaches for managing them.
Glossary of terms
1. Barren Rocky Area: These are rock exposures of varying lithology
often barren and devoid of soil and vegetative cover. They occur
amidst hill-forests as openings or as isolated exposures on plateau
and plains. Barren rocky areas occur on steep isolated hillocks/hill
slopes, crests, plateau and eroded plains associated with barren and
exposed rocky/stony wastes, lateritic out-crops, mining and
quarrying sites. The category also includes steep sloping areas devoid
of vegetation cover that were classified separately in the earlier
exercise.
2. Coastal sand: Coastal sands are the sands that are accumulated as a
strip along the seacoast due to action of seawater. These are not
being used for any purpose like recreation.
3. Desertic sand: Desertic sands are those confined to arid environment
where the rainfall is scanty. These lands are characterized by
accumulation of sand in the form of varying size of sand dunes and
height that have developed as a result of transportation of soil
through aeolian processes. The following two categories of desert
sands could be mapped based on their vertical approximate heights.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

Semi-stabilized to stabilized dunes with >40 m height Semi-stabilized

to stabilized moderately high dunes with heights ranging between 15
and 40 m
4. Degraded pastures/grazing land: These are the lands in non-forest
areas that are either under permanent pastures or meadows, which
have degraded due to lack of proper soil and water conservation and
drainage development measures.
5. Degraded land under plantation crop: These are the degraded lands
that have been brought under plantation crops after reclamation and
are located outside the notified forest areas.
6. Gullied and/or Ravinous Land: Gully is a narrow channel when
surface water flow increases in response to clearing and excessive
use of land. Other factors that play a role in gully initiation are the
type of landscape, geology, rainfall, soil texture, hill-slope, length and
seasonal climatic extremes. The intricate network of gullies is
referred to as ravines. Two categories of ravines viz., medium ravines
and deep ravines could be delineated based on their depth.
a. Medium Ravines: These are the ravines with a depth of gullies
ranging between 2.5 and 5 meters. Generally, these are seen
confined to the head region of the stream close to agricultural land.
b. Deep Ravines: The depth of ravines is more than 5 meters. Deep
ravines, generally, occur along the higher order stream areas that are
close to the main river.

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

7. Land affected by salinity/alkalinity: Land affected by

salinity/alkalinity has excess soluble salts (saline) or high
exchangeable sodium. Salinity is caused due to capillary movement
of water, during extreme weather conditions leaving salt
encrustation on the surface. Alkali soils have exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) values of 15 or more, which is generally considered
as the limit between normal and alkali soils. The predominant salts
in alkali soils are carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium.
Considering the degree of salinity and or alkalinity, the following two
sub-classes viz., moderately saline / alkali and strongly saline / alkali
areas could be delineated.
a. Moderately Saline/Alkali land: These are the areas located in the
fluvial plains with the degree of salinity (ECe) ranging from 8 to 30
(dS/m), pH between 9.0 – 9.8 and the Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP) values ranging between 15-40.
b. Strongly Saline/Alkali land: These are the salt-affected lands with
ECe values greater than 30 dS/m, pH values more than 9.8 and ESP
values of >40.
8. Mining /Industrial wastelands
a. Mine dumps: Are those lands where waste debris is
accumulated after extraction of minerals. Included in this
category is the mine / quarry areas subject to removal of
different earth material (both surface and sub-surface) by
manual and mechanized operations. Large scale quarrying and

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

mechanical operations result in creation of mine dumps. It

includes surface rocks and stone quarries, sand and gravel pits,
soil excavation for brick kilns, etc.
b. Industrial: These are areas of stockpile of storage dump of
industrial raw material or slag/effluents or waste material or
quarried/mixed debris from earth’s surface.
9. Riverine sand: Riverine sands are those that are accumulated in the
flood plain of the river as sheets, or sand bars. It also includes inland
sand which was accumulated along the abandoned river courses or
by reworking of sand deposits by wind action leading to long
stretches of sand dunes or sand cover areas noticed in Indo-Gangetic
alluvial plains.
10. Sand (coastal/desert/riverine): This category refers to land
with accumulation of sand, in coastal, riverine or inland areas.
Generally, these lands vary in size; occur in various shapes with
contiguous to linear pattern. These lands are mostly found in deserts,
riverbeds and along the shores.
11. Scrubland: This is the land, which is generally prone to
deterioration due to erosion. Such lands generally occupy
topographically high locations, excluding hilly/mountainous terrain.
Based on the presence of vegetation cover, two sub-classes could be
delineated i.e., land with dense scrub and land with open scrub.
a. Land with dense scrub: These areas have shallow and skeletal
soils, at times chemically degraded, extremes of slopes, severely

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

eroded, and are subjected to excessive aridity with scrubs

dominating the landscape. They have a tendency for intermixing with
croplands.
b. Land with open scrub: This category is same as mentioned in the
earlier category except that it has sparse vegetative cover or is
devoid of scrub and has a thin soil covers.
12. Scrub Forest: Two sub-classes viz., scrub dominated degraded
forest land and agriculture land inside notified forest area have been
delineated.
a. Scrub dominated: Land, as notified under the Forest Act and those
lands with various types of forest cover with less than 20 % of
vegetative cover, are classified as degraded forest. These lands are
generally confined to the fringe areas of notified forest.
b. Agricultural land inside notified forest land: This category refers
to land that have been notified under the Forest Act, in which
agriculture is being practiced, (except for the de-notified forest
areas).
13. Shifting Cultivation Areas: Shifting cultivation is a traditional
practice of growing crops on forested/ vegetated hill-slope by the
slash and burn method.
a. Current: The areas that are used for cultivation by the slash and
burn practices and are clearly perceptible on the satellite image in
pre-burnt /post-burnt conditions.

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

b. Abandoned: Are those areas that were earlier under shifting

cultivation but subsequently left idle for more than one year but less
than 5 years, thereby giving a scope for the regeneration of
secondary vegetation such as bamboo or grasses. This category has
a tendency to get mixed with forests.
14. Snow Covered and/ or Glacial Area: These lands are under
perpetual snow cover and are confined to the Himalayan region. The
mountain peaks and slopes and high relief areas are the places where
snow/glacial areas occur.
15. Waterlogged/Marshy Land: Waterlogged land is that low lying
land where the water is at/or near the surface and the water stands
for most part of the year. Depending on duration of water logging,
two sub-classes viz., permanently waterlogged and seasonally
waterlogged areas could be delineated.
a. Permanent: Permanently waterlogged areas are those where the
water logging conditions prevail during most part of the year. These
areas are mostly located in low-lying areas, with impervious
substratum along the canals/ river banks, coastal inlands, etc.
b. Seasonal: Seasonally waterlogged areas are those where the
water logging condition prevails usually during the monsoon period.
These lands are mostly located in plain areas associated with the
drainage congestion. Use of multi-season satellite data enables
delineation of this category.
5.1. Introduction

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

India can be called as a land of paradoxes—a girdle of high-snow capped

mountains, glaciers and high-altitude forests in the north; seas washing
both sides of lengthy coastline in the peninsular south; and a variety of
geological formations, diversified climates and varied topographies and
reliefs. The lofty mountains are highest in the world and river deltas are
raised a few metres above the mean sea level. And temperatures vary from
arctic cold to equatorial hot. Precipitation varies from less than 100 mm in
the arid regions to 11,000 mm/yr in the per-humid regions. This
geographical location provides the country with a landscape of diversity of
high plateaux, stumpy relic hills, shallow open valleys, rolling uplands,
fertile plains, swampy lowlands and dreary barren deserts and a variety of
soils developed on these landforms.
5.2 What is essentially in a wasteland?
• The non technical definition of wasteland from the Cambridge
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary is ‘An empty area of land, especially
in or near a city, which is not used to grow crops or built on, or used
in any way and/or a place, time or situation containing nothing
positive or productive, or completely without a particular quality or
activity’.
• The Technical Task Group Report of the National Wastelands
Development Board Defines the Wasteland as a Land Which is
Presently Lying Unutilized due to Different Constraints.
• ICAR proposed that Wastelands are Lands which Due to Neglect or
Due to Degradation are not Being Utilized to Their Full Potential.

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

These can result from inherent or imposed disabilities or both, such

as location, environment, chemical and physical properties, and even
suffer from management conditions.
• According to Integrated Wasteland Development Programme,
Wasteland is a degraded land which can be brought under vegetative
cover, with reasonable effort, and which is currently under utilised
and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and soil
management or on account of natural causes.
• Accelerating growth of wastelands/degraded lands created a
menace to the Government. The growing concern to prevent this
extraordinary growth, Government of India has set up the National
Wastelands Development Board in 1985 under the Ministry of
Environment & Forests.
Wasteland: The National Wasteland Development Board (NWBD) has
defined wasteland as “degraded land which can be brought under
vegetative cover with reasonable effort and which is currently under-
utilized and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and
soil management or on account of natural causes”.
5.3 Categories of wasteland for Identification
a. Culturable Wasteland- The land which has potential for the
development of vegetative cover and is not being used due to different
constraints of varying degrees, such as erosion, water logging, salinity etc.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

b. Unculturable Wasteland– The land that cannot be developed for

vegetative cover, for instance the barren rocky areas and snow covered
glacier areas.
2.2 Categories of Wasteland in India
• Gullied and/ or ravinous land (Medium)
• Gullied and/ or ravinous land (Deep)
• Land with Dense Scrub
• Land with Open Scrub
• Waterlogged and Marshy land (Permanent)
• Waterlogged and Marshy land (Seasonal)
• Land affected by salinity/alkalinity (Moderate)
• Land affected by salinity/alkalinity (Strong)
• Shifting Cultivation - Current Jhum
• Shifting Cultivation - Abandoned Jhum
• Under-utilised/degraded forest (Scrub dominated)
• Under-utilised/degraded forest (Agriculture)
• Degraded pastures/ grazing land
• Degraded land under plantation crop
• Sands – Riverine
• Sands – Coastal
• Sands – Desertic
• Sands - Semi Stability - Stability > 40 m------------------------- clarify Stab
in full form

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Sands - Semi Stability - Stability 15 - 40 m

• Mining Wastelands
• Industrial Wastelands
• Barren Rocky Area
• Snow Covered/ Glacial Area
Table 1: India - State-wise distribution of Wastelands (sq.km) during
2015-16
Total Total
Sl.
STATE NAME Geographical Wasteland % to TGA
No.
Area (TGA) (WL)
1 Andhra Pradesh 162989 23981.74 14.71
2 Arunachal Pradesh 83743 13906.16 16.61
3 Assam 78438 9003.08 11.48
4 Bihar 94171 7685.39 8.16
5 Chattisgarh 135194 10875.37 8.04
6 Delhi 1483 81.27 5.48
7 Goa 3702 515.66 13.93
8 Gujarat 196024 21740.39 11.09
9 Haryana 44212 1658.96 3.75
10 Himachal Pradesh 55673 22831.91 40.01
11 Jammu & Kashmir * 222236 175697.01 79.06
12 Jharkhand 79706 11767.08 14.76
13 Karnataka 191791 13229.68 6.90
14 Kerala 38863 2288.32 5.89
15 Madhya Pradesh 308252 39536.62 12.83
16 Maharashtra 307690 36075.15 11.72
17 Manipur 22327 5651.89 25.31
18 Meghalaya 22429 4135.77 18.44
19 Mizoram 21081 4300.66 20.40
20 Nagaland 16579 5064.17 30.55
21 Orissa 155707 18422.36 11.83
22 Punjab 50362 462.37 0.92

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

23 Rajasthan 342239 78851.33 23.04

24 Sikkim 7096 3294.79 46.43
25 Tamil Nadu 130058 8222.24 6.32
26 Telangana 112079 14241.21 12.71
27 Tripura 10486 920.52 8.78
28 Uttarakhand 53483 12726.16 23.79
29 Uttar Pradesh 240928 8537.06 3.54
30 West Bengal 88752 1654.99 1.86
31 Union Territory 9490 306.23 3.23
TOTAL 3287263 557665.51 16.96
Source: Wasteland Atlas of India (2019)
Table 2: India - Category-wise distribution of Wastelands in India (sq.km)
during 2015-16
% to
Sl.No. Category Total WL
TGA
1 Gullied and/or ravinous land-Medium 6484.17 0.20
Gullied and/or ravinous land-Deep/very
3108.89
2 deep ravine 0.02
3 Land with dense scrub 73972.04 2.25
4 Land with open scrub 99601.55 3.03
5 Waterlogged and Marshy land-Permanent 1627.15 0.05
6 Waterlogged and Marshy land-Seasonal 5199.45 0.16
Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-
4723.43
7 Moderate 0.14
8 Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-Strong 1585.66 0.05
9 Shifting cultivation area-Current Jhum 3871.27 0.12
10 Shifting cultivation area-Abandoned Jhum 4575.49 0.14
Under utilised/degraded forest-Scrub
86411.09
11 dominated 2.63
12 Agricultural land inside notified forest land 21691.08 0.66
13 Degraded pastures/grazing land 6450.07 0.20
14 Degraded land under plantation crops 248.81 0.01

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

15 Sands- Riverine 3121.21 0.09

16 Sands- Coastal sand 671.24 0.02
17 Sands- Desert Sand 8191.52 0.25
Sands- Semi-stabilized to stabilized (>40m)
9345.48
18 dune 0.28
Sands- Semi-stabilized to stabilized
11800.79 0.36
19 moderately high (15- 40m) dune
20 Mining Wastelands 2256.33 0.07
21 Industrial wastelands 317.20 0.01
22 Barren rocky area 94483.78 2.87
23 Snow cover and/or glacial area 107927.78 3.28
Total 557665.51 16.96
Source: Wasteland Atlas of India (2019)

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 1: Wastelands map of India (generated using LISS-III data of 2015-

16) (ICAR, 2010)

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 2: Percentage of Category-wise distribution of Wastelands in India

5.4 Wasteland Reclamation
Reclamation of wasteland means re-claiming it or to use it for productive
purpose. Wasteland reclamation is the process of turning barren, sterile

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

wasteland into something that is fertile and suitable for habitation and
cultivation.
5.4 Need for wasteland reclamation:
• It provides a source of income for the rural poor.
• It ensures a constant supply of fuel, fodder and timber for local use.
• It makes the soil fertile by preventing soil erosion and conserving
moisture.
• The programme helps maintain an ecological balance in the area.
• The increasing forest cover helps in maintaining local climatic
conditions.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References

ICAR. (2010). Degraded and Wastelands of India: Status and Spatial

Distribution.
Wasteland Atlas of India. (2019). Department of Land Resources. Ministry
of Rural Development. Government of India.

16
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 6 Distribution of Problem soils in India

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
• Identify various soil problems and problem soils and understand the
difference between them.
• Learn about various categories of problem soils and the affected area
under each of them.
Glossary of terms

1. Calcareous soils: A calcareous soil has abundance of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3) . If a calcareous soil is added with
hydrochloric acid , the soil will effervesce and give off carbon
dioxide and form bubbles because of the chemical reaction.
2. Clayey soils: A soil that contains a high percentage of fine particles
and colloidal substance and becomes sticky when wet.
3. Degraded soils: Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition
caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for
agricultural, industrial, or urban purposes. Such soils are called as
degraded soils.
4. Permeability: It may be defined as; “It is a measure of the ease with
which water flows through soils and/or rocks. Soils which allow flow
of water is called permeable soils, while those restrict its movement
with ease are termed as impermeable soils.
5. Problem Soils: The soils which possess characteristics that make
them uneconomical for the cultivation of crops without adopting
proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

6. Sandy soils: Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tends to be acidic and
low in nutrients. Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to
their high proportion of sand and little clay (clay weighs more
than sand). These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to
work with.
7. Waterlogged soils: Waterlogging is the saturation of soil with water.
Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when it is nearly saturated with
water much of the time such that its air phase is restricted and
anaerobic conditions prevail.

6.1. Occurrence
India, the second most populous country in the world faces severe
problems in agriculture. It is estimated that out of the 328.8 m ha of the
total geographical area in India, 173.65 m ha are degraded, producing less
than 20% of its potential yield. Major problematic soils of India are enlisted
in Table 1.
Table 1: Major problematic soils of India

Sr. Problematic Key Diagnosis Major constraints

No. Soils
1. Clay soils Dominated by clay Water logging, compaction, poor
particles aeration, difficult to cultivate
2. Sandy soils Dominated by poor fertility, low SOM, low water
Coarse sand holding capacity, erosion
particles
3. Acid soils Soil pH is less than Fe, Al toxicity (Strong acid soil)
6.5
4. Salt affected soils

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

a. Saline soils ECe is greater than High osmotic potential, nutrient

4.0 dS/m imbalance
b.Sodic soils ESP is greater than Deteriorated physical condition,
15 Na toxicity, nutrient imbalance
c. Saline ECe is greater than High osmotic potential,
sodic soils 4.0 dS/m and ESP deteriorated physical condition,
is greater than 15 nutrient imbalance
5. Calcareous CaCO3 is greater P, Fe deficiency
soils than 5.0 %
6. Water logged Water Stagnation, Poor aeration
soils Low infiltration
rate
7. Degraded Based on soil -
soils analysis
8. Compacted High bulk density Poor aeration, poor root
soils penetration, water logging
9. Impermeable Low hydraulic Poor aeration, water logging
soils conductivity (HC)
and infiltration
rate

6.2. Types of problem soils

1. Physical problem soils
2. Chemical Problem soils
3. Biological Problem soils
4. Nutritional problem soils as a result of above constraints
6.2.1 Physical problem soils
6.2.1.1 Slow permeable soils/Impermeable soils - The capillary porosity is
high leading to impeded drainage, poor aeration and reduced conditions.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil surface crusting - Surface crusting is due to the presence of colloidal

oxides of iron and aluminium in soils which binds the soil particles under
wet regimes. On drying it forms a hard mass on the surface.
Sub soil hard pan - The reasons for the formation of sub surface hard pan
in red soils is due to the illuviation of clay to the sub soil horizons coupled
with cementing action of oxides of iron, aluminium, and calcium
carbonate.
Shallow soils - Shallow soils are formed due to the presence of parent rocks
immediately below the soil surface (15-20 cm depth).
6.2.1.2 Highly permeable soils - Sandy soils containing more than 70 per
cent sand fractions occur in coastal areas, river delta and in the desert
belts. Excessive permeability of the sandy soils results in poor water
retention capacity, very high hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rates.
These soils being devoid of finer particles and organic matter, the
aggregates are weakly formed, the non-capillary pores dominating with
very poor soil structure. So whatever the nutrients and water added to
these soils are not utilized by the crops and subjected to loss of nutrients
and water. In addition, it is not providing anchorage to the crops grown.
6.2.1.3 Heavy clay soils - Clay soils are referred as heavy soils. To be
classified as clay soil, it should be made up of about 40% clay particles, the
finest particles found in soil. This is also called slowly permeable soils.
Heavy soil have very hard consistence when dry and very plastic and sticky
(heavy) when wet. They are imperfectly to poorly drained, leaching of

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

soluble weathering products is limited. Flooding can be a major problem in

areas with higher rainfall.
6.2.1.4 Eroded soils- Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and
transportation of soil mass from one place to another through the action
of wind, water in motion or by the beating action of rain drops. Erosion
extensively occurs in poorly aggregated soils (low humus) and in a higher
percentage of silt and very fine sand. Erosion increases when soil remains
bare or without vegetation. In India about 86.9% soil erosion is caused by
water and 17.7% soil erosion is caused by wind. Out of the total 173.6 Mha
of total degraded land in India, soil erosion by wind and water accounts for
144.1 Mha. The surface soil is taken away by the runoff causing loss of
valuable topsoil along with nutrients, both native and applied. In India
about 5334 million tonnes (16.35 tonnes/ha/year) of soil is being eroded
annually due to agriculture and associated activities and 29% of the eroded
materials are permanently lost into the sea.
6.2.2 Chemical Problem soils
6.2.2.1 Salt affected soils: The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and
semiarid regions where evapo-transpiration greatly exceeds precipitation.
The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include sodium,
potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates.
The salt affected soils can be primarily classified as saline soil and sodic soil.
The extent and state wise distribution of salt affected soils is presented in
table 2 and 3, respectively.

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Saline soils: Saline soils is defined as soils having a conductivity of the

saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium
percentage less than 15. The pH is usually less than 8.5. Formerly, these
soils were called white alkali soils because of surface crust of white salts.
Alkali/Sodic soils: Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a
conductivity of the saturation extract less than 4 dS m-1 and an
exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15. The pH is usually
between 8.5 – 10.0. Most alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid
regions, contain CaCO3 in the profile in some form and constant hydrolysis
of CaCO3 sustains the release of OH ions in soil solution. The OH ions so
released result in the maintenance of higher pH in calcareous alkali soils
than that in non – calcareous alkali soils.
Saline-alkali: Saline-alkali soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of
the saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium
percentage greater than 15. The pH is variable and usually above 8.5
depending on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble
salts. When soils are dominated by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be
more than 8.5 and when soils are dominated by soluble salts, the pH will
be less than 8.5.

Table 2 Extent of salt-affected soils in India (‘000 ha)

S.No. State Saline soils Sodic soils Total
1 Gujarat 1680.570 541.430 2222.000
2 Uttar Pradesh 21.989 1346.971 1368.960
3 Maharashtra 184.089 422.670 606.759
4 West Bengal 441.272 0.000 441.272

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

5 Rajasthan 195.571 179.371 374.942

6 Tamil Nadu 13.231 354.784 368.015
7 Andhra Pradesh 77.598 196.609 274.207
8 Haryana 49.157 183.399 232.556
9 Bihar 47.301 105.852 153.153
10 Punjab 0.000 151.717 151.717
11 Karnataka 1.893 148.136 150.029
12 Orissa 147.138 0.000 147.138
13 Madhya 0.000 139.720 139.720
Pradesh
14 Andaman & 77.000 0.000 77.000
Nicobar Island
15 Kerala 20.000 0.000 20.000
Total 2956.809 3770.659 6727.468
Source: NRSA (National Remote Sensing Agency) Associates (1996) and
adapted from Arora and Sharma (2017)
Table 3: State-wise share (%) of salt-affected soils in India
State Sodic soils Saline soils Costal saline Total
soils
Gujarat 14.3 71.2 37.1 32.9
Uttar Pradesh 35.6 1.3 - 20.3
Maharashtra 11.2 10.4 0.6 9.0
West Bengal - - 35.4 6.5
Rajasthan 4.7 11.4 - 5.6
Tamil Nadu 9.4 - 1.1 5.5
Andhra 5.2 - 6.2 4.1
Pradesh
Haryana 4.8 2.9 - 3.4
Bihar 2.8 2.8 - 2.3
Punjab 4.0 - - 2.2
Karnataka 3.9 0.1 - 2.2
Orissa - - 11.8 2.2
Madhya 3.7 - - 1.1
Pradesh

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

Andaman & - - 6.2 0.3

Nicobar Island
Kerala - - 1.6 0.3
J&K 0.5 - -
Total 100 (3.78) 100 (1.71) 100 (1.25) 100 (6.74)
Figures in parentheses indicate total area in million ha. Source: Adapted
from Mandal et al. (2018).
6.2.2.2 Acid soils - Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration
of H+ in soil solution and at exchange sites. They are characterized by low
soil pH and with low base saturation. The ranges in soil pH and associated
degree of acidity are as follows:

pH range Nature of acidity

3-4 Very strong
4-5 Strong
5-6 Moderate
6-7 Slight

In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the evapo-transpiration and

hence leaching is predominant causing loss of bases from the soil. When
the process of weathering is drastic, the subsoil and in many cases, the
whole profile becomes acidic. State wise distribution of acid soils in India
is presented in Table 4.
Acid soils occupy approximately 60% of the earth land area and are arise
under humid climate conditions from carbonaceous less soil forming rocks
in all thermal belts of the earth.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

6.2.2.3 Acid Sulphate soils- Acid sulphate are drained coastal wetland soils
that have become acid (pH<4) due to oxidation of the pyritic minerals in
the soil. Undrained soils containing pyrites need not be acid and they are
called potential acid sulphate soils. Soil with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and
others) to become strongly acidic when drained are termed acid sulphate
soils or as the Dutch refer to those soils as cat clays. Generally acid sulphate
soils are found in coastal areas where the land is inundated by salt water.
In India, acid sulphate soil is, mostly found in Kerala, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Table 4: State wise distribution of acid soils in India (Area in ‘000 ha)
S.N State Strong Moderate Slightl Total TGA % to
o. ly ly acidic y TGA
acidic (pH 4.5 - acidic
(pH 5.5) (pH
<4.5) 5.5 -
6.5)
1. Andhra 0.0 0.0 2827.5 2827.5 27504. 10.3
Pradesh 5
2. Arunachal 4775.9 1742.7 268.8 6787.4 8374.3 81.1
Pradesh
3. Assam 23.5 2331.2 2332.7 4687.5 7843.8 59.8
4. Bihar 0.0 36.7 2324.9 2361.6 9416.3 25.1
5. Chhattisga 156.4 5930.1 4386.6 10473. 13480. 77.7
rh 0 5
6. Goa 3.6 113.7 191.1 308.3 370.2 83.3
7. Himachal 0.0 157.0 1620.6 1777.6 5567.3 31.9
Pradesh
8. Jammu & 0.0 93.3 1480.1 1573.4 22223. 7.1
Kashmir 6
9. Jharkhand 0.0 999.6 5772.1 6771.7 7971.4 84.9

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

10. Karnataka 0.0 61.4 3254.7 3316.1 19179. 17.3

1
11. Kerala 138.0 2789.6 753.2 3680.7 3886.3 94.7
12. Madhya 0.0 1124.7 10601. 11726. 30864. 38.0
Pradesh 8 5 1
13. Maharasht 0.0 240.0 4332.6 4572.6 30771. 14.9
ra 3
14. Manipur 426.9 1437.2 325.1 2189.2 2232.7 98.1
15. Meghalaya 0.0 1186.3 1054.4 2240.7 2242.9 99.9
16. Mizoram 0.0 1267.6 777.3 2044.9 2108.1 97.0
17. Nagaland 118.9 1483.3 55.7 1657.9 1657.9 100.
0
18. Orissa 0.0 261.6 8409.7 8671.3 15570. 55.7
7
19. Sikkim 278.9 323.4 2.8 605.0 709.6 85.3
20. Tamil 264.0 347.3 4294.5 4905.8 13005. 37.7
Nadu 8
21. Tripura 56.6 749.0 237.2 1042.8 1048.6 99.5
22. Uttar 0.0 0.0 337.5 337.5 24104. 1.4
Pradesh 6
23. Uttarakha 0.0 1183.6 2300.6 3484.2 5336.5 65.3
nd
24. West 0.0 555.6 4199.7 4755.3 8875.2 53.6
Bengal
25. Others* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 64381 0.0
Total 6242.6 24414.6 62141. 92798. 328726 28.2
2 4 .3
Area (%) 1.9 7.4 18.9 28.2 100 -
Others*: Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, A & N Island,
Chandigarh, D & N Haveli, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep and Pondicherry.
(Source: Maji et al., 2012)

6.2.2.4 Calcareous soil - Calcareous soil that contains enough free calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and give effervescence visibly releasing CO2 gas when

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

treated with dilute 0.1 N hydrochloric acid. The pH of calcareous soil is >
8.5 and it is also regarded as an alkaline (Basic) soil.

6.2.2.5 Man-made polluted soils - Soil contamination is the presence of

man-made chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil environment.
This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of
underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of
contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, leaching of wastes from
landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. The occurrence of this
phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and
intensity of chemical usage. The concern over soil contamination stems
primarily from health risks, both of direct contact and from secondary
contamination of water supplies.

6.2.3 Biological problems in soils

6.2.3.1 Soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial population: Biological
problems often result from management practices and anthropogenic
influence. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the main source of energy for soil
microorganisms and a trigger for nutrient availability through
mineralization. Humus participates in aggregate stability, and nutrient and
water holding capacity. Organic acids (e.g., humic acids, fulvic acids , oxalic
acid), commonly released from decomposing organic residues and
manures, prevents phosphorus fixation by clay minerals and improve its

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

plant availability, especially in subtropical and tropical soils. An increase in

SOM, and therefore total C, leads to greater biological diversity in the soil.
6.2.3.2 Soil Respiration: Soil respiration reflects the capacity of soil to
support soil life including crops, soil animals, and microorganisms. In the
laboratory, soil respiration can be used to estimate soil microbial biomass
and make some inference about nutrient cycling in the soil. Soil respiration
also provides an indication of the soil's ability to sustain plant growth.
6.2.3.3 Soil Enzymes: Absence or suppression of soil enzymes prevents or
reduces processes that can affect plant nutrition. Poor enzyme activity
(e.g., pesticide degrading enzymes) can result in an accumulation of
chemicals that are harmful to the environment; some of these chemicals
may further inhibit soil enzyme activity.
6.2.4. Nutritional problem soils
In general, the most favourable pH range for crop is between 5.5 to 6.5 in
mineral soil and 5.0 to 6.0 in organic soil.
1. Ca, K, Mg and Na are alkaline elements, which are lost with increasing
acidity whereas P is more available in acidic soil conditions.
2. Acidity can also induce deficiencies of micronutrients such as Mo and
B, although a deficiency in the latter is more commonly seen in
alkaline soils where over-liming has occurred.
3. Acidic soil often causes the stunting and yellowing of leaves, resulting
in the decrease in growth and yield of crops as the pH levels falls.
4. Plants grown in adverse pH conditions may be more prone to disease
and fungal attack.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

5. pH can affect the absorption of nutrients by plant roots pH values

above 7.5 cause iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron ions to be
less available to plants.
6. pH values below 6 cause the solubility of phosphoric acid, calcium
and magnesium to drop.
7. Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils.
Aluminium is present in all soils, but dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants;
Al3+ is most soluble at low pH, above pH 5.2 little aluminium is in
soluble form in most soils. Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as
such, is not actively taken up by the plants, but enters plant roots
passively through osmosis. Aluminium damages roots in several
ways: In root tips and Aluminium interferes with the uptake of
Calcium, an essential nutrient, as well as bind with phosphate and
interfere with production of ATP and DNA, both of which contain
phosphate. Aluminium can also restrict cell wall expansion causing
roots to become stunted.
Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References
Arora, S., and Sharma, V. (2017). Reclamation and management of salt-
affected soils for safeguarding agricultural productivity. Journal of
Safe Agriculture, 1, 1–10.

14
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Distribution of Problem soils under various Agro-
Lesson 7
ecological Regions of India
Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
Learning Objective

• Understand the reasons of development of problem soils as a

function of the agro-ecological setting and their management as per
the land capability class

Glossary of terms

1. Agro-Ecological Regions (AER): An agro-ecological region (AER) is

the land unit on earth's surface, carved out of agro- climatic
region by superimposing climate on landforms and soils, which are
the modifiers of climate and length of growing period.
2. Agro-climatic Region (ACR): An “Agro-climatic zone” is a land unit in
terms of major climates, suitable for a certain range of crops and
cultivars. Agro-climatic conditions mainly refer to soil types, rainfall,
temperature and water availability which influences the type of
vegetations.
3. Aridity Index (Ia): An aridity index (Ia) is a numerical indicator of the
degree of dryness of the climate at a given location.
4. Bioclimate: A climate or climatic zone considered or defined in
relation to living organisms and their distribution.
5. Evapotranspiration (ET): Water Transpired by plants and evaporated
from the surface of the soil or earth is known as evapotranspiration.
6. Length of Growing Period (LGP): The length of the "growing season"
or "growing period" (LGS or LGP), as defined by the Agro-Ecological
Zones, is the period (in days) during a year when precipitation
exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration.

2
 7. Moisture Index (Im): A term based on the computation of an annual
moisture budget by C. W. Thornthwaite (1955), and calculated from
the aridity and humidity indices, as Im = 100 × (S − D)/PE, where Im
is the moisture index, S is the water surplus in months when
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration , D is the water deficit in
months when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, and PE is
the potential evaporation.
8. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET): Potential
evapotranspiration (PET) is defined as the amount of evaporation
that would occur if a sufficient water source were available. If
the actual evapotranspiration is considered the net result of
atmospheric demand for moisture from a surface and the ability of
the surface to supply moisture, then PET is a measure of the demand
side.

7.1 Concept

Land, agriculture and ecology are intrinsically related and govern our
agricultural systems holistically. Climatic factors such as temperature,
rainfall, humidity, sunshine and wind are the primary determinants of
climate of any region. The climate and soil interactions provide suitable
environment for agricultural production, thatalso affect physical
processes of land degradation.
A proper understanding of potential and limitations of natural
resources is necessary for sustainable agricultural development at local,
regional, and country level. The farm output depends largely on the
components like climate, soil and land forms. Therefore, for efficient crop
3
planning in an area and transfer of technology, information concerning
requirements of crops and kinds of soils, their extent, geographic
condition and local agro-climatic conditions is essential.

To conserve natural resources for sustainable food production, an

inclusive approach is needed to create relatively homogeneous regions in
terms of soil, climate and physiography, termed as agro-ecological regions
(AER). Delineation of such regions will help understanding of agricultural
potentialities of the regions for different land uses and also for
conservation of their physical environment.

An agro-climatic region is a land unit in terms of major climate and

growth period which is climatically suitable for certain range of crops and
cultivars, where as an agro-ecological region is characterized by distinct
ecological responses to macroclimate as expressed in vegetation and
reflected in soil fauna and aquatic systems.

Therefore, an agro-ecological region is the land on earth’s surface

carved out of agro-climatic region when superimposed on different
landforms and soil conditions that acts as modifiers to the length of
growing period (LGP) and crop environmental needs.

7.2 Concept of Bio-climate and Length of Growing Period (LGP)

7.2.1 Bio-climate

The climate of a particular region is determined by meteorological

parameters like rainfall, temperature and potential evapo-transpiration
(PET). For all practical purposes, the quantification of climatic
parameters is done within one meter below the soil surface and few
4
meters above the soil surface where biological life sustains. The
bioclimatic profile consists of elements which describes the temperature
and moisture condition in the study region. The various climatic and
moisture balance indices used are Moisture Index (Im), Aridity Index (Ia),
Humidity Index (Ih), Summer Concentration (Sc).

The water balance technique and PET values are being used to
prepare a bio-climate map. It accounts for the monthly as well as annual
water surplus (WS) and water deficits (WD) determining moisture Index
(Im) in a particular ecosystem receiving specific amount of rainfall and
humidity- specific Evapo-transpiration. Water deficit and water surplus
are calculated from the potential and actual evapo-transpiration values
(Figure 1)

Water Supply Water Need

Rainfall PET

Rainfall > PET Rainfall < PET

AET = PET PET deficit AET Real Deficit

Deficit = 0 PET Surplus

Water Excess Water Drawn Aridity

STORAGE Index (Ia)

Moisture
Index (Im)

Real Humidity
Surplus Index (Ih)

Run off

5
Figure 1: Concept of Water Balance
The moisture index with positive and negative values would indicate
moist or dry climate and seasonal variation in effective moisture thermal
efficiency is indicative of radiation energy received . The summer
concentration represents the percentage of solar radiation in summer.

7.2.2 Length of the Growing Period (LGP)

The growing period or the moisture availability period of crop
growth is the period (in days) when the precipitation (P) exceeds 50% of
the (PET) plus the time required to evapo-transpire an assumed 100 mm
of stored moisture from the deep soil profile. During a normal growing
season, crop experiences a humid period (when P>PET), a moist period
(when P>0.5 PET but <PET) and moderately dry to dry period (when P<0.5
PET).
Based on the values of P and PET of humid moist and moderately
dry periods, the LGP in a year is determined. Moist period is the duration
at the beginning of rainy season when most of the crop establishment
operations are usually done. The humid period not only meets the full
evapo-transpiration demand of crop, but also replenishes moisture deficit
in the storage during the moderately dry to dry periods, the crop
progressively PET
starts drawing moisture from the storage in soil profile
(Figure 2). PET
0.5 PET

P 0.5 PET
&
P
E
T
6

Humid Period Mod.

Moist Moist Dry
Figure 2: Concept of Growing Period
National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) has
delineated 20 agro-ecological regions (AER) in the country using the FAO
concept by integrating maps depicting LGP, Bio-climate, and soil scape as
per the following scheme (Figure 3).

Rainfall Temperature Vegetation PET Rainfall PET Soil Storage

BIO CLIMATE LGP

Soils Physiography

SOIL SCAPE

AGRO ECOLOGICAL REGIONS

7
Figure 3: Delineation of Agro-ecological Regions

Agroclimatic region is the land unit in terms of major climate,

superimposed on length of growing period (moisture availability
period), and an agro-ecological zone is the land unit carved out of the
agroclimatic region, superimposed on the landform, which acts as a
modifier to climate and length of growing period (Sehgal and Abrol,
1994).
To understand implications and role of climatic and edaphic
resources in agricultural and allied sectors, the NBSS&LUP prepared an
agro-ecological map, based on the physiography, soils, bioclimate and
length of growing period (GP), and refined it through several
approximations. The data from 474 meteorological stations were used
for preparing water balances (Thornthwaite and Mather, 1955). Length
of growing period (LGP) was calculated using FAO (1983) model,
adopted after Higgins and Kassam (1981). The GP as per the model
starts when precipitation (P) exceeds 0.5 potential evapotranspiration
(PET) and ends with utilization of 100 mm of stored soil moisture once
P falls below PET. Growing period values for 474 observation sites were
plotted and isolines were drawn at 30 days intervals. It has been
observed that arid regions generally correspond with growing period of
less than 90 days and semi-arid region with 90–150 days. Subhumid
zone has GP more or less between 150 and 210 days. Humid and per-
humid zones correspond with GP of 210 to 270 days and more than 270
days per year.
Hyper arid (Eh) LGP – Less than 60
Arid (E)
8
Typical arid (Et) LGP – 60-90
7.3 The different Agro Ecological Region (AER) in India is as such:
1. Cold Arid Eco-region with Shallow Skeletal Soil.
2. Hot Arid Eco-region with Desert and Saline Soils
3. Hot Arid Eco-region with Red and Black Soils
4. Hot Semi-Arid Eco-region with Alluvium Derived soils
5. Hot Semi Arid Eco-region with Medium and Deep Black Soils
6. Hot Semi-Arid Eco-region with Shallow and Medium (Dominant) Black
Soils
7. Hot Semi Arid Eco-region with Red and Black soils
8. Hot Semi-Arid Eco-region with Red Loamy soils
9. Hot sub Humid (Dry) Eco-region with Alluvium- Derived Soils
10. Hot Subhumid Eco-region with Red and Black Soils
11. Hot Subhumid Eco-region with Red and Yellow Soils
12. Hot Subhumid Eco-region with Red and Lateritic soils

9
13. Hot Sub humid (Moist) Eco-region with Alluvium-derived soils
14. Warm Subhumid to Humid with Inclusion of Perhumid Eco-region with
Brown Forest and Podzolic Soils
15. Hot Subhumid (moist) to Humid (inclusion of perhumid) Eco-region
with alluvium-derived soils
16. Warm Perhumid Eco-region with Brown and Red Hill Soils
17. Warm Perhumid Eco-region with Red and Lateritc Soils
18. Hot Subhumid to Semi-arid Eco-region with Coastal Alluvium-derived
soils
19. Hot Humid Pemhumid Eco-region with Red, Lateritic and Alluvium-
derived soils
20. Hot Humid/Perhumid Island Eco-region with Red loamy and Sandy
Soils.

10
Table 1: Area under degraded and wastelands of India under different AERs
Degraded and wastelands classes* (’000 ha)
Total
Degraded
Area
AERs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 (’000 ha)
1 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19
2 638 123 0 0 0 11,419 1,106 6 0 110 60 0 405 1 30 0 0 8 7 13,913
3 2,341 76 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 75 47 0 0 0 20 0 2,560
4 12,109 1,024 0 1 0 6 367 7 0 0 0 0 929 423 0 1 11 14 68 14,960
5 6,455 983 3 22 0 0 184 2 0 0 0 0 25 15 0 0 5 6 0 7,700
6 10,374 257 0 0 0 0 171 6 0 0 0 0 269 175 0 0 1 17 0 11,270
7 4,376 465 12 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 79 15 0 0 1 31 0 4,986
8 4,412 391 272 151 60 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 287 36 0 17 2 48 5 5,685
9 3,122 378 3 3 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 368 293 0 2 0 9 89 4,272
10 6,934 822 119 308 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 20 0 1 0 21 0 8,288
11 3,843 514 653 726 159 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 3 0 0 0 16 0 5,925

11
12 4,917 1,512 469 1,089 142 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 24 8,193
13 3,803 48 41 41 0 0 40 9 0 0 0 5 2 24 0 0 0 1 163 4,177
14 4,009 1,025 75 289 222 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 4 61 5,695
15 2,011 213 647 1,229 328 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 242 4,735
16 576 229 275 651 782 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 2,523
17 210 992 439 516 5,330 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 31 7,519
18 928 48 43 12 3 0 574 4 0 0 0 25 115 6 0 0 0 10 83 1,851
19 2,944 187 2,029 674 76 0 40 1 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 76 6,062
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 77
Total 74,021 9,287 5,080 5,719 7,130 11,425 2,631 39 20 110 60 30 2,610 1,058 30 21 20 260 859 120,410
Source: NBSSLUP, Wasteland Atlas (2011)
Note: Classes*: 1. Exclusively water erosion (>10 tonnes /ha/yr); Water erosion under open forest, 2. Forest; 3.
Exclusively acid soils (pH <5.5); 4. Acid soils under water erosion; 5. Acid soils under open forest; 6. Exclusively wind
erosion; 7. Exclusively saline soils; 8. Eroded saline soils; 9. Acid saline soils; 10.Saline soils under wind erosion; 11.
Saline soils under open forest; 12.Water logged saline soils; 13. Exclusively sodic soils; 14.Eroded sodic soils; 15.
Sodic soils under wind erosion; 16. Sodic soils under open forest; 17. Eroded sodic soils under open forest;
18.Mining / Industrial waste; 19. Waterlogged area (Permanent).

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

The area estimates of the degraded and wastelands in different AERs

(Table 1) reveal that region 4 is highly degraded with area coverage of
14,960 thousand ha. The other AERs having appreciably high area
coverage are AER-2 (13,913 thousand ha), AER-5 (11,270 thousand ha),
AER-10 (8,288 thousand ha), AER-12 (8,193 thousand ha), and AER-17
(7,519 thousand ha). Though all the AERs are affected but the least
affected are AER-1 and AER-20.

Water erosion (classes 1, 2) has affected almost all AERs and AERs
with large affected areas are: AER-4 (13,133 thousand ha), AER-6 (10,631
thousand ha), AER-5 (7,438 thousand ha), AER-12 (6,429 thousand ha),
AER-14 (5,034 thousand ha), AER-7 (4,841 thousand ha) and AER-8 (4,803
thousand ha). Least affected AERs are AER-20, AER-1 and AER-17. Soil
acidity (classes 3, 4, 5) has been observed in all AERs, excepting AER-1,
AER-2, AER-3 and AER-20. Very little land areas are affected in AER-4 and
AER-6. Highly affected AERs are AER-17 (6,285 thousand ha), AER-19
(2,779 thousand ha), AER-15 (2,204 thousand ha), AER-12 (1,700
thousand ha) and AER-11 (1,538 thousand ha).

Salinity affected (classes 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12) agro-ecological regions are

located in the semi-arid and sub-humid climatic zones of the country.
Highest area coverage with salinity is in AER-2 (1,282 thousand ha),
followed by AER-18 and AER-4 with 603 and 374 thousand ha,
respectively.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Sodicity and salinity are observed in combination in some of the AERs.

Notable among them are AER-2, AER-4, AER-6 and AER-18. Agroclimatic
conditions coupled with management practices (including irrigation) are
the main reasons for the development of soil sodicity. Highest sodicity
(classes 13, 14, 15, 16, 17) is observed in AER-4 (1,364 thousand ha),
followed by AER-9 (663 thousand ha), AER-6 (445 thousand ha), AER-2
(436 thousand ha), AER-8 (342 thousand ha), and it is not a problem in
AER-1, AER-11, AER-12, AER-15, AER-16, AER-17, AER-19 and AER-
20.Wind erosion (class 6) is predominant in AER-2 and has a little affected
area in AER-4.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References
FAO. (1983). FAO Statistical Yearbook. Rome.
Higgins, G.M. and Kassam, A.H. (1981). The FAO agro ecological zone
approach to determination of land potential. Pedologie, XI, 2, 147-
168.
Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I.P. 1994. Soil Degradation in India Status and
Impact. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 80.
Thornthwaite, C.W. and Mather, J.R. 1955. The water balance.
Laboratory of Climatology, No. 8, Centerton NJ.

14
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Saline Soils - Properties and its Impact in
Lesson 8
Agriculture
Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives

• Learn about the electrical conductivity of soil suspension, its

dependence on salt content of soils and the sources of soluble salts
• Understand the ecology of saline soils, the reasons for their
development (natural and anthropogenic) and the constraints in
agricultural production on these soils.

Glossary of terms

1. Electrical conductivity (EC): Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure

of the amount of salts in soil.
2. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP): ESP corresponds to the
amount of adsorbed sodium, compared to the CEC and is expressed
as
ESP = (Exchangeable Na/CEC) x 100

3. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): It is derived from the concentration

of sodium, calcium and magnesium in the soil solution.
𝐍𝐚⁺
SAR =
√𝐂𝐚²⁺+𝐌𝐠²⁺

4. Soil Alkalinity: A soil raising the pH reaction of 8.5 or above, found

especially in dry areas, where the soluble salts, especially
the sodium, have not been leached away but have accumulated in
the B horizon of the soil profile.

5. Soil Salinity: Soil salinity is defined as high concentration of soluble

salts including Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ in soils, causing more than 4 dS/m

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

for soil electrical conductivity, which is comparable to 0.2 MPa of

Osmotic Potential produced by 40 mM sodium chloride (NaCl) in the
solution.

8.1 Introduction

Soil salinity is a measure of the concentration of all the soluble salts in soil
water, and is usually expressed as electrical conductivity (EC). The major
soluble mineral salts are the cations: sodium, calcium, magnesium,
potassium and the anions: chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, carbonate and
nitrate.

From the point of view of defining saline soils, when the electrical
conductivity of a soil extract from a saturated paste (ECe) equals, or
exceeds 4 deci Siemens per meter (dS m-1) at 25 0C, the soil is said to be
saline (USSL Staff 1954).

8.2 Occurrence in India

Around 6.727 million ha area in India, which is around 2.1% of geographical

area of the country, is salt-affected (Figure 1), of which 2.956 million ha is
saline (Figure 2) and rest 3.771 million ha is sodic. Around 2.347 million ha
of the salt-affected soils occur in the Indo-Gangetic plains of the country,
of which 0.56 million ha are saline and 1.787 million ha are sodic. Nearly
75% of salt-affected soils in the country exist in the states of Gujarat (2.23
million ha), Uttar Pradesh (1.37 million ha), Maharashtra (0.61 million ha),
West Bengal (0.44 million ha), and Rajasthan (0.38 million ha).

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 1 Distribution of salt affected soils in India (Das,

2002)

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 2 Distribution of saline soils in India (Das, 2002)

8.3. Salinity development in soil- A hypothetical cycle

Salts water irrigation Salt impermeability

due to high Na

Salts accumulation

Leaching

Seepage from Needs more water

the system

Water table rise

Restriction to leaching

Capillary rise and evaporation

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 3 Hypothetical cycle for soil salinity development (Adapted from

Zaman et al., 2018)
Generally, salt-affected soils of the arid regions belong to the order
Aridisols. However, in some other regions, salt-affected soils have also
been classified under the orders Alfisols, Mollisols, Inceptisols and
Vertisols. The most common diagnostic horizon is ochric epipedon; sub
surface horizon can be argillic, natric, cambic, calcic, gypsic and/or salic.
Mica (illite) is the dominant clay mineral followed by kaolinite in the salt-
affected soils of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Other minerals present include
chlorite, vermiculite, calcite, K-feldspars, sepiolite and anatase. Salt-
affected black soils are rich in swelling and shrinking minerals, i.e.
smectites. In addition to the dominance of montmorillonite, these soils
also contain varying amounts of chlorite, illite and kaolinite minerals

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

depending upon the type of geological formation and history of soil

development (Figure 3).

8.4 Units of soil salinity

Salinity is generally expressed as total dissolved solutes (TDS) in milli gram

per liter (mg l-1) or parts per million (ppm). It can also be expressed as total
soluble salts (TSS) in milli equivalents per liter (meq l-1).

The salinity (EC) was originally measured as milli mhos per cm (mmho
cm-1), an old unit which is now obsolete. Soil Science has now adopted the
SI a unit in which mho has been replaced by Siemens (S). Currently used SI
units for EC are:

• milli Siemens per centimeter (mS cm-1) or

• deci Siemens per meter (dS m-1)

The units can be presented as:

1mmho cm-1 = 1 dSm-1 = 1mS cm-1 = 1000 micro Siemens per cm

(1000 μS cm-1)
• EC readings are usually taken and reported at a standard
temperature of 25 0C.
• For accurate results, EC meter should be checked with 0.01 N
solution of KCl, which should give reading of 1.413 dS m-1 at 25 0C.

8.5 Classification of salt affected soil

The US Salinity Laboratory Staff in 1954 grouped salt-affected soils into

three general categories for management purposes (Table 1):

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

Table 1 Classification of salt affected soil

Salt- Soil Electrical Sodium Exchangeable Typical soil

affected pH conductivity adsorption sodium physical
soil (pHs) (ECe) ratio (SAR) percentage condition
(ds m-1) (ESP) (soil
structure)
Saline <8.5 >4 <13 <15 flocculated
Sodic >8.5 <4 >13 >15 dispersed
Saline- >8.5 >4 >13 >15 flocculated
sodic

a. Saline soils (also called “white alkali” or “solonchak” soils): Soils

containing calcium, magnesium, and sodium as predominant exchangeable
cations (Ca and Mg more than Na), and sulfate, chloride, and nitrate the
predominant anions; sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) <13; exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) <15 of total CEC; pH <8.5; EC of saturation extract
>4 dS m-1; white colour due to white crust of salts on the surface; good
permeability for water and air; salt problems in general; the salt
concentration is enough to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants;
mostly found in arid or semi-arid regions where less rainfall and high

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

evaporation rates tend to concentrate the salts in soils; rarely found in

humid regions.

b. Sodic soils (also called “non-saline sodic soils” or “alkali soils,” or

“solonetz”): Soils high in exchangeable sodium compared to calcium and
magnesium; sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate are the
predominant salts; SAR >13; ESP >15; pH = 8.5–10.0; EC of saturation
extract < 4 dS m-1; black colour; poor permeability for water and air; soils
formed due to exchange of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions by Na+ ions; generate
problems with sodium.

c. Saline-sodic soils: These soils are transitional between saline and sodic
soils; SAR >13, ESP >15, pH >8.5; EC of saturation extract >4 dS m-1; air and
water permeability depends on the sodium content; soils formed due to
combined processes of salinization and alkalization; problems with sodium
and other salts; leaching converts these soils into sodic soils.

The selection of the critical value for ECe 4 dS m-1 to distinguish a

saline soil from non-saline soil is based on the expected salt damage to
crops. At this level, the yield of many crops is restricted. At ECe values
between 2 and 4 dS m-1, the growth of only sensitive crops is affected.
Below ECe value of 2 dS m-1, the effect of salinity is negligibly small. Use of
ESP value of 15 is arbitrary since no sharp changes in soil properties have
been observed as the proportion of Na+ ions on the exchange complex is
increased. The U.S. Salinity laboratory has used, from history and

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

experience, the ESP value of 15 as a boundary limit to distinguish sodic

from the non-sodic soils.

Based on Indian experience, saline and sodic soils are distinguished

on the basis of preponderance of chlorides and sulphates over that of
sodium. If Na+/(Cl- + SO42-) ratio is less than 1 and pH of the saturated soil
paste (pHs) is less than 8.2, the soil is designated as saline and if ratio of
Na+/(Cl- + SO42-) is more than 1.0 and pHs is more than 8.2, soil is defined
as the sodic.

The two main groups of salt-affected soils, i.e., saline soils and sodic
soils differ not only in their chemical characteristics but also in their
geographical and geochemical distribution, as well as in their physical and
biological properties. In nature the various sodium salts do not occur
absolutely separately, but in most cases either the neutral salts or the ones
capable of alkaline hydrolysis or both these processes exercise a dominant
role on the soil-forming processes and therefore in determining whether
the soil is saline, sodic or saline-sodic in nature (Table 2).

Table 2 Distinguishing features of saline and sodic soils

Characteristics Saline soils Sodic soils

1. Chemical a) Dominated by neutral a) Appreciable quantities of

soluble salts consisting of neutral soluble salts
chlorides and sulphates generally absent.
of sodium, calcium and Measurable to appreciable
magnesium. quantities of salts capable

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

of alkaline hydrolysis, e.g.

Na2CO3, present.
b) pH of saturated soil b) pH of the saturated soil
paste is less than 8.2. paste is more than 8.2.
c) An electrical c) An exchangeable sodium
conductivity of the percentage (ESP) of 15 or
saturated soil extract more is the generally
(ECe) of more than 4 dS accepted limit above which
m-1 at 25 °C is the soils are classed as ‘sodic’.
generally accepted limit ECe is generally less than 4
above which soils are dS m-1 at 25 °C but may be
classed as ‘saline’. more if appreciable
quantities of Na2CO3 etc.
are present.
d) No well-defined d) A well-defined
relationship between pH relationship between pHs
of the saturated soil and the ESP of the soil or
paste and ESP of the soil the SARe for an otherwise
or the sodium adsorption similar group of soils such
ratio of the saturation that the pH can serve as an
extract (SARe). approximate index of soil
sodicity (alkali) status.
e) Although Na is e) Sodium is the dominant
generally the dominant soluble cation. High pH of
soluble cation, the soil the soils results in
solution also contains precipitation of soluble Ca
appreciable quantities of and Mg such that their
divalent cations, e.g. Ca concentration in the soil
and Mg. solution becomes very low.
f) Soils may contain f) Gypsum is nearly always
significant quantities of absent in such soils.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

sparingly soluble calcium

compounds, like gypsum.
2. Physical a) In the presence of a) Excess exchangeable
excess neutral soluble sodium and high pH result
salts, the clay fraction is in the dispersion of clay and
flocculated and the soils the soils have an unstable
have a stable structure. structure.
b) Permeability of soils to b) Permeability of soils to
water and air and other water and air is restricted.
physical characteristics Physical properties of the
are generally comparable soils become worse with
to normal soils. increasing levels of
exchangeable sodium and
pH.
3. Effect on Plant growth is adversely Plant growth is adversely
plant growth affected through i) effect affected through: i) the
of excess salts on the dispersive effect of excess
osmotic pressure of soil exchangeable sodium
solution resulting in resulting in poor physical
reduced availability of properties, ii) effect of high
water to plant roots and soil pH on nutritional
(ii) toxicity of specific imbalances including a
ions, e.g. Na, Cl, B, etc. deficiency of calcium and iii)
toxicity of specific ions, e.g.
Na, CO3, HCO3, Mo, etc.
4. Soil Improvement of saline Improvement of sodic soils
improvement soils essentially requires essentially requires the
removal of soluble salts replacement of sodium in
in the root zone through the soil exchange complex
leaching and drainage. by calcium through use of
Application of soil amendments such as

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

amendments is generally gypsum and leaching and

not required. drainage of salts resulting
from reaction of
amendments to reduce
exchangeable sodium.
5. Geographic Saline soils generally Sodic soils generally occur
distribution occur in arid and semi- in semi-arid and sub-humid
arid regions. regions.
6. Ground Ground water in areas Groundwater in areas
water quality dominated by saline soils dominated by sodic soils
has generally high has generally low to
electrolyte concentration medium electrolyte
and poses a potential concentration and some of
salinity hazard. it may have high residual
alkalinity having a potential
sodicity hazard.
(Choudhary and Kharche, 2018)

8.6 Sources of Salinity and Alkalinity

The main sources and causes of salt accumulation include:

• Geo-chemical weathering of rocks and parent materials and the salts

brought down from the upstream to the plains by rivers and
subsequent deposition along with alluvial materials
• Derived directly from sea water by flooding or intrusion into
groundwater resources
• Salt-laden sand blown by sea winds

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Indiscriminate and injudicious use of irrigation waters of different

qualities
• Capillary rise from subsoil salt beds or from shallow brackish ground
water
• Lack of natural leaching due to topographic situation and economic
activities in arid and semi-arid regions
The major constituents of dissolved salts in soil are the cations viz. sodium
(Na+), calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+), and the anions viz. chloride
(Cl-), sulphate (SO42–), carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3–). The
salinity can be expressed as electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation
water (ECw), the soil water (ECss) or the saturated soil extract (ECe).
Sodicity is measured in the soil by exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
and in soil solution by sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).

8.7 Soil salinization processes (Types of soil salinity)

On the basis of types of source, salinization is classified into two types:

8.7.1 Natural processes of soil salinization (i.e., primary salinization)

a. Weathering of parent material: During the process of weathering of

rock minerals or sediments with high salt content (physically, chemically,
and biologically), salts are released and made soluble. They are transported
away from their source of origin through surface or groundwater streams.
In arid regions, the concentration of salts gradually increases until they
start precipitating in soil due to limited natural precipitation and leaching,
high evaporation and transpiration rates. Low-lying areas with high

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

groundwater table and locked topography favours salinization (Kumar and

Sharma, 2020).

b. Fossil salts: The fossil salt deposits (e.g., marine and lacustrine deposits)
are also responsible for salinization in arid regions. Fossil salts can be
dissolved underwater storage or water transmission structures causing
salinization (Bresler et al., 1982).

c. Salinization in coastal lands: The ingression of sea-water along the coast

increases salt contents in coastal areas (Rao et al., 2014). The salt-laden
winds and rains (sea sprays) along sea coasts carry oceanic salts along with
them in quantities sufficient to cause salinization in coastal areas. The sea
sprays may contain salt content as high as 14.2 μg m−3, and may show
impact as deep as 80 km inland or even more. The coastal regions are also
exposed to the risk of progressive salinization of land due to processes like
storms, cyclones, tidal surges, flooding etc.

d. Transport of salts in rivers: The salts brought down from the upstream
by rivers to the plains and their deposition along with alluvial materials and
weathering of rocks may also cause salinization.

8.7.2 Anthropogenic reasons of soil salinization (i.e., secondary

salinization)

a. Land clearing for cultivation: Replacement of perennial vegetation with

annual crops, may result into soil salinization due to saline seepage
process. Change of land use from natural forest vegetation to annual food

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

crops decreases evapotranspiration and increases leaching. The presence

of impermeable/less permeable subsoil layers may intercept the
percolating water passing through saline sediments resulting in lateral
seepage, causing salinization in low lying areas.

b. Incorrect irrigation: Indiscriminate use of brackish and saline irrigation

water, poor drainage conditions, rising water tables etc., lead to secondary
salinization of land and water resources (Rao et al., 2014). Even irrigation
with good quality water over a period of time in the absence of proper soil-
water-crop management practices may cause salinization. Fall of
civilizations like Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Mohanzoadaro, and Indus
Valley are glaring examples of imminent occurrence of salinity following
irrigation (Dagar, 2005). Currently worldwide 310 million ha area is
irrigated, out of which 20–33% area is estimated to be salt-affected.
Irrigation with sea water causes salinization in coastal areas.

c. Over extraction of groundwater: It brings salts to soil surface where they

get precipitated when water evaporates.

d. Canal water seepage: It is a serious problem leading to rise in water

table and salinity development along the banks of canals. Water-logging
and soil salinization in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Priyojna (IGNP) area in India
is a glaring example of this process. Around 50% of the command area of
IGNP has experienced water-logging (Tewari et al., 1997).

e. Over-use of agro-chemicals: Over-use of chemical fertilizers and soil

amendments (lime and gypsum) may also lead to soil salinization.

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

f. Use of waste effluents: Use of sewage sludge and/or untreated sewage

effluent, dumping of industrial brine onto the soil etc. may also cause soil
salinization concerning to the entry of heavy metals into soils.

At several occasions the socio-economic and political considerations

become extremely important in accelerating soil salinization processes.
Many times, such factors are beyond the control of individual farmers.
Some of such examples, especially in developing countries, may be the ill-
conceived or poorly implemented irrigation schemes, intensive vs.
extensive irrigation, over-irrigation due to zero water pricing, small and
scattered land holdings etc. It is, therefore, the responsibility of respective
governments to take appropriate policy decisions and corrective measures
in order to keep a check on soil salinization.

8.8 Visual Indicators of Soil Salinity

Once soil salinity develops in irrigated agriculture fields, it is easy to see the
effects on soil properties and plant growth. Visual indicators of soil
salinization (Shahid and Rahman, 2011) include:

• White salt crusts

• Soil surface exhibits fluffy
• Salt stains on the dry soil surface
• Reduced or no seed germination
• Patchy crop establishment
• Reduced plant vigour

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Foliage damage – leaf burn

• Marked changes in leaf colour and shape occur
• The occurrence of naturally growing halophytes – indicator plants,
increases
• Trees are either dead or dying
• Affected area worsens after a rainfall
• Waterlogging

8.9 Impact of Saline soil in Agriculture

The soil salinization has tremendous environmental, ecological,

agricultural, and social impacts in terms of shrinkage of agricultural lands,
low agricultural productivity, uncertain and unstable livelihood security,
low economic returns, and poor quality of life.

Excess salts in soil affect the metabolism of soil flora and fauna,
leading ultimately to the destruction of all soil life, transforming fertile and
productive lands into barren and desert lands. Soils are rendered useless
agriculturally as well as for several other purposes (e.g., construction
work). The salt accumulation damages existing infrastructure, farm
machinery, waterways, roads etc. History records that soil salinization
were partly responsible for the collapse of ancient civilizations like
Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Mohanzoadaro, and Indus Valley (Dagar, 2005).

Salinity affects almost all aspects of plant development including

germination, vegetative growth, and reproductive development due to
drought and high soil salinity, and harsh environmental conditions. Plants

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

in salt-affected environments experience two types of stress, the osmotic

stress and nutrient stress. The osmotic stress is due to low osmotic
potential of water in saline soils which adversely affects water absorption
by plants. Nutrient stress is due to both toxicity (Na, Cl, B) and deficiency
of plant nutrients (N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn). It also results in nutritional
imbalances. Soil salinity significantly reduces phosphorus uptake by plants
because phosphate ions precipitate with Ca ions. Gujarat and Uttar
Pradesh have the largest salt-affected area (>50% of cultivated area) in the
country. These two states alone share around 79% monetary losses in the
country. All these states deserve policy attention for management of salt-
affected areas to reduce the crop production and monetary loss. Peoples’
living standard, daily life activities, and socio-economic conditions are
adversely affected. Farmers in response to salinity problem are forced to
shift their livelihood strategies. Farmers in salt affected areas are generally
resource constrained and require financial and technical assistance to
sustain their livelihood efforts. Such degraded ecosystems, nevertheless,
offer immense opportunities to harness the productivity potential through
appropriate technological interventions. Even marginal to modest gains in
crop yields in such soils would mean dramatic improvements in the lives of
thousands of poor farmers in salinity affected regions in a country facing
many challenges in agriculture.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

19
 Problematic soils and their Management

References

Bresler, E., McNeal, B. L., and Carter, D. L. (1982). Saline and Sodic Soils:
Principles-Dynamics-Modeling. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg, 227.

Choudhary, O. and Kharche, Vilas. (2018). Soil Salinity and Sodicity. In book:
Soil Science: An Introduction. pp.353-384.

Dagar, J. C. (2005). Salinity research in India: an overview. Bull. National

Institute of Ecology 15, 69–80.

Das, D.K. (2002). Introductory Soil Science, Kalyani. Publishers, New Delhi.
6.

Kumar, P. and Sharma, P. K. (2020). Soil Salinity and Food Security in India.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food System, 4, 533781.doi:
10.3389/fsufs.2020.533781

Rao, G. G., Khandelwal, M. K., Arora, S., and Sharma, D. K. (2014). Salinity
ingress in coastal Gujarat: appraisal of control measures. Journal of
Soil Salinity and Water Quality, 4, 102–113.

Shahid, S. and Rehman, K. (2011). Soil salinity development, classification,

assessment and management in irrigated agriculture. Handbook of
Plant and Crop Stress. 23-39.

Tewari, V. P., Arrawatia, M. L., and Kumar, K. (1997). Problem of soil salinity
and water logging in Indira Gandhi Canal area of Rajasthan State.
Annals of Biology, 13, 7–13.

20
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 9 Reclamation and Management of Saline Soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives

• Recognize the constrained plant water relations, nature of salts,

process for their removal from the root zone, crop selection and
management interventions for sustainable agricultural production
under saline conditions.
• Understand the soil water relations, nutrient relations, chemistry of
saline soils and salinity parameters for characterization of saline
soils.

Glossary of terms

1. Bioremediation: Bioremediation is a process used to treat

contaminated media, including water, soil and subsurface material,
by altering environmental conditions to stimulate growth of
microorganisms and degrade the target pollutants.

2. Drainage: The removal of excess water either from the ground

surface or from the root zone is called drainage. Excess water may
be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may
also have other origins such as canal seepage or floods.
3. Leaching: Means the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the
soil; or applying a small amount of excess irrigation to avoid soil
salinity.
4. Gypsum Requirement (GR): The quantity of gypsum or its equivalent
required to reduce the exchangeable sodium fraction of a given
amount of soil to an acceptable level where dispersion of soil colloids
does not take place.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

5. Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process

that uses various types of plants to remove, transfer, stabilize,
and/or destroy contaminants in the soil and groundwater.
6. Soil Reclamation: Soil Reclamation is the process of reclaiming the
soil’s quality like lost fertility, minerals, nutrients and moisture to
make it fit for intensive use again. The reclamation of soil, its
nutrients and fertility are done with an objective to increase further
land use and enhance agricultural activities like cropping and
irrigation.

9.1 Introduction

Saline lands can be converted to more productive croplands by preventing

the influx of salt water through proper farm management practices,
correcting soil toxicities and nutrient deficiencies, and leaching the salts
out of the root zone. Leaching of soluble salts with ponded fresh water,
sub-surface drainage, mulching between two irrigations and during fallow
period, judicious irrigation management are some of the effective and
well-known technological intervention to tackle the problems of water-
logging and soil salinity (Arora and Sharma, 2017). The subsurface drainage
technology has been successfully adopted in Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka,
restoring around 110,000 ha waterlogged saline soils (Sharma et al., 2014).
The reclamation costs can be reduced by growing salt-tolerant cultivars.
These practices are discussed below.

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

9.2 Importance of reclamation of salt-affected soils and food security in

India

It is estimated that due to soil salinization, India loses around Rs. 230.20
billion annually equivalent to the loss in crop production to the tune of
16.84 million tons (Mandal et al., 2018). The Indian Government,
therefore, has attached highest priority to the policy planning for the
reclamation of degraded lands, including salt affected soils in the country.
The Indian Government is keen to restore 26 million ha of degraded lands
by the year 2030 in order to ensure food security in the country. Significant
research efforts have been made during the last 4 decades with
encouraging results. The response of the farming community in salt-
affected regions is overwhelming.

Sharma and Chaudhari (2012) reported reclamation of 1.5 million ha

of salt-affected soils in the country, with addition of around 15 million tons
of food grains to the national food basket annually. It provided additional
income of around Rs. 13.5 billion per annum, and also generated 8.33
million man-days per year in terms of on-farm and off-farm rural
employment opportunities. According to a recent publication of Mandal et
al. (2018), around 2.18 million ha salt-affected soils (0.11 million ha saline
soils and 2.07 million ha sodic soils) have been reclaimed in India. The
reclamation has been achieved through gypsum technology in saline soils
and sub-surface drainage technology in sodic soils. It has contributed an
estimated 17.16 million tons of food-grains per annum (16.6 million tons
from saline soils and 0.56 million tons from sodic soils) to the national food

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

basket, with additional income of as high as Rs. 15.5 billion annually

(Mandal et al., 2018).

The technological interventions on other aspects of salt affected soils

such as alternate land-use systems, saline aquaculture, cultivation of salt
tolerant crop varieties, agroforestry, phytoremediation, bioremediation
etc. have proved their worth by positively influencing food and nutritional
security, women empowerment, involvement of landless labourers and
minimizing rural migration, besides restoration of the ecological balance
by its positive impact on environment (Sharma and Chaudhari, 2012).

9.3 Various Reclamation Management techniques

a. Farm management practices

Salinity can be restricted by adopting the alternative farm

management practices. Munns et al. (2002) proposed that irrigated
agriculture could be sustained by better irrigation practices such as
adoption of partial root zone drying methodology, and drip or micro-jet
irrigation to optimize use of water. They suggested that, salinity could also
be contained by reducing the amount of water passing beyond the roots
by reintroducing deep rooted perennial plants that continue to grow and
use water during the seasons that do not support annual crop plants. This
may restore the balance between rainfall and water use, thus preventing
rising water tables and the movement of salt to the soil surface. Deep-
rooted perennial lucerne (Medicago sativa) has been found to lower the
water table sufficiently to allow subsequent cropping. Such practices will

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

rely on plants that have a high degree of salt tolerance. Salt tolerance in
crops will also allow the more effective use of poor-quality irrigation water.
Niknam and McComb (2000) suggested that trees could be planted to take
up some of the excess salt since they have high water use and can lower
water tables to reduce salt discharge into streams and prevent secondary
salinization of the surrounding areas. However, it has not been proven to
what extend the tree planting would assist in preventing salt stress in
neighbouring fields.

b. Amelioration through fertilization

Salinity causes nutrient imbalances, mainly resulting in lower

concentrations of the microelements (N, P, K and Ca) in plant tissues.
Hence, the most direct way to recover the normal nutrient concentrations
within the plant would be by raising their concentrations in the root zone
on application of higher dosages of fertilizer. Many studies have shown
that salt-stress can be alleviated by an increased supply of calcium to the
growth medium. Depending on the concentration ratio, sodium and
calcium can replace each other from the plasma membrane, and calcium
might reduce salt toxicity. Increased Na+ in the growth medium generally
decreases the K+ content, suggesting an antagonism between Na+ and K+.
Addition of K+ to the nutrient solution has been found to raise K+
concentrations in the leaves and ameliorate salinity stress effects. The
effect of salinity on P in plants depends on P concentration in the nutrient
solution. At high P concentrations, leaf injury has been interpreted as P

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

toxicity induced by salinity. However, at low P concentrations in the root

medium, salinity was reported to inhibit P uptake by roots and
translocation to the shoot. At low P concentration in the root medium,
supplementary P applied to the saline growth medium enhanced the
capacity of tomato plant to regulate Na+, Cl- and K+ distribution, and
improved plant growth. Under salt stress conditions, the uptake of N by
plants is generally affected, and application of supplementary N has been
found to ameliorate the deleterious effects of salinity. The approach of
raising fertilizer dosages may work for irrigation with water at low salt
concentrations. When water of high salinity is applied, however, the
concentration of antagonistic ions required is so high that it causes a
marked increase in the osmotic pressure of the soil solution, compounding
the stress imposed by the salinity creating ions. Furthermore, in some
species a very high concentration of nutrients, e.g. P, could interact
negatively with salinity ions, resulting in severe toxic effects.

c. Leaching and Drainage

Leaching soils to remove soluble salts is the most effective method known
to reclaim saline soils. This requires good permeability of the soil and good
quality irrigation water. Removal of salts by leaching reduces salt hazard
for plants but might cause permeability to decrease and pH to increase
resulting in decomposition of roots as soil is changed from saline sodic to
sodic. Although the best long-term solution to salinization is to provide
adequate drainage, this process is expensive. Hence, many irrigation

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

schemes, particularly in developing countries there is lacking of adequate

drainage facilities. Provision of lateral and main drainage channels of 60
cm deep and 45 cm wide and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils. Sub-
surface drainage is an effective tool for lowering the water table, removal
of excess salts and prevention of secondary salinization of ions like
chloride, sulphate, etc.

d. Uses of salt stress tolerant plants

Some areas have naturally occurring salinity and salt-tolerant crop plants
may provide a better or perhaps the only means of utilizing these resources
for food production. Salinity can possibly also be managed through
biologically manipulating the plants. Identification of plant genotypes with
tolerance to salt, and incorporation of desirable traits into economically
useful crop plants, may reduce the effects of salinity on productivity (Table
1). Developing crop plants tolerant to salinity has the potential of making
an important contribution to food production in many countries. This will
permit the use of low-quality water and thereby reduce some of the
demand for higher quality water. Great effort is, therefore, being directed
toward the development of salt-tolerant crop genotypes through the use
of plant-breeding strategies involving the introgression of the genetic
background from salt-tolerant wild species into cultivated plants.
However, it should be borne in mind that there is also the risk that the
availability of salt tolerant genotypes will result in less effort to reclaim

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

saline areas or to prevent salinization. In the longer term this will be

counter-productive.

Table 1 Salt tolerant crop

Field crops Vegetables & Fruits

Plant species Threshold Plant species Threshold
salinity (dSm-1) salinity (dSm-1)
Barley 8.0 Sugarbeet 7.0
Cotton 7.7 Peas 3.4
Sorghum 6.8 Cucumber 2.5
Wheat 6.0 Tomato 2.5
Soybean 5.0 Cabbage 1.8
Sunflower 4.8 Potato 1.7
Groundnut 3.2 Onion, Radish 1.2
Rice 3.0 Carrot 1.0
Maize 1.7 Citrus 1.7
Sugarcane 1.7 Strawberry 1.0

e. Soil/cultural management

Planting the seed in the centre of the raised bed/ridge may affect the
germination as it is the spot of greatest salt accumulation. A better salinity
control can be achieved by using sloping beds with seeds planted on the
sloping side just above the water line. Alternate furrow irrigation is
advantageous as the salts can be displaced beyond the single seed row.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

Application of straw mulch had been found to curtail the evaporation from
soil surface resulting in the reduced salt concentration in the root zone
profile within 30 days.

f. Irrigation management

Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water
and then using for irrigation reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow
irrigation favours growth of plant than flooding. Drip, sprinkler and pitcher
irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood
irrigation method since relatively lesser amount of water is used under
these improved methods.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References

Arora, S., and Sharma, V. (2017). Reclamation and management of salt-

affected soils for safe guarding agricultural productivity. Journal of
Safe Agriculture, 1, 1–10.

Mandal, S., Raju, R., Kumar, A., Kumar, P., and Sharma, P. C. (2018). Current
status of research, technology response and policy needs of salt-
affected soils in India – a review. Indian Society for Coastal
Agriculture and Research, 36, 40–53.

10
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Sodic Soils - Properties, Management &
Lesson 10
Reclamation
Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives

• Understand the dispersive action and constrained infiltration profile

with sodium salts, practices for improvement and sustained
production from sodic soils
• Understand the concept of irrigation water quality, chemistry of
sodic soils and parameters for characterization of soil sodicity

Glossary of terms

1. Flushing: Washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing

water over the surface is sometimes used to desalinize soils having
surface salt crusts.
2. Leaching requirement (LR): It can be defined as “Fraction of
irrigation water that must be leached through root zone to control
soil salinity at any specific level.”
3. Phytoaccumulation: Process by which plants remove excess salts
from soil through root absorption and accumulate them in their
biomass. Also termed as phyto-extraction
4. Salt Balance: A salt mass balance considers the amount of water plus
salt entering a system and the amount of water plus salt leaving.
When inputs and outputs are in balance, the system is said to be in
equilibrium.
5. Scraping: Removing of the salts that have accumulated on the soil
surface by mechanical means.
6. Sodicity: Soil sodicity is the accumulation of sodium salt relative to
other types of salt cations, especially calcium. An increase in soil

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

pH and decreases in calcium and magnesium usually accompany this

process.
7. Surface Sealing: Surface seal is defined as the orientation and
packing of dispersed soil particles which have disintegrated from the
soil aggregates due to the impact of rain drops. By definition, surface
seals are formed at the very surface of the soil, rendering it relatively
impermeable to water.
8. Trenching: It is the process of digging small pits on the field and
taking the sub soil on the surface and vice versa in order to bury the
saline soils.

10.1 Introduction

Sodicity is a measure of sodium ions in soil water, relative to calcium and

magnesium ions. It is expressed either as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) or
as the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). If the SAR of the soil equals
or is greater than 13 (mmoles l-1)0.5, or the ESP equals or is greater than 15,
the soil is termed sodic (USSL Staff 1954). Sodic soils (also called “non-
saline sodic soils” or “alkali soils,” or “solonetz”) are high in exchangeable
sodium compared to calcium and magnesium; sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate are the predominant salts; SAR >13; ESP >15; pH = 8.5–
10.0; EC of saturation extract < 4 dS m−1; black color; poor permeability for
water and air; soils formed due to exchange of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions by Na+
ions; sodium problems.

10.2 Visual Indicators of Soil Sodicity

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil sodicity can be predicted visually in the field in the following ways

• Poorer vegetative growth than normal, with only a few plants

surviving, or with many stunted plants or trees
• Variable heights of the plants
• Poor penetration of rain water – surface ponding
• Raindrop splash action – surface sealing and crusting (hard setting)
• Cloudy or turbid water in puddles
• Plants exhibit a shallow rooting depth
• Soil is often black in color due to the formation of a Na-humic
substances complex
• High force is required for tillage (especially in fine textured soils)
• Difficult to get soil saturation extracts in laboratory due to a filter
blockage with dispersed clay

10.3 Field Testing of Soil Sodicity

Field assessment of relative level of soil sodicity can be determined

through the use of a turbidity test on soil: water (1:5) suspensions, with
ratings:

• Clear suspension – non sodic

• Partly turbid or cloudy – medium sodicity
• Very turbid cloudy – high sodicity

The relative sodicity can be further assessed by placing a white plastic

spoon in these suspensions, as below.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

• The spoon is clearly visible means non-sodic

• The spoon is partly visible means medium sodicity
• The spoon is not visible means high sodicity

10.4 Laboratory Assessment of Soil Sodicity

Accurate soil sodicity diagnostics can be made by analyzing soil samples in

the laboratory. The standard presentation of soil sodicity is the
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) derived from sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR). Alternately, ESP can be determined through measurement of
exchangeable sodium (ES) and cation exchange capacity (CEC), as below:

ESP = (ES/CEC) X 100

Where, ES and CEC are represented as meq100 g-1soil. An ESP of 15 is the

threshold for designating soil as being sodic (USSL Staff 1954). At this ESP
level, the soil structure starts degrading and negative effects on plant
growth appear.

10.5 Sodicity and Soil Structure

A lack of sufficient volumes of fresh water for irrigation use in arid and
semi-arid regions often results in the need to use water with a relatively
high salinity and high sodium ion levels. It has, generally, been recognized
that the sodicity affects soil permeability appreciably. The swelling and
dispersion of soil clays ultimately destroy the original soil structure – likely
the most important physical property affecting plant growth. The soil bulk
density (the weight of soil in a given volume) and porosity (open spaces

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

between sand, silt and clay particles in a soil) are mainly used as
parameters for the soil structure. The hydraulic conductivity (the ease with
which water can move through the soil pore spaces) is the net result of the
effect of physical properties in the soil and is markedly affected by soil
structure development.

The effect of the sodicity of soil water on irrigated soils can be both
a surface and subsurface phenomenon, causing surface sealing, as well as
subsurface sealing respectively. In surface sealing, the soil water sodicity
causes a breakdown and slaking of soil aggregates due to wetting. When
the soil surface dries, a surface crust is formed. In subsurface sealing, the
clay particles in the soil are dispersed and translocated to subsurface
layers, where they are deposited on the surface of the voids, thereby
reducing void volume and blocking the pores, thus restricting further water
movement, e.g. yielding non-conducting pores. The surface sealing and
crusting due to either water sodicity, or through combined effects of
sodicity and raindrop splash action, have both positive and negative
effects.

10.5.1 Negative Effects of Surface Sealing

• Increased runoff particularly on slopes leading to sheet and rill

erosions
• Mechanical impedance of plant seedling emergence
• Lack of aeration just below the sealed structure
• Retardation of root development

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Increased mechanical force needed for tillage (cultivation)

operations

10.5.2 Positive Effects of Surface Sealing

• Protection against wind erosion

• More economic distribution of irrigation water since longer furrows
are possible
• Protection against excessive water losses from the subsoil

10.6 Sodic soil in relation to plant growth

The enhanced Na+ absorption in sodic soils reduces K+ absorption which

adversely affects the enzymatic activities involved in metabolic processes
like photosynthesis and protein synthesis, which is detrimental for plant
growth. Reduced leaf area, chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance
in salt-affected soils also affect photosynthesis. Apart from high ESP and
nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, other constraints for plant growth in
sodic soils include poor soil physical conditions, viz. low water and air
permeability, high runoff, low water holding capacity, surface crusting, and
hard setting and thus affecting plant root penetration, seedling
emergence, and tillage operations.

10.7 Management and Reclamation

10.7.1 Mechanical/physical method: This is not actually removing sodium

from exchange complex but improve physical condition of soil through

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

improvement in infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical

methods include;

a. Scraping of the salts – If the white salt concentrations are visible then
they must be removed at once from the field with the help of domestic
tools like khurpi.

b. Trenching – It is the process of digging small pits on the field and taking
the sub soil on the surface and vice versa in order to bury the saline soils.
Also, deep ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at
subsurface due to sodium and improving free-movement of water. This
also helps in improvement of aeration.

c. Flooding and flushing of salts – Saline soils are first flooded with high-
quality water (water which is free from salts) and after the water now
containing the dissolved salts are flushed through drainage channels. This
process reduces the concentration of salts at the surface layer and if
repeated, gives better results. Scofield (1940) evolved a term salt balance
which relates the quantity of dissolved salts carried into an area in
irrigation water to the quantity of dissolved salts removed by drainage
water. If salt input exceeds the salts output then salt balance is regulated
as adverse. Drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove
further accumulation of salts at root zone.

d. Leaching of salts – Leaching means the removal of salts below the solum
of the soil. Leaching of soluble salts from root zone is essential in irrigated
soils. When there is no leaching then salt accumulation will occur

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

Concentration of salt in soil solution results due to water evaporation and

transpiration. Depth of irrigation water (Diw) can be calculated which will
create the salinity.

Leaching requirement (LR) – LR has been defined as that fraction of

water that must be leached through the root zone to control soil salinity at
a specified level. It depends on:

(i) Salt concentration of irrigation water.

(ii) Permissible limit of salt at root zone.

LR % (Leaching Requirement) = (ECiw/ECdw)X 100

Here, ECiw= EC of irrigation water in inches

ECdw = EC of drainage water

e. Drainage –Salinity control depends upon the drainability of soil. The LR

is only possible when required amount of water is passed through root
zone. This may be improved by:

i) Improving drainage outlet facilities

ii) Improving soil permeability

f. Other measures are –

i) To check surface evaporation.

ii) To reduce water table.
iii) To break the hard layers and pans of calcium carbonate, clay soil etc.
iv) To use salt free water with short intervals of irrigation.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

v) To provide better drainage conditions

vi) To grow crops which are salt resistant

10.7.2 Chemical methods: The technology package based on chemical

amendments consists of the components such as land levelling, bunding,
flushing, drainage for removal of excess water, good quality irrigation
water, application of amendments, selection of crops and efficient nutrient
management. Different chemical amendments used for the reclamation of
sodic soils may be grouped into two categories: soluble calcium sources
(e.g., gypsum, calcium chloride, and phospho-gypsum) and acids or acid
formers (e.g., elemental sulfur, sulphuric acid, sulfates of iron and
aluminium, pyrites and lime sulfur). Farmyard manure and pressmud are
also used as amendments for reclaiming sodic soils. Chemical amendments
require moisture (rainfall or irrigation) to activate the chemical processes
that can reduce sodium levels or leach salts from the root zone. The organic
amendments, on the other hand, are capable of alleviating problems
associated with excessive salts or sodium without supplemental irrigation.

The amount and type of chemical amendments required for

reclamation of sodic soils depend primarily on soil pH, EC, and ESP. Soluble
calcium sources are recommended for use in non-calcareous soils while for
calcareous soils, acids or acid-formers are recommended. Gypsum
followed by pyrites has emerged as the most preferred and acceptable
chemical amendment for sodic soils in India due to their easy availability

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

and low. Pyrite was much less effective than gypsum. The pyrites to be
effective for reclamation must contain at least 5–6% soluble S.

Gypsum requirement (GR) for restoring an alkali soil depends on the initial
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), texture and mineralogy of soil,
depth of soil to be reclaimed and tolerance of crops to sodicity. A good
correlation exists between soil pH and gypsum requirement. Generally,
10–15 Mg ha−1 gypsum is required for the reclamation of alkali soils. The
quantity of gypsum required to replace an initial level of exchangeable
sodium (ENai) and achieve its reduction to a desired level of exchangeable
sodium (ENaf) per unit area and per unit depth of the soil, can also be
calculated using Equation:

GR (in cmol/kg soil) = (ENai-ENaf) CEC

Where, ENa and CEC are in cmol(p+) kg-1 soil

Since one cmol gypsum/kg soil is equal to 860 kg gypsum/106 kg soil, for
one hectare to a depth of 0-15 cm (2 × 106 kg soil), the GR can be calculated
by Equation:

GR (kg/ha) = 1720 × (ENai-ENaf) CEC

The GR worked out by this method is based on 100% replacement of

Na+ by Ca2+ ions. Under actual condition, the efficiency is always much
lower. To compensate for the lack of a quantitative replacement, the GR
worked out by this method should be multiplied by 1.25.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

The addition of organic materials in conjunction with gypsum

hastens the reclamation process and also reduces the gypsum
requirement. Addition of organic material increases soil microbial biomass,
while gypsum lowers soil pH. Industrial by-products such as
phosphogypsum, pressmud, molasses, acid wash, and effluents from milk
plants help in the reclamation of sodic soils by providing Ca directly or
indirectly by dissolving soil lime. The equivalent amounts of other
amendments relative to gypsum are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Equivalent quantity of some common amendments for sodic soil

reclamation

Amendment Relative quantity

Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) 1.0
Calcium chloride(CaCl2.2H2O) 0.85
Sulphuric acid(H2SO4) 0.57
Iron sulphate(FeSO4.7H2O) 1.62
Aluminium sulphate 1.29
[Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]
Sulphur (S*) 0.19
Pyrite (FeS2*) (30% S) 0.63
Pressmud (Lime sulphur, 9% Ca, 0.77
24% S)
*Based on assumption of 100% oxidation of materials like sulphur or pyrite
in order to be as effective as soluble calcium compounds. Since in practice

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

this assumption is not fulfilled, their effectiveness is much lower than

gypsum.
Source: Choudhary and Kharche (2018)

Chemical reaction of gypsum and other amendments:

a. Sodic soils containing lime

(i) Gypsum:

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

Where: [X] = Soil colloids

(ii) Sulphur:

2S + 3O2 2SO3

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

(iii) Sulphuric acid:

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

(iv) Lime sulphur (Calcium polysulphide):

CaS5 + 8O2 + 4H2O CaSO4 + 4H2SO4

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

(v) Iron sulphate:

FeSO4 + H2O H2SO4 + FeO

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

(vi) Aluminium sulphate:

Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O 3H2SO4 + Al2O3

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

b. Sodic soils containing no lime

(i) Gypsum: Same as type 1

(ii) Sulphur:

2S + 3O2 2SO3

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

(iii) Lime sulphur:

CaS5 + 8O2 + 4H2O CaSO4 + 4H2SO4

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

(iv) Iron sulphate:

FeSO4 + H2O H2SO4 + FeO

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

2Na[X] + CaSO4 Ca[X] + Na2SO4

10.7.3 Phytoremediation of Salt-Affected Soils

Phytoremediation of salt-affected soils refers to the processes of removing

excess salts from soil by growing different type of plants. Growing of salt
tolerant trees, shrubs, and grasses is a cost-effective and environmental-
friendly way of restoring salt affected soils. Different species of salt
tolerant trees, shrubs, and grasses have been identified and put to use
(Table 2). Plants remove excess salts from soil through root absorption and
accumulate them in their biomass, a process called phytoaccumulation or
phyto-extraction. It decreases exchangeable sodium and soluble salt
concentrations in soil. They also augment soil organic carbon and nutrient
content thereby gradually improving physical (bulk density, porosity,
infiltration, water holding capacity etc.), chemical (nutrient
concentrations), and biological (microbial population) properties of soils
and overall soil productivity.

Table 2 Soil ECe and SAR reduction through phytoremediation and

chemical amendments using different plants (i initial, ffinal).

Amendment/pl ECei ECef ECe SA SA SAR Remar

− −
(dSm (dSm
ant species reducti Ri Rf reducti ks
1 1
) )
on (%) on (%)
Sesbania 7.5 5.5 27 55. 43. 22
aculeata 6 5

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

Leptochloa 7.4 5.3 28 57. 44. 23 1st year

fusca 9 7
Sorghum 7.8 6.4 18 62. 55. 12
bicolor 3 1
Gypsum 9.0 7.2 20 73. 53. 27
0 3
Sesbania 5.5 4.4 20 43. 30. 31
aculeate 5 1
Leptochloa 5.3 4.9 8 44. 32. 27 2nd
fusca 7 5 year
Sorghum 6.4 6.0 6 55. 40. 27
bicolor 1 0
Gypsum 7.2 6.8 6 53. 24. 54
3 7
Source: Qadir et al. (1997)

10.7.4 Bio-Remediation

The bio-remediation approach, which involves plant-microbial interaction,

has received increased attention worldwide for enhancing productivity of
salt-affected soils. The microorganisms have the capability of rapid
adjustment toward environmental changes and deterioration, and thus
can play an important role in the maintenance and sustainability of any
ecosystem. Microorganisms possess some unique properties such as salt
stress tolerance, genetic diversity, synthesis of compatible solutes,

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

production of plant growth promoting hormones, bio-control potential,

and their interaction with crop plants. If these traits are suitably exploited,
microorganisms can play a significant role in alleviating salt -effects on crop
plants.

A low-cost microbial bio-formulation “CSR-BIO,” a consortium of

Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus thuringenesis, and Trichoderma harzianum, is
rapidly becoming popular with the farmers in many states. This bio-
formulation acts as a soil conditioner and nutrient mobilizer and has been
found to increase the productivity of the high value crops such as banana,
vegetables, and gladiolus in sodic and normal soils by 22–43%.

10.7.5 Cultivation of salt tolerant crops and crop varieties

Cultivation of salt tolerant crops and crop varieties is another way to

address the problem of soil salinization. This technique is viable and cost
effective and suits well to the small and marginal farmers who without
financial support are unable to bear the high costs of chemical
amendment-based reclamation technologies. Salt tolerant varieties of rice,
wheat, mustard, and other crops, grasses, shrubs, fruit trees, and medicinal
and aromatic plants have been developed/identified for commercial
cultivation in salt-affected soils. The relative tolerance of some crops to
total sodicity (ESP) is shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Relative tolerance of some crops to soil sodicity (ESP)

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

Tolerant (ESP= 35-50) Moderately tolerant Sensitive (ESP<15)

(ESP= 35-50)
Karnal grass Wheat Gram/Chickpea
Rhodes grass Barley Mash
Para grass Oat Lentil
Bermuda grass Shaftal Soyabean
Dhaincha Lucerne Groundnut
Sugarbeet Turnip Sesamum
Teosinte Sunflower Mung
Safflower Pea
Berseem Cowpea
Linseed Maize
Onion Cotton
Garlic
Pearl millet
Source: Abrol and Bhumbla (1979)

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Abrol, I.P. and Bhumbla, D.R. (1979). Crop responses to differential gypsum
applications in highly sodic soil and tolerance of several crops to

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

exchangeable sodium under field conditions. Soil Science, 127, 79–

85

Choudhary, O. and Kharche, Vilas. (2018). Soil Salinity and Sodicity. In book:
Soil Science: An Introduction. pp.353-384.

Qadir, M., Qureshi, R.H. and Ahmad, N. (1997). Nutrient availability in a

calcareous saline-sodic soil during vegetative bioremediation.
Journal of Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 11, 343-352.

Scofield, C.S. (1940). Salt balance in irrigated areas. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 61(1), 17–39

U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline

and alkali soils. Handbook 60, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.

19
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Acid Soils - Properties, Types of acidity and its
Lesson 11 Impact

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

• Learn about pH of soil water suspension, sources of soil acidity and

nutrient relations under acid soil conditions.

Glossary of terms

1. Acid soils: Acid soils, by definition, are those with pH below 7.0. The
lower the pH, the more acid is the soil.
2. Acid Rain: Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes
any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as sulphuric
or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or
dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that
is acidic
3. Active acidity: Active acidity is the quantity of hydrogen ions that are
present in the soil water solution. The active pool of hydrogen ions is
in equilibrium with the exchangeable hydrogen ions that are held on
the soil's cation exchange complex.
4. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is
the total capacity ofa soil to hold exchangeable cations. CEC is an
inherent soil characteristic and is difficult to alter significantly. It
influences the soil's ability to hold onto essential nutrients and
provides a buffer against soil acidification.
5. Exchangeable acidity: Exchangeable acidity refers to the amount of
acid cations, aluminium and hydrogen, occupied on the CEC. When
the CEC of a soil is high but has a low base saturation, the soil

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

becomes more resistant to pH changes. As a result, it will require

larger additions of lime to neutralize the acidity.
6. Potential acidity/Reserve acidity: Potential acidity is often referred
to as the soil's buffer capacity or resistance to change in pH.

11.1 Occurrence

Acid soils occupy approximately 30% of the world’s ice free land area and
occur mainly in two global belts where they have developed under udic or
ustic moisture regimes. The northern belt (cold and temperate climate) is
dominated by Spodosols, Alfisols, Inceptisols and Histosols and the
southern tropical belt consists largely of Ultisols and Oxisols.

Out of 328 million hectares of geographical area of India, nearly 145

million hectares is cultivated and a rough estimate indicate that 48 million
hectare of soil is acidic out of which 25 million hectare of soil shows pH <
5.5 and are critically degraded acid lands with low productivity (Sharma
and Sarkar, 2005) as shown in the map (Figure 1). In all those tracts of the
country where rainfall and temperature are high, acid soils are
predominantly found. The North-eastern region has the largest stretches
of acid soils, followed by neighbouring states of West Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa. In the coastal region of Kerala, not only high rainfall and
temperature have contributed to the development of acid soils but rich
organic deposits resulting information of peat and muck have also been

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

found responsible for the extension of acid soil area in the state. Parts of
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir also have acid soils.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 1 Distribution of Acid soil in India Source:

Maji et al. (2012)

11.2 Genesis and Chemistry of Acid Soils

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil acidity is determined by the amount of hydrogen ion (H) activity in soil
solution and is influenced by edaphic, climatic, and biological factors. Soils
that develop from granite parent materials acidify at a faster rate than soils
developed from calcareous parent materials. Sandy soils acidify more
rapidly due to their smaller reservoir of alkaline cations and higher leaching
potential. High rainfall affects the rate of soil acidification depending on
the rate of water percolation through the soil profile. Organic matter
decaying to form carbonic acid and other weak acids also contributes to
acidification.

11.2.1 Climate
As mentioned earlier, acid soils are mostly found in the areas of high
rainfall. Rainfall is most effective in causing soils to become acidic if plenty
of water moves through the soil rapidly. In acid soil regions (ASR),
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and hence leaching is
predominant causing loss of bases from soil. The iron and aluminium
derivatives are relatively insoluble, seldom leached and contributes to
surface acidity particularly in laterite soils. Since the effect of rainfall on
acid soil development is very slow, it may take hundreds of years for new
parent material to become acidic under high rainfall. When the process of
weathering is drastic, the subsoil and in many cases the whole profile
becomes acidic.

11.2.2 Organic Matter Decay

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Decaying organic matter produces H ion which is responsible for acidity.

The carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by decaying organic matter reacts with
water in the soil to form a weak acid called carbonic acid. This is the same
acid that develops when CO2 in the atmosphere reacts with rain to form
acid rain naturally. Several organic acids are also produced by decaying
organic matter, but they are also weak acids. Like rainfall, the contribution
to acid soil development by decaying organic matter is generally very small.

11.2.3 Vegetation
Plants influence the earth surface through the uptake, transformation and
redistribution of materials in the atmosphere, pedosphere and
lithosphere. Although all plants leave such an imprint (e.g., input of organic
matter and respired CO2, enhancement of rock weathering, etc.),
variations in size, growth rate, life span, allocation, tissue chemistry, and
many other attributes affect cycling patterns and the properties of soils
differently. In the regions of very low temperature the acid soils can
develop easily. The foliage of coniferous trees which are most likely to grow
in these regions is devoid of alkali elements. When the leaf litter of
coniferous trees on ground is degraded, organic acids are released which
gradually make the soil acidic. Vegetation of coastal zones and marshy
places facilitates development of acidity. The places where excessive
vegetation is accompanied by heavy rainfall and water pounding, soils are
very acidic in reaction.

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

11.2.4 Parent Material

Acidic parent materials (granites, rhyolites, diorites) are the basis for acidic
soil formation. In these soils, predominant minerals are quartz, feldspar
and oxides. Al and Fe are in soluble forms. Usually these soils are less fertile
because of low content of nutrient elements like Mg, Ca, etc. and more
risky for pollutants movement through the soil profile. Due to differences
in chemical composition of parent materials, soils will become acidic after
different lengths of time. Thus, soils that develop from granite material are
likely to be more acidic than soils developed from calcareous shale or
limestone. Some young soils exhibit acidic nature even in the areas of
medium rainfall and vegetation. These soils still reflect the nature of rocks
from which they have developed. Some rocks (parent material) are acidic
in nature (e.g. igneous rocks). After weathering of these rocks, acidic
constituents dominate the composition of soil.
Podzolization (or Podsolization) is complex soil formation process by which
dissolved organic matter and ions of iron and aluminium, released through
weathering of various minerals, form organo-mineral complexes (chelates)
and are moved from the upper parts of the soil profile and deposit in the
deeper parts of soil.

11.2.5 Topography
Topography has an influence on soil formation, most likely through
hydrological processes. Increases in pH, CaCO3, Ca and Mg, as well as base
saturation are observed in down slope. Correlations between topography
and soil chemistry were generally stronger for the O-horizon than for the

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

B-horizon, indicating that the organic layer is more exposed to topographic

controls. Several studies have found a down-slope increase of pH, but have
not quantified it against topography. Sloppy places with good drainage
conditions are often acidic in nature.

11.2.6 Human interference

Excessive use of water or keeping the field submerged for a long time
accompanied by improper drainage may lead to the development of acidity
in the soil. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers also contribute significantly
to the formation of acid soils. Ammonium nitrogen can be a major factor
in the acidification of sandy, low buffer-capacity soils. When ammonium is
converted to nitrate by soil microbes, hydrogen ions are released. While it
is less acidifying than ammonium, the monocalcium phosphate
[Ca(H2PO4)2], often used as one component of fertilizer, can also be a
factor. It will react with water to form dicalcium phosphate (CaHPO 4) and
phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Because of the tendency of H3PO4 to give up some
of its hydrogen ions, very low pH values can occur in the band. This acidity
will then gradually diffuse into the soil surrounding the band.

11.2.7 Presence of Soluble salts

Presence of soluble salts leads to increase in soil acidity due to

displacement followed by hydrolysis of adsorbed Fe+3, Al+3, Mn+2 ions by
the cations of the soil.

11.2.8 Acid rain

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

Acid rain contain H+ ion at a concentration > 2 micro molecules. NH4+ ion
are also present. The positive charge is balanced by variety of anions
generally SO4= & NO3-. The effect of acid precipitation is to acidify the soil.

Acid soils are often characterised by low CEC, intermediate textured

ranging from sandy loam to loam, low organic matter content except in
case of hill, terai soils and soils under forest and low P content while the N
content is variable. Acid soils have higher amount of Fe & Al ions in soil
solution and also have high exchangeable H+ and Al3+ ions. Conventionally,
acid soils have been defined in terms of soil pH and base saturation both
of which are low.

Jackson grouped soil acidity as:

1. Strong soil acidity (pH < 4.2)

2. Weak soil acidity (4.2 to 5.2)
3. Very weak soil acidity (5.2 to 6.5 or 7.0)

11.3 Kinds of soil acidity

11.3.1 Active acidity: Develops due to H+ and Al+3 ions concentration of the
soil solution. The magnitude of this acidity is limited and can be reclaimed
very easily.
11.3.2 Exchangeable acidity: Develops due to adsorbed H+ and Al+3 ions on
the soil colloids. The magnitude of this acidity is high.
11.3.3 Potential acidity/Reserve acidity: H+ and Al+3 ions present inside the
soil crystal lattice. Soil constituents capable of contributing H+ ions to the

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

soil solution through ionization, dissociation, hydrolysis, etc. It is the major

contributor of soil acidity (Das, 2015).
Total acidity = (Reserve + Exchangeable) + Active Acidity

11.4. Effect of Soil Acidity on Plants

Except for a few crops like tea, coffee and potato,
most of the crops do not find optimum conditions
for their growth and development. But the effects
are more pronounced when the soil pH is below 6.0.
Acidity affects the plants both directly and
indirectly.
11.4.1 Direct effect
• Extremely high concentration of hydrogen ions just outside the plant
roots has a toxic effect on roots.
• The permeability of the plasma membrane surrounding root hair is
reduced. Consequently, the activity of root hair that absorbs water
and nutrients from the soil is highly slackened.
• Excessive presence of hydrogen ions in soil solution also results in
increased absorption of H+ ions by the plant roots. This phenomenon
disturbs acid-base balance inside the plant which virtually inhibits
plant growth.
• Numerous essential chemical reactions are carried out by the
enzymes secreted by soil organisms as well as plant itself. These
enzymes lose their effectiveness if hydrogen ion concentration goes
too high.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

11.4.2 Indirect effects

• Availability of nutrients increases e.g. P, Cu, Zn
• Some essential micronutrients such as Fe, Mn, Cu and Al etc. become
highly soluble in acid soils and their availability to the plant roots
goes so high that they become toxic to the plants.
• In most of the acid soils plants show deficiency symptoms of Ca and
Mg. This is because of the fact that acid soils are mostly deficient in
these elements.
• Some disease causing agents (especially fungi) flourish well in acid
soils. Incidence of disease is, therefore, increased.
• At the same time a large population of beneficial microorganisms
suffers badly due to high concentration of hydrogen ions. This results
in decreased soil fertility.

Figure 2 A representation of the relationship between soil pH and

nutrient availability

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

11.4.3 Effects of soil acidity on plant growth

Most soil used for vegetable cultivation become gradually more acidic as
calcium is lost due to leaching by rainwater and irrigation. The process is
further accelerated by the use of nitrogenous fertilisers such as ammonium
nitrate and ammonium sulphate. Vegetables vary in their tolerance to soil
acidity. In general, the most favourable pH range for vegetable is between
5.5 to 6.5 in mineral soil and 5.0 to 6.0 in organic soil (Figure 2).

1. Ca, K, Mg and Na are alkaline elements, which are lost with increasing
acidity whereas P is more available in acidic soil conditions.
2. Acidity can also induce deficiencies of micronutrients such as Mo and
B, although a deficiency in the latter is more commonly seen in
alkaline soils where over-liming has occurred.
3. Acidic soil often causes the stunting and yellowing of leaves, resulting
in the decrease in growth and yield of crops as the pH levels falls.
4. Plants grown in adverse pH conditions may be more prone to disease
and fungal attack.
5. pH can affect the absorption of nutrients by plant roots pH values
above 7.5 cause iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron ions to be
less available to plants.
6. pH values below 6 cause the solubility of phosphoric acid, calcium
and magnesium to drop.
7. Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils.
Aluminium is present in all soils, but dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants;

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Al3+ is most soluble at low pH, above pH 5.2 little aluminium is in

soluble form in most soils. Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as
such, is not actively taken up by the plants, but enters plant roots
passively through osmosis. Aluminium damages roots in several
ways: In root tips and Aluminium interferes with the uptake of
Calcium, an essential nutrient, as well as bind with phosphate and
interfere with production of ATP and DNA, both of which contain
phosphate. Aluminium can also restrict cell wall expansion causing
roots to become stunted.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Das, D.K. (2015). Introductory Soil Science. Kalyani Publishers. pp 500

Maji, A.K., Obi Reddy, G.P. and Sarkar, D. (2012). Acid Soils of India-Their
Extent and Spatial Variability, NBSS Publication No. 145, NBSSLUP
Nagpur pp 138.

Sharma, P. D., and A. K. Sarkar. (2005). Managing acid soils for enhancing
productivity. New Delhi: NRM Division, ICAR.

14
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 12 Management of Acid soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

• Understand the concepts of liming, acidity tolerant plants and sub-

soil acidity

Glossary of terms

1. Liming: Liming is the application of calcium and magnesium-rich

materials to soil in various forms, including marl, chalk, limestone, or
hydrated lime. This neutralises soil acidity and increases activity of
soil bacteria.
2. Lime requirement (LR): Lime requirement is defined as the amount
of agricultural limestone or other basic material needed to increase
the pH of the soil from an unacceptably acidic condition to a value
that is considered optimum for the desired use of the soil.
3. Liming factor: The factor by which the actual amount of lime can be
calculated from the estimated theoretical amount of lime or liming
materials.
4. Neutralizing value (NV) or Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE): It
is defined as acid neutralizing capacity of an agricultural liming
material expressed as a weight percentage of calcium carbonate.

12.1 Introduction

The acid soils occur primarily in high rainfall, hilly/mountainous and coastal
regions. The soils are under different land uses for growing of food crops,
horticulture & plantation crops and forests. The highly leached soils are
generally poor in fertility and water holding capacity. A substantial area

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

with pH value less than 5.5 is more problematic with severe deficiencies of
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum and toxicities of
aluminium and iron. The average productivity of one tonne/ha of the soils
is very low. The poor soil resource is one of the main factors of poverty and
backwardness in the acid soil. The addition of lime to these soils
neutralizes soil acidity and creates favorable environment for microbial
activity, nutrients release and their availability to plants.

12.2 Methods for Management of Acid soils

12.2.1. Liming
Liming is a widely accepted practice for ameliorating acid soils. It decreases
exchange acidity and increases soil pH. It improves base saturation percent
of soils, inactivates Al, Fe and Mn, reduces P fixation and stimulates
microbial activity leading to the mineralization of organic nitrogen.
Increased availability of major, secondary and micronutrients due to liming
of acid soils has been reported. Among the naturally occurring lime
sources, calcite, dolomite and stormatolitic lime stones are important.
Since calcite and dolomite have industrial use, its application in agriculture
is not economic
12.2.1.1 Reactions of liming materials in soil

Reaction of CaO

This is also known as un-slaked lime or burnt limestone or quicklime. It is

a white powder and difficult to handle as it is caustic and explosive. When

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

added to a moist acid soil, the calcium cation in CaO displaces the
exchangeable H & Al from surface soil colloids.

Reaction of Ca(OH)2

This is commonly known as slaked lime or building lime. This is prepared

by mixing water with calcium oxide under controlled conditions. Much
heat is generated in the process. When added to the acid soil

Dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3)

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Dolomite deposits are found in many places of India. Besides calcium, it

also contains nearly equal amount of magnesium which is an essential
plant nutrient. Acid soils are often deficient in this nutrient.

12.2.1.2 Lime Requirement (LR) and liming factor

The desirable pH range for most of the crops is 6.0 to 7.0. The amount of
lime or liming materials that must be added to the acidic soil to raise the
pH of that soil to a desired value is known as Lime requirement (LR). Any
increase in pH will still depend on the amount of lime applied, with the
general rule of thumb being a 0.1 unit increase in pH for every tonne of
lime applied.

Liming Factor may be defined as the factor by which the actual

amount lime can be calculated from the estimated theoretical amount of
lime or liming materials. This depends on rate of limestone solution, plant
uptake and leaching during the reaction period.

Table 1 Lime requirement to bring the soil to desired level of pH

indicated below (Das, 2015)

pH of soil buffer Lime required to bring the soil to indicated pH

suspension (tonnes per acre of pure calcium carbonate
i.e.CaCO3)
pH 6.0 pH 6.4 pH 6.8
6.7 1.0 1.2 1.4
6.6 1.4 1.7 1.9
6.5 1.8 2.2 2.5
6.4 2.3 2.7 3.1
6.3 2.7 3.2 3.7

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

6.2 3.7 3.7 4.2

6.1 3.5 4.2 4.8
6.0 3.9 4.7 5.4
5.9 4.4 5.2 6.0
5.8 4.8 5.7 6.5
5.7 5.2 6.2 7.1
5.6 5.6 6.7 7.7
5.5 6.0 7.2 8.3
5.4 6.5 7.7 8.9
5.3 6.9 8.2 9.4
5.2 7.4 8.6 10.0
5.1 7.8 9.1 10.6
5.0 8.2 9.6 11.2
4.9 8.6 10.1 11.8
4.8 8.1 10.6 12.4

The amount of the liming material depends upon the soil texture.
The smaller the soil particles, the greater will be the site exposed for
hydrogen ions to stick on. Neutralizing the hydrogen ions present in the
soil solution (active acidity) is not enough. The amount of amendment
should be enough to neutralize hydrogen ions around the soil particles
also. Soil testing for lime recommendation must take this point into
account. Reserve acidity is sometimes thousand times greater than active
acidity. In clay soils, reserve acidity is very high, whereas in sandy soils it
is comparatively low. The amount of liming material required to
neutralize total acidity (active + reserve), therefore, varies greatly
according to soil texture. Even if amount of liming material is not given in
the soil testing report, it can be found out from the table below taking
the help of soil testing report (soil pH).

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Table 2 Calcium Carbonate needed to increase the pH of a soil textural

class by one unit.

Sl. No. Soil texture Lime in

1 Sand tonnes/ha
2.50
2 Sandy loam 3.75
3 Loam 5.00
4 Silt loam 6.25
5 Clay loam 7.50
6 Clay 8.25
12.2.1.3 Application of lime

Lime is not mobile in the soil. Therefore, it should be spread in the field
with maximum possible uniformity and worked well into the soil. This can
be done during the preparation of field. Soil should be sufficiently moist
at the time of liming or a light irrigation may be given to the field after
mixing the lime. If slaked lime is used, seeds should be sown in the field
at least 3-4 weeks after liming. To maintain desirable soil reaction in the
humid regions, liming at every 3-5 years interval is recommended.

12.2.1.4 Benefits of liming

1. Reduces the possibility of Mn2+ and Al3+ toxicity.

2. Improves microbial activity.
3. Improves physical condition (better structure).
4. Improves symbiotic nitrogen fixation by legumes.
5. Improves palatability of forages.
6. Provides an inexpensive source for Ca2+ and Mg2+ when these
nutrients are deficient at lower pH.

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

7. Improves nutrient availability (availability of P and Mo increases as

pH increases at 6.0 – 7.0, however, other micronutrients availability
increases as pH decreases).
8. Improves fertilizer use efficiency.

12.2.1.5 Effects of liming

Advantages of liming are three fold viz. physical, chemical and
biological. They are described below:

a. Physical effects

Liming improves physical condition of heavy soils; they become

granular in structure and their water holding capacity is improved. Liming
also encourages the decomposition of organic matter and consequently,
there is greater production of organic colloids. The Ca-humus so produced
is believed to be an effective cementing agent in binding the soil particles.
Liming also prevents soil erosion because soils which have received liming
treatment support good plant growth.
b. Chemical effects

Among the principal chemical properties influenced by liming is the

reduction of H ions in the colloidal complex. It increases the availability of
almost all the nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, boron, zinc, copper and molybdenum, and reduces the
toxicity caused by soluble iron, aluminium and manganese.

c. Biological effects

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

One of the outstanding biological effects of liming is to encourage

the microbial activity of the soil. By raising the soil pH, it makes the soil
more congenial for a number of micro organisms. Nitrifying and nitrogen
fixing bacteria, both symbiotic and non symbiotic are stimulated by the
addition of lime to an acid soil. Lime also brings about a more rapid
decomposition of organic manure, both native and added, as a result of
improved microbial activity. This further increases the availability of
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.

12.2.1.6 Adverse effects of over liming

• The main effect of over liming is to reduce the availability of some of
the essential nutrients, both major and minor, such as P, K, Fe, Mn,
B, Cu, Zn etc, and thus bring about nutritional deficiency.
• Excess lime also interferes with the absorption of certain elements
like potassium, phosphorus, boron, etc. by plants thus hindering
their utilization.
• The very rapid decomposition of organic matter in soils of arid of
semi arid regions is also attributed to the accumulation of excess lime
in these soils.

12.2.1.7 The effectiveness/efficiency of liming material

The amount of lime or effectiveness of lime to apply depends on four main

factors; neutralizing value, fineness of the lime, purity of lime and soil
texture.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

i. Neutralizing value (NV) or Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE).

It is defined as acid neutralizing capacity of an agricultural liming material
expressed as a weight percentage of calcium carbonate.

The required amount of various amendments is expressed in terms of

Calcium Carbonate Equivalents (CCE). The CCE means amount of calcium
carbonate which can neutralise as much acidity as 100 kg of a liming
material in question can neutralise. As shown below, 100 kg of CaO can
neutralize as much acidity as 179 kg of calcium carbonate and vice versa.

Table 3 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) equivalent of some important liming

materials
Calcium carbonate
Sl.No. Liming material (100 kg)
[CaCO3] (kg)

1 Calcium oxide (CaO) 179

2 Calcium hydroxide 139

3 Dolomite 109

4 Limestone (calcium carbonate) 100

5 Basic slag 60-70

ii. Degree of fineness of material

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

The finer the particles of lime, the faster they react with soil. Lime
manufacturers have to specify the percentages of different-sized particles
in their product.

iii. Purity of liming materials: The purer the liming material, the higher
will be its effectiveness in amelioration of soil acidity.

12.2 Organic matter - loss and replenishment in acid soils

The role of organic matter in the productivity of mineral soils is still grossly
underestimated and neglected in most of the tropical areas except China.
There are nine major benefits of organic matter, the most important being
increased available nutrient supply and CEC, reduced surface temperature,
improved water relations (conservation, infiltration), and reduced soil
erosion and surface water run-off. Organic matter additions as crop
residues, and/or green manure crops in rotation or as intercrops (alleys)
must be the key components of crop management systems for acid upland
soils planted to food crops. They should be left on the soil surface as a
mulch, incorporated into the soil, or, ideally, used both ways.
Complexation of aluminium (Al) in soil solution by decomposition products
of organic materials, particularly low molecular weight organic acids. The
mechanism that best explained the neutralization reaction was found to
be microbial decarboxylation of calcium-organic matter complex leading to
the release and subsequent hydrolysis of calcium ions. The hydroxyl ions
released in the hydrolytic reaction then reacts with both the exchangeable

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

hydrogen and Aluminum ions to form water and insoluble Aluminum

hydroxide [Al(OH)3], respectively.

12.3 Phosphate management in acid soils

The fixation and immobility of P in acid soils of the tropics can be either
major problems or blessings in disguise, depending on how soils and P
fertilizers are managed. Phosphorus fixation is often high in Oxisols and
Ultisols because they are most likely to have P-fixing clay minerals
(amorphous and crystalline hydrous oxides of Fe and AI), high Fe and Al,
and low pH, all of which are conducive to P fixation. When soil P
concentration exceeds a certain level, P uptake by crops will actually be
inhibited. Thus, highly concentrated bands of P fertilizer should be avoided.
Because of strong interest in rock phosphates for direct application to tree
crops in Southeast Asia, one must know that rock phosphates differ
significantly in their reactivity. Because of their low cost, high Ca content,
and residual effects, rock phosphates are especially well suited for
amendment of acid soils poor in P and Ca.

Inherent soil properties and climate affect crop growth and how crops
respond to applied P fertilizer, and regulate processes that limit P
availability. Climatic and site conditions, such as rainfall and temperature,
and moisture and soil aeration (oxygen levels), and salinity (salt
content/electrical conductivity) affect the rate of P mineralization from
organic matter decomposition. Organic matter decomposes releasing P
more quickly in warm humid climates and slower in cool dry climates.

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

Phosphorus is released faster when soil is well aerated (higher oxygen

levels) and much slower on saturated wet soils. Soils with inherent pH
values between 6 and 7.5 are ideal for P-availability, while pH values below
5.5 and between 7.5 and 8.5 limits P-availability to plants due to fixation
by aluminum, iron, or calcium, often associated with soil parent materials.

12.4 Management of Secondary Nutrients in Acid Soils

Most of the acid soils are deficient in Ca, Mg and S except acid sulphate
soils which contain high amount of S. Soils having Ca saturation less than
25% of the total cation exchange capacity requires Ca application to most
of the crops. Deficiency of Ca and Mg can be corrected by using lime or
liming materials @ 4-5 q/ha. Increasing usage of relatively pure, sulphur-
free fertilizers, e.g. urea, TSP, ammonium phosphates, will lead to
increasing S and trace element deficiencies as high crop yields increase
removal.

12.5 Crops Tolerant to Acidity

Most crop plants grow well when the soil pH is between 5.5 and 7.5,
a fairly wide range even under field condition. Serious trouble develops
when the pH drops below 5.0. Crops which can be successfully grown in
acid soils are listed in the following table.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Table 4 Acid tolerant crops

Sl. Slightly tolerant Medium tolerant Very tolerant
No.
pH 6.0-6.8 pH 5.5-6.8 pH 5.0-6.8
1 Berseem Maize Mustard

2 Sugarcane Potato Buck wheat

3 Cauliflower Wheat Coffee

4 French bean Soya bean Rubber

5 Cabbage Barley Tea

6 Watermelon Oats --

7 Lucerne Rice --

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

Reference

Das, D. K. (2015). Introductory Soil Science. Kalyani Publishers. pp 500

14
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Acid Sulphate Soils - Properties, Management &
Lesson 13 Reclamation

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives

• Understanding the formation, mineralogy, properties and

reclamation of acid sulphate soils.

Glossary of terms

1. Acid Sulphate Soils: Soils with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and others)
to become strongly acidic when drained and aerated enough for
cultivation are termed as acid sulphate soils or as Dutch refer to
those soils as cat clays.
2. Potential acid sulphate soils: Acid Sulphate Soils (ASS) which have
not been oxidised by exposure to air are known as potential acid
sulphate soils.
3. Actual acid sulphate soils: When potential acid sulphate soil is
exposed to oxygen, the iron sulfides are oxidised to produce sulfuric
acid and the soil becomes strongly acidic (usually below pH 4). These
soils are then called actual acid sulphate soils.
4. Liming: Liming is the application (to soil) of calcium and magnesium-
rich materials in various forms, including marl, chalk, limestone,
burnt lime or hydrated lime. In acid soils, these materials react as
a base and neutralize soil acidity.
5. Leaching: Leaching refers to the practice of applying a small amount
of excess irrigation where the water has a high salt content to
avoid salts from building up in the soil.

13.1 Introduction

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

In modem system of soil classification, acid sulphate soils have been

assigned separate position and these soils have been placed in a group
called sulpha-aquepts. This group includes soils in which the top horizon
contains sulphuric horizon at some level or the other in top 25 cm thick
layer. This is mineral or organic sub-layer with yellow colouration due to
jarosite.
13.2 Occurrence
Soils with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and others) to become strongly
acidic when drained and aerated enough for cultivation are termed as acid
sulphate soils or as Dutch refer to those soils as cat clays. When allowed to
develop acidity, these soils are usually more acidic than pH 4.0. Before
drainage, such soils may have normal soil pH and are only potential acid
sulphate soils. Generally acid sulphate soils are found in coastal areas
where the land is inundated by salt water.

The total area under acid sulphate soil is approximately 10-15 million
hectare globally or about one percent of the total area of cultivated
agricultural land. About half of the total area of acid sulphate soil is located
in Asia. Major areas of acid sulphate soils occur in the coastal low lands of
South East Asia, (Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand), West Africa (Senegal, the
Gambia, Guinea, Bissau, Sierra, Leone Liberia) & along the north eastern
coast of South America (Venezuela, the Guyanas). In India, acid sulphate
soil is, mostly found in Kerala, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
West Bengal. The area covered under acid sulphate soils in Thailand and
India combinedly is about 2 million acres.

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

13.3 Formation of Acid Sulphate Soils

Lands inundated with waters that contain sulphates, particularly salt
waters, accumulate sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are
bacterially reduced to sulphides. Soils are not usually very acidic when first
drained in water.
Acid sulphate soils (ASS) are naturally occurring soils and sediments
containing iron sulfides, most commonly pyrite. When Acid sulphate soils
are exposed to air the iron sulfides in the soil react with oxygen and water
to produce a variety of iron compounds and sulfuric acid. Initially a
chemical reaction, the process is accelerated by soil bacteria. The resulting
acid can release other substances, including heavy metals, from the soil
and into the surrounding environment.

13.3.1 The Genesis and underlying chemistry of formation of Acid

Sulphate Soils
The soils and sediments which are most prone to becoming acid sulphate
soils are those which formed within the last 10,000 years after the major
sea level rise. When the sea level rose and inundated the land, sulphate
(SO42-) in sea water was mixed with land sediments containing iron oxides
and organic matter. Under such anaerobic conditions, lithotrophic bacteria
such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans form iron sulphides (pyrite). For pyrite to
form, it requires supply of sulphur (Seawater), anaerobic (O2 free)
condition, supply of energy for bacteria (usually rotting organic matter, e.g.
mangrove leaves), system to remove reaction products (tidal flushing

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

system, source of iron (most often from terrestrial sediments) and a

temperature greater than 10 ºC.
Acid sulphate soils are usually formed under waterlogged conditions.
These soils contain iron sulphides minerals (predominantly as the mineral
pyrite) or their oxidation products. In an undisturbed state below the water
table, acid sulphate soils are benign. However if the soils are drained,
excavated or exposed to air by a lowering of the water table, the sulphides
will react with oxygen to form sulphuric acid.

2FeS2 +9O2 +4H2O→8H+ +4SO4 +2Fe(OH)3 (solid)

Under waterlogged anaerobic soils, sulphate derived from the sea water is
reduced by anaerobic microorganisms.

13.4 Types of acid sulphate soils

13.4.1 Potential acid sulphate soils

Acid Sulphate Soils (ASS) which have not been oxidised by exposure to air
are known as potential acid sulphate soils (PASS). They are neutral in pH
(6.5–7.5) , contain unoxidised iron sulfides, are usually soft, sticky and
saturated with water and are usually gel-like muds but can include wet

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

sands and gravels have the potential to produce acid if exposed to oxygen.
While contained in a layer of waterlogged soil, the iron sulfides in the soil
are stable and the surrounding soil pH is often weakly acid to weakly
alkaline.

13.4.2 Actual acid sulphate soils

When PASS is exposed to oxygen, the iron sulfides are oxidised to produce
sulfuric acid and the soil becomes strongly acidic (usually below pH 4).
These soils are then called actual acid sulphate soils (AASS). They have a
pH of less than 4, contain oxidised iron sulfides, vary in texture and often
contain jarosite (a yellow mottle produced as a by- product of the oxidation
process).

13.5 Appearance and physico-chemical properties of acid sulphate soils

Acid sulphate soils are often mid to dark grey to greenish grey in colour and
soft and buttery with the consistency of clay. Pale yellow mottles are seen
in the subsoil of acid sulphate soil and red coloration is found when acid
sulphate soils are drained. Acid sulphate soils possess strong muddy odour
due to presence of ferrous and hydrogen sulphide. The unique character
which very often identifies an active acid sulphate soil is the presence of
typical yellow mottles which resemble the mineral, jarosite. The available
N and P contents are usually low while K and S contents are quite high. The
salinity levels in acid sulphate soils are variable, due to seasonal changes
and high EC values in the surface horizon of the soils may be due to the

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

upward movements of salts by capillary action. Strongly acid sulphate soils

result in toxicities of aluminum and iron, soluble salts (unless leached),
manganese and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. Hydrogen sulphide often
formed in lowland rice soils causing akiochi disease that prevents rice
plants roots from absorbing nutrients.

13.6 Problems

The growth of most dryland crops on acid sulphate soils is hampered by

the toxic levels of aluminium and the low availability of phosphorus. Toxic
levels of dissolved iron plus low phosphorus are the most important
adverse factors for wetland rice. In the near-neutral potential acid sulphate
soils (Sulfaquents, Sulfic Fluvaquents), high salinity, poor bearing capacity,
uneven land surface, and the risk of strong acidification during droughts
are the main disadvantages. Young acid sulphate soils (Sulfaquepts) in
which the pyritic substratum occurs near the surface are often more acid
than those soils (Sulfic Tropaquepts, Sulfic Haplaquets) in which this
horizon is found at greater depths. Acid floodwater generated in large
swamps with very acid Sulfaquepts, may adversely affect crops grown on
adjacent better land.

13.7 Present land use

Most potential acid sulphate soils are under natural vegetation (mangrove
swamps, tidal marshes) or are used for mangrove forestry (charcoal, nipa
thatch, nipa sugar). Fishponds in potentially acid land can be fairly

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

productive, provided that the pyritic substratum is not exposed and

oxidized. In climates with a marked dry season, potentially acid swamps
can be used for salt extraction. In some tidal swamps where the surface
water is seasonally fresh, tidal swamp rice is grown on cleared mangrove
land. Young, shallow, acid sulphate soils are commonly left uncultivated,
although with good water management they can be used with some
success for oil palm and rice. Older acid sulphate soils are used extensively
for broadcast deep water rice, giving low to moderate yields. Droughts and
sudden deep flooding, however, are probably at least as much to blame for
lower rice yields on these older soils as are phosphorus deficiency and
aluminium toxicity.

13.8 Reclamation Possibilities

The easiest and most effective way to avoid the harm caused by acid
sulphate soils is to leave them alone—so identification and mapping are
important. Avoiding acid sulphate soils is encouraged when possible.
However, acid sulphate soils are common in places where humans live, and
sometimes construction in and around these sediments cannot be
avoided. In such cases, the first step is to minimise the level of disturbance
as much as possible.

13.8.1 Minimising disturbance

Minimising disturbance can be quite easy, and may involve:

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Designing a construction project that limits the amount of excavation—

for instance, building an above-ground car park instead of a basement,
building smaller structures on stilts or push-piles, or placing clean fill in
a thick layer before building
• Locating a construction project on the part of a property where acid
sulphate soils are buried deepest, so the amount of acid sulphate soil
removed is reduced
• Using construction methods and site management procedures that
don't leave acid sulphate soils exposed to air without treatment
• Aligning and designing linear infrastructure in tidal areas so that natural
water flows (both surface and groundwater) are not blocked
• Making farm and urban drains broad and shallow so they don't dig into
buried acid sulphate soil layers but can still remove excess surface water
efficiently.
The older, deeply developed acid sulphate soils require no specific
reclamation measures, and can be greatly improved by good fertilizer
application, moderate dressings of lime (1-5 ton/ha) and probably most
important, good water management. In reclaiming or improving potential
and young acid sulphate soils two diametrically opposite approaches are
possible:

- Pyrite and soil acidity can be removed by leaching after drying and
aeration, and

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

- Pyrite oxidation can be limited or stopped, and existing acidity inactivated

by maintaining a high water-table.

13.8.2 Keeping the area flooded

The first method, combined with leaching by seawater has been used with
some success in experiments, and these efforts have attracted
considerable attention. The method can only be applied under specific
conditions: close proximity to the sea, an appreciable tidal range and
strongly contrasting wet and dry seasons. Even then, costly annual
dressings of lime are still necessary, and no instances of a successful large-
scale application have been reported. Most of the available experience
from field and laboratory experiments shows that leaching is too slow to
remove an appreciable and relatively immobile fraction of the soil acidity
(mainly adsorbed aluminium, adsorbed sulphate and basic sulphate such
as jarosite) from most of the soil within an acceptable time. However,
leaching is often necessary to remove accumulations of soluble acid salts
(Al-Fe-Mg sulphates) near the surface of rice fields on young acid sulphate
soils after a dry fallow, and to remove acid surface water generated above
flooded, reduced acid sulphate soils. This is usually done in the course of
the growing season by lateral drainage of surface water after repeated wet
tillage.

13.8.3 Controlling water table

The second reclamation method, maintaining a high water-table to stop

pyrite oxidation and to inactivate existing soil acidity, has the advantage

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

that its effects are usually noticeable within two years or so. This is
especially true in young acid sulphate soils that are generally high in
organic matter. Upon waterlogging, soil reduction caused by microbial
decomposition of organic matter lowers acidity and may cause the pH to
rise rapidly to near-neutral values. The method is particularly suitable with
rice cultivation, but even in oil palm plantations, maintaining a shallow
water-table has given far better results than deeper drainage with
intensive leaching. The crucial factor is, of course, the availability of fresh
water for irrigation. Large-scale engineering schemes for reclaiming
potentially acid, and usually strongly saline, coastal swamp are rarely
economic. In the areas, where patches of Sulfaquepts occur among better
soils, improved water management and intensive irrigation have
dramatically increased the productivity of these highly acid soils. So, unless
sufficient fresh water is available and other prerequisites for good water
management exist, potential acid sulphate soils and young, strongly acid
sulphate soils should not be reclaimed, but are better left for other types
of land use (conservation, forestry, fisheries and, sometimes, salt pans). If
fishponds are constructed on such land, they should be kept shallow,
because deep excavation will cause the water to turn toxic. The injudicious
reclamation of seemingly suitable land in coastal swamps by excluding salt
water through diking and by excavating fishponds has led to the
destruction and abandonment of thousands upon thousands of hectares
of mangrove land in southeast Asia. The less toxic and deeper developed
older acid sulphate soils are moderately suitable for rice and can be

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

improved by sound agronomic practices, such as growing adapted cultivars

and applying phosphorus. By intensifying water and soil management,
including dry season irrigation, the productivity of these soils for rice will
increase and they can probably be made productive for a wide variety of
annual and perennial dryland crops.

13.8.4 Liming and Leaching

If acid sulphate soil is disturbed, it must be treated. Additional liming and

fertilization, especially with phosphorus, are usually necessary with either
method. Liming alone, while technically and agronomically feasible, is
always prohibitively expensive on these very acid soils. The most common
method of treatment is to mix an alkaline material into the soil, where it
can react with acidity and neutralise it. Agricultural lime (powdered
calcium carbonate—CaCO3) is the most common neutralising material in
use. If these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime
requirements are lowered. Leaching, however, is difficult because of the
high water-table commonly found in this type of soil and low permeability
of the clay. Sea water is sometimes available for preliminary leaching.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Beek, K.J., Blokhuis, W.A., Driessen, P.M., Breemen, N. V., Brinkman, R. &
Pons, L.J. (1980). Problem Soils: their reclamation and management.

12
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Eroded Soils – Types and factors responsible for
Lesson 14 soil erosion

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

 Understand various types of soil erosion and the geographic,

meteorological and anthropogenic reasons for soil erosion.

Glossary of terms

1. Accelerated Erosion: If the rate of soil loss exceeds the rate of soil
formation then it is called accelerated erosion.
2. Erodibility: It is considered as a dynamic property of the soil, which
defined as resistance of soil to both detachment and transport of soil
particle and depends on physical, chemical, mineralogical and
biological property of soil . The resistance of soil to erosion include
texture, structure, water retention and transmission properties and
shear strength.
3. Eutrophication: Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other
waterbody , frequently due to run-off from the land, which causes a
dense growth of plant life.
4. Deforestation: Deforestation refers to the conversion of a forest into
a non-forest use such as farmland, ranches, pasture, industrial
complexes, and urban areas.
5. Natural or geological erosion: One in which rate of soil loss does not
exceed the rate of soil formation.
6. Sheet Erosion: When a thin layer of soil is removed by raindrop
impact and shallow surface flow from the whole slope, it is called
sheet erosion.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

7. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion refers to the detachment and

transportation of soil particles to another place by the agencies of
water, wind or gravitational forces etc.
8. Splash Erosion: Splash erosion is the first stage of
the erosion process. It occurs when raindrops hit bare soil. The
explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil
particles are 'splashed' onto the soil surface.
9. Saltation: As the wind speeds pick up, the surface particles start
leaping off the surface into the air, this process is saltation.
10. Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1
mm diameter by floating in the air is known as suspension.
11. Surface Creep: A stage in the wind erosion process in which
sand grains are moved along the ground surface by impact of other
grains in saltation.

14.1 Introduction

Soil erosion refers to the detachment and transportation of soil particles

to another place by the agencies of water, wind or gravitational forces etc.
It is the most destructive phenomenon causing the loss of fertile soil,
degrading the environment and reducing the storage capacity of water
bodies. Natural or geological erosion is one in which rate of soil loss does
not exceed the rate of soil formation and if the rate of soil loss exceeds the
rate of soil formation then it is called accelerated erosion.

14.2 Types of Erosion

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Based on the causal agents, soil erosion can be classified as water erosion
when the detachment and transportation of soil particles takes place by
the moving water; and wind erosion when the detachment and
Erosion
transportation of soil particles happens by the wind.

Natural or Geological Accelerated

Water erosion Wind erosion

Based on movement of soil particles

RaindropS Sheet Rill Gully StreamB Saltation Suspension Surface

plash ank creep

Figure 1 Schematic diagram for Soil Erosion

14.3 Soil Erosion by Water

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

14.3.1 Extent of Water erosion in India

Of the total degraded land in India, more than 80% is affected by soil
erosion and out of it about 80% of it occurs by water. The annual water
erosion rate value ranges from 5 t ha-1yr-1 (for dense forest, snow-clad cold
deserts, and the arid regions of western Rajasthan) to more than 80 ha-1yr-
1
in the Shiwalik hills in northwest region with an average value of 16 t ha -
1
yr-1. The red soils, covering about 70 Mha, being shallow and have low
intake capacity due to crusting, suffer from rapid surface runoff and
erosion.

The flood plains of Ganga and its tributaries in Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar transported about 30 Mt of eroded materials every year to the Bay
of Bengal. Similarly, the Brahmaputra transported 10 Mt Yr-1 from the
Brahmaputra valley to the Bay of Bengal (Das, 2015).

It has been also estimated that more than 1.5 Mha of forest land is
cleared for shifting agriculture every year. The total area affected by
shifting cultivation is estimated to be 4.5 Mha. Shifting agriculture, locally
known as “jhumming” has caused severe soil erosion in the tribal areas of
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh etc.

14.3.2 Significance of Soil Erosion

a. Loss of fertile soil: The upper 15 cm soil layer (plough layer) lost as run-
off consist of fertile soils and fresh or active organic matter. The fertile soil
carries along with the essential plant nutrients leading to decreased

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

fertility of eroded soils. An estimated loss of nutrient due to soil erosion by

water in the country is to the extent of 5.4 to 8.4 Mt.

b. Loss of crop productivity: The consequences of fertile soil loss and

deterioration of soil structure by water erosion led to reduction in the crop
productivity.

c. Water pollution: The runoff water carries dissolved mobile nutrients like
nitrogen whereas the eroded sediments in runoff water nutrient adsorbed
on the soil particles. Nutrient-rich runoff-water causes ‘eutrophication’ of
water bodies.

d. Loss in reservoir capacity: The water reservoirs get silted up due to high
sediment load of the runoff water entering in to these reservoirs, thus
decreasing their storage capacity and minimising their useful life.

e. Flash floods and mudslides: The high intensity rain in the hilly regions in
absence of sufficient vegetative cover led to high velocity runoff resulting
in flash floods in the plains. The detachment of soil by rainwater coupled
with gravitational forces leads to mud slides in the mountainous region.

14.3.3 Causes of Soil Erosion

a. Deforestation: Deforestation refers to the conversion of a forest into a

non-forest use such as farmland, ranches, pasture, industrial complexes,
and urban areas. Forest clearance exposes the bare soil to the scorching
effect of the sun and the beating action of the rains. Due to elevated
temperature, soil organic matter is decomposed at a faster rate, and soil

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

aggregates are broken down by raindrop impact. Infiltration rate is

reduced and more water runs off. The natural vegetation not only protects
the soil surface from kinetic energy of raindrops, but also the soil particles
are adhered strongly to the plant roots.

b. Overgrazing: Overgrazing is one of the most devastating causes of

desertification in arid lands. The forage and overgrazing of livestock cause
a chain of degradation, critically reducing vegetation cover and soil fertility,
as well as increasing erosion. Domestic animals rapidly clear vegetation,
placing stress on a land that already has a low vegetation cover. They also
move in large groups and have sharp hooves that easily break up the soil,
leaving it susceptible to erosion. These factors coupled with high
temperatures destroy the rest of the natural vegetation and prepare the
ground for large scale soil erosion with high intensity rainfall.

c. Inappropriate cultivation practices: Cultivation practices viz. up and

down cultivation, cultivating sloping lands, unsafe disposal of excess runoff
water, etc. lead to the accelerated soil erosion by water.

d. Intensive tillage: The intensive tillage of soils results in decrease in soil

organic carbon, breakdown of particles aggregates into smaller particles,
eases the soil detachment and transportation, and finally accelerates the
rate of soil erosion by water.

e. Population pressure: The need to feed the ever-increasing population

coupled with increasing urbanization has resulted in conservation of forest
and grassland for agricultural practices.

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

14.3.4 Types of Soil Erosion

a. Splash Erosion: At the start of a rain event, falling raindrops beat the soil
aggregates, break them, and detach soil particles. These particles clog the
large soil pores and, thus, reduce the infiltration capacity of the soil. Water
cannot enter the soil, and soon a thin film of water covers the ground.
Further, raindrops beat the water and splash the suspended soil particles
away. Soil particles are transported to some distance by the splashing. The
splashed particles can rise as high 60 cm above the ground and move up to
1.5 m from the point of impact. Actually, splash erosion is the beginning of
other types of soil erosion, particularly sheet erosion.

b. Sheet Erosion: When a thin layer of soil is removed by raindrop impact

and shallow surface flow from the whole slope, it is called sheet erosion. It
removes the finest fertile topsoil with plenty of nutrients and organic
matter. It is the most dangerous type of soil erosion because it occurs
gradually and almost silently leaving little or no signs of soil removal.

c. Rill Erosion: When rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration, water

accumulates on the surface, and if the land is sloping, it moves along the
slope. On gently sloping lands, with standing crops or in fields that have
been recently tilled, moving water concentrates along tiny channels called
rills. Rills are less than 30 cm deep. The cutting action of flowing water
detaches soil particles, and runoff water carries them away. The amount
of soil loss may be high, but the small channels do not usually interfere

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

with tillage implements. The rills may be levelled by normal tillage

operations. Rill erosion is often the initial stage of gully erosion.

d. Gully Erosion: Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where

surface channels have eroded to the point where these cannot be
obliterated by tillage operations. The channels with cross section area of
0.1 m2 or more have been recently designated as gullies. Gullies are the
most spectacular evidence of the destruction of soil as it permanently
dissects the land. Gully erosion is responsible for removing amounts of soil
irreversibly destroying farmlands, roads, and bridges and deteriorating the
water quality by increasing the sediments load in the streams. Gullies not
only transport the sediments but also contribute to these sediments due
to erosion of sides and bottom of these channels.

e. Stream Bank Erosion: Stream/riverbank erosion occurs due to bank

scour and mass failure. The direct removal of bank materials by the
physical action of flowing water is called bank scour. It is often dominant
in smaller streams and the upper reaches of larger streams and rivers.
Mass failure occurs when large chunks of bank material become unstable
and topple into the stream or river. Riverbank erosion can be accelerated
by lowering streambed, inundation of bank soils followed by rapid drops in
water flow, saturation of banks from off-stream sources, removal of
protective vegetation from stream banks, poor drainage, readily erodible
material within the bank profile, wave action generated by boats, excessive
sand and gravel extraction, and intense rainfall.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

f. Mass movements and Land sliding: The downward and outward

movement of a large block of soil and regolith caused by gravity are called
landslides and landslips. Landslides are deep-seated mass movement, and
soil slip is a shallow and rapid sliding or flowing movement of the soil. There
are different forms of landslides, including mudflows, mudslides, debris
flows, rock falls, and rockslides. Slides move in contact with the underlying
surface. Flows are plastic or liquid movements in which land mass breaks
up in water and flows during movement. Landslides are caused by unstable
geological conditions, steep slopes, intense rainfall, weak soils,
earthquakes, and human- induced changes of landforms. Human-induced
causes are excavation, loading, deforestation, irrigation, mining,
vibrations, and water impoundment.

14.3.5 Factors affecting Soil erosion

The major factors affecting soil erosion are: climate, soil, vegetation and
topography

a. Climate: Climatic variables affecting soil erosion by water are

precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation. It is rain
and snow that play a major role in soil erosion. Temperature and wind are
most evident through their effect on evaporation and transpiration;
however, wind also changes raindrop velocities and angle of impact.
Humidity and solar radiation are somewhat less indirectly involved as these
are associated with temperature and rate of soil water depletion. Rainfall

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

characteristic affecting soil erosion are amount, intensity, distribution,

raindrop size etc.

b. Soil: The soil characteristic describes soil detachability and

transportability, which when combined is designated as soil ‘erodibility’. It
is considered as a dynamic property of the soil, which is defined as
resistance of soil to both detachment and transport of soil particle and
depends on physical, chemical, mineralogical and biological property of soil
that affect the resistance of soil to erosion including texture, structure,
water retention and transmission properties and shear strength.

c. Vegetation: Vegetation act as protective layer or buffer between the

atmosphere and the soil. The major effects of vegetation in reducing
erosion include:

i. Interception of rainfall by absorbing the energy of raindrops and thus

reducing surface sealing and runoff.
ii. Reducing of erosion by decreasing surface velocity
iii. Physical restraint of soil movement
iv. Improvement of aggregation and porosity of soil by roots and plant
residues
v. Increased biological activity in soil
vi. Transpiration, which decreases soil water, resulting in increased
strong capacity and less runoff.
d. Topography: Landform and slope of land play an important role in the
origin of erosion, entailment, and deposition of entailed sediment.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

Topographic feature that influences soil erosion are degree, shape and
length of the slope, and size and shape of the watershed. Erosion expects
to increase with increase in slope steepness and slope length as a result of
increase in velocity and volume of surface runoff.

14.4. Soil Erosion by Wind

Wind erosion means detachment and transportation of soil particles by the

forces generated by wind. Wind erosion takes place normally in arid and
semi-arid regions devoid of vegetation, where the velocity of wind is high.
The soil particles on the land surface are lifted and blown off as dust
storms. When the velocity of the dust bearing wind is retarded, coarser soil
particles are deposited in the form of dunes and thus fertile lands are
rendered unfit for cultivation. In other place, fertile soil is blown away by
winds and the subsoil is exposed, as a result the productive capacity of the
soil is considerably reduced. Lifting and abrasive action of wind results in
detachment of tiny soil particles from the granules or clods. The impact of
these rapidly moving particles dislodges other particles from clods and
aggregates. These dislodged particles are ready for movement. Movement
of soil particles in wind erosion is initiated when the pressure by the wind
against the surface soil grains overcomes the force of gravity on the grains.

14.4.1 Extent and Significance of Wind Erosion

Extent

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

About 13.5 M ha area, representing 4.1% of the total geographical

area in the country is affected by wind erosion. Wind erosion is moderate
to severe in the arid and semi-arid regions of north-west covering an area
of 2.8 Mha, in states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Out of this,
68% is covered by sand dunes and sandy plains. Rate of wind erosion is not
measured in many geographic locations ,but, it may be as high as 0.5 mm
yr-1.

Significance

i. Loss of soil fertility: Soil fertility is reduced because of the loss of the
plant nutrients that are concentrated on fine soil particles and
organic matter in the topsoil. This reduces the soils’ capacity to
support productive pastures and sustain biodiversity.
ii. Crop damage: The strong soil particle laden-winds damage the
young seedling, blowing away the recently sown seeds, exposing the
roots. With the deposition of soil particles carried away by wind, the
plant may be buried under. Weed seeds also spread from one field
to another field, thereby reducing the crop productivity.
iii. Pollution: Dust particles can pollute water bodies and spread many
disease pathogens. Air pollution caused by fine particles in
suspension can affect people's health and cause other allergic
problems.
iv. Desertification: Wind erosion is one of the major factors of
desertification as deserts are expanding at the rate of 2 m yr-1.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

14.4.2 Causes of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion is a serious problem in the arid and semi-arid regions where
vegetation is sparse, rainfall is low, and temperature is high. Potential
evaporation is higher than precipitation for most of the year, which causes
depletion of soil moisture, organic matter, and structure. Storms are
regular events there, and in dry warm season, strong winds uplift small soil
particles and carry them to distant places. Ecosystems in arid and semiarid
regions are fragile by nature and are sensitive to human disturbances.
Under population pressure and socio-economic backwardness, human
actions cause stresses on all-natural resources. Land mismanagement,
overgrazing, overcutting for fuel wood and deforestation, and misuse of
water resources have been responsible for the loss of natural vegetative
cover and hence accelerated wind erosion.

14.4.3 Types of Wind Erosion

Moving air has energy that can detach and transport soil particles.
Detachment occurs when the energy exerted by wind exceeds the forces
keeping the soil particles in place, such as weight and ‘cohesion’.
Detachment can also occur via the impact of particles already in motion
dislodging other particles. Once detached, soil can be transported in one
of three ways: suspension, saltation, or creep.

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 1 Different types of soil movement by wind. (From USDA, 1989)

i. Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1 mm

diameter by floating in the air is known as suspension. Soil particles
carried in suspension are deposited when the sedimentation force is
greater than the force holding the particles in suspension. This occurs
with decrease in wind velocity. Suspension usually may not account
for more than 15% of total movement.
ii. Saltation: The major portion of soil carried by the wind is moved in a
series of short bounces called “saltation.” The soil carried in a
saltation consists of fine particles ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mm in
diameter. About 50-75% of soil erosion by wind carried out by
saltation. Saltation is caused by the direct pressure of wind on soil
particles and their collision with other particles. After being pushed
along the ground surface by the wind, the particles leap almost
vertically in the first stages of saltation.

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

iii. Surface creep: Soil particles, larger than about 0.5 mm in diameter
but smaller than 3.0 mm, are too heavy to be moved in saltation but
rolled and sliding along the surface by the pressure of wind and
hitting during saltation. About 5-25% of soil erosion carried out by
surface creep. About 90% of the total soil movement in wind erosion
is below the height of 30 cm and about 50% of it is within 5 cm of the
ground level.

14.4.4 Factor affecting Wind Erosion

i. Wind erosivity: Wind characteristic like velocity, turbulence,

frequency, duration seasonality are important parameters affecting
erosion. Wind velocity is the most important wind factor affecting
erosion; higher wind velocity equates to higher wind energy and
erosivity. Wind speed of about 20 km hr-1 is required to initiate
movement. At higher velocities the transport capacity of moving air
increases with the cube of wind velocity.
ii. Soil erodibility: Soil erodibility refers to the ease of detachment and
transport by wind. Soil characteristics that affect erodibility of soil
due to wind are texture, structure, and water content. Texture is
considered as the most dominant factor, and it is commonly agreed
that particles smaller than 0.25 mm and larger than 0.08 mm are
most easily eroded by wind. Soils with characteristics like fine sand
particles having low organic matter contents, single grains to massive

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

in arrangement, with friable and non-sticky consistence, etc. are

more easily subjected to wind erosion.
The soil erodibility factor (K-factor) is a quantitative description of
the inherent erodibility of a particular soil; it is a measure of the
susceptibility of soil particles to detachment and transport by rainfall
and runoff. For a particular soil, the soil erodibility factor is the rate
of erosion per unit erosion index from a standard plot. The factor
reflects the fact that different soils erode at different rates when the
other factors that affect erosion (e.g., infiltration rate, permeability,
total water capacity, dispersion, rain splash, and abrasion) are the
same. Texture is the principal factor affecting Kfact, but structure,
organic matter, and permeability also contribute. The soil erodibility
factor ranges in value from 0.02 to 0.69.
iii. Landform: Features of landscape that affect wind erosion are the
field length, exposed topographic location, field orientation, and
shelter relative to erosive wind.
iv. Cover: Vegetative covers reduce the wind velocity at the soil surface
and also generally decrease the soil erodibility. The relationship
between vegetation coverage and wind erosion rate is an
exponential function, i.e., with the increase of vegetation coverage
the wind erosion rate decreases exponentially.
Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

17
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Monitoring, measuring and remediation of Eroded
Lesson 15 Soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives

 Understand the principles and techniques of soil loss measurements.

 Understand the biological, agronomic and engineering measures of
soil conservation and management of ravinous and eroded lands.

Glossary of terms

1. Agroforestry: Agroforestry is a system of growing agricultural or

horticultural crops or/and rearing livestock along with trees
simultaneously or sequentially in the same piece of land.
2. Alley Cropping: In alley cropping, crops (grains, forages, vegetables,
etc.) are grown between tree rows spaced widely enough to
accommodate the mature size of the trees without interfering for
light and moisture with the crops between the rows.
3. Conservation Tillage: Conservation tillage is any system that reduces
the number of tillage operations, reduces the area of tilling in the
field, and maintains residue cover on the soil surface.
4. Contour cropping: Ploughing and planting crop in the contour that is
across the slope is called contour cropping or contour farming.
5. Contour strip cropping: Contour strip cropping is planting row crops
in strips on the contour. It is more efficient in erosion control than
contour farming and strip cropping alone because of the plant and
crop diversity.
6. Cover Crops: Cover crops are close-growing crops that provide soil
protection, seeding protection, and soil improvement between

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

periods of normal crop production or between trees in orchards and

vines in vineyards.
7. Grassed Waterways: Grassed waterways are natural or constructed
channels established at an appropriate place over the field for safe
transport of concentrated water at a reduced velocity using
adequate grass cover. They are generally broad and shallow
drainways to transport surface water across farmland without
causing soil erosion.
8. Mulching: A cover spread or laid over the surface to protect soil is
called mulch.
9. Rainfall Erosivity factor: Rainfall erosivity is the kinetic energy of
raindrop's impact and the rate of associated runoff. The R-factor is a
multi-annual average index that measures rainfall's kinetic energy
and intensity to describe the effect of rainfall on sheet and rill
erosion
10. Soil Loss Tolerance Value (T Value): The soil loss tolerance
value has been defined as an indication of how much erosion should
be tolerated.
11. Strip cropping: In strip cropping, two or more crops are grown
in alternate strips. Crops of different strips vary in their root/shoot
characteristics and cultural requirements.
12. Soil Erodibility Index: It is defined as the potential soil loss in
tonnes per hectare per year from a wide, unsheltered isolated field

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

with a bare, smooth, non-crusted surface. This index is a function of

soil aggregates greater than 0.84 mm in diameter.

15.1 Introduction

Estimating soil erosion is important for determining erosion severity and

its influence on land use and management plans. Erosion is often best
estimated with models, due to the number of variables involved. The most
commonly used models are the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE),
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), used to estimate water
erosion, and the Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ). Both USLE and WEQ are
defined by equations where a number of factors affecting erosion are
taken into account to determine average annual erosion rates. Factors
include climate, soil erodibility, surface roughness, length of field,
vegetative cover, and in some scenarios, an erosion control practice.

15.2 Assessment of Soil Erosion by Water

15.2.1 Soil Loss Tolerance Value (T Value)

The soil loss tolerance value has been defined as an indication of how much
erosion should be tolerated. The T value is the maximum soil erosion loss
that does not cause significant loss in productivity. It depends on soil
characteristics. For example, shallow soils over hard bedrock have small T
values. More erosion loss can be tolerated for thick permeable soils on
permeable unconsolidated parent materials. The T value is the maximum
average annual soil loss that allows continuous cropping and maintains soil

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

productivity without requiring additional management inputs. Many soils

that have developed from thick sediments of loess are agriculturally
productive. Where subsoils have physical properties unsuitable for rooting,
erosion results in reductions in soil productivity that cannot be overcome
with only fertilizer application. Such soils have low tolerance levels (small
T value).

15.2.2 Soil Loss Equations (USLE and RUSLE)

Soil erosion is influenced by many different variables, the essence of the

universal soil loss equation (USLE) is to isolate each variable and reduce its
effect to a number, so that when these numbers are multiplied together,
the answer is the amount of soil loss. The soil loss is an average erosion
rate for the landscape profile. RUSLE uses the same factorial approach
employed by the USLE:

A = R × K × LS × C × P

A – Potential long-term average annual soil loss in tons per acre per year
−1 −1
(× 2.24 Mg ha year ). This is the amount that is compared to the
“tolerable soil loss” limits.

R – Rainfall and runoff factor. The greater the intensity and duration of the
rainfall, the higher the erosion potential.

K – Soil erodibility factor. K is a measure of the susceptibility of soil particles

to detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. Texture is the principal

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

factor affecting K, but structure, organic matter, and permeability also

contribute.

LS – Slope length and steepness factor. The LS factor represents a ratio of

soil loss under given conditions. The steeper and longer the slope is, the
higher is the risk for erosion. This is a very important factor in the overall
erosion rate.

C – Crop management factor. It is used to determine the relative

effectiveness of soil and crop management systems in terms of preventing
soil loss. The C factor is a ratio comparing the soil loss from land under a
specific crop and management system to the corresponding loss from
continuously fallow and tilled land. The crop grown, type and timing of
tillage, the use of winter cover, and the application of solid manure will all
impact on the C factor.

P – Support practices factor. The P factor compares the soil losses from up-
and downslope farming to losses that result from practices such as cross-
slope cultivation, contour farming, and strip cropping.

In RUSLE, the factors have been updated with recent information,

and new factor relationships have been derived based on modern erosion
theory and data.

Major changes to the USLE incorporated into RUSLE include:

R factor: new and improved is erodent maps and erodibility index

distributions for some areas

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

K factor: time-variant soil erodibility which reflects freeze – thaw in some

geographic areas

LS factor: new equations to account for slope length and steepness

C factor: additional subfactors for evaluating the cover and management

factor for cropland and rangeland

P factor: new conservation practice values for cropland and rangeland

a. Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)

Generally, local variations in rainfall erosivity (+5 %) can be represented

with a single R value. R values can be calculated for specific locations from
rainfall intensity data. However, this is a very time- and labor-intensive
process requiring erodibility index calculations for each storm event
greater than 0.5 in. for each rain gauge over a period of years.

b. Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The K factor represents both susceptibility of soil to erosion and the

amount and rate of runoff. Soil texture, organic matter, structure, and
permeability determine the erodibility of a particular soil. K values for
various soil types are given below.

Soil type Erodibility K value range

Fine-textured; high in Low 0.05–0.15
clay

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

Coarse-textured; Low 0.05–0.20

sandy
Medium-textured; Moderate 0.25–0.45
loams
High silt content High 0.45–0.65

b. Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS)

The LS factor represents the combined effects of slope length and

steepness relative to a standard unit plot on the erodibility. Slopes of non-
uniform steepness require dividing the slope into segments. Usually, five
segments comprised of slope length and steepness are sufficient to define
a non-uniform slope profile. There are different equations for calculating
LS factor for different slope conditions.

b. Cover and Management Factor (C)

The C factor represents the effect of plants, soil cover, belowground

biomass, and soil-disturbing activities on soil erosion. Both time-variant
(cropping/rotation scenario) and time-invariant (average annual values)
modules have been constructed. The time-variant option is used when
plant and/or soil conditions change enough to significantly affect erosion
during the year, during a rotation cycle, or over an extended period. This
option is typically applied to croplands; rangelands where cover changes
significantly during the year such as from grazing, burning, or herbicide
application. The time-invariant option is used where constant conditions

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

can be assumed. The C factor depends on effective root mass in top 4″ of

soil, percent canopy, average fall height (ft), surface roughness value (index
of average micro- elevation: generally ranges from 0.3 to 1.5), percent
ground cover (rock + litter, excluding plant basal cover), and surface cover
function expressed as B value (the relative effectiveness of surface cover
for reducing soil loss). The choices of B value are based on the ratio of
rill/inter rill erosion under bare soil conditions. Some typical B values are
given below:

Field Conditions (B Value)

Flat and short slopes, where soil is resistant to erosion by flow, 0.025
consolidated lands (e.g., pasture)
Moderate slopes and slope lengths with moderate disturbance 0.035

Steep and long slopes where soil is highly disturbed and where 0.045
soil is susceptible to erosion by flow
Range lands, where runoff tends to be low and affected by 0.045
cover
Long-term no-till cropping, especially where no-till significantly 0.050
reduces runoff

15.3 Control of soil erosion by water is based on the following principles:

• Reducing raindrop impact: This can be achieved by providing a cover on

the soil during the rainy season. Dense forest canopy, close-growing crops
such as cover crops and mulches on the bare or cropped soils can provide
necessary protection against raindrop impact.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Stabilizing soil aggregates: Stable soil aggregates are obtained in soils

supplied with sufficient organic matter. Aggregation improves porosity
and infiltration and reduces runoff.

• Increasing infiltration and reducing runoff: Infiltration can be increased

by mulching and by modification of the slope. Organic mulches soak water
and allow water more time to infiltrate. Level lands have more infiltration
capacity than sloping soils.

• Reducing velocity of runoff: Velocity of runoff can be reduced by

modifying the degree and length of slope through terracing and
contouring. Contour cropping, strip cropping, and contour strip cropping
effectively reduce runoff velocity. When velocity of runoff is reduced, rate
of infiltration increases.

• Minimum disturbance of soil: Tillage makes the soil more erodible.

Conservation tillage systems, including no-tillage, minimum tillage, and
subsoil tillage are efficient soil conservation practices.

• Preventing concentration of runoff water in channels: Levelling

previously developed rills, growing crops closely, and keeping crop
residues in field prevent concentration of runoff water.

• Carrying runoff water safely out of field: Runoff water can be driven
safely out of the field by grassed waterways.

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

• Integrating erosion control measures: Usually, no one method alone is

sufficient for the control of soil erosion. For example, integrating mulching
with no-tillagecan effectively reduce erosion.

• Regular maintenance of erosion control measures: Practices for erosion

control need to be maintained regularly. Terraces may need mending and
barriers may need reconstruction.

15.4 Control Measures for Water erosion

15.4.1 Amendments

Addition of manures and composts favours structure formation; increases

aggregate stability, porosity, and infiltration; and thus, reduces runoff.
Manuring can reduce water runoff by 70–90 % and sediment loss by 80–
95 % as a result of increased organic matter content (Grande et al. 2005).
Using manure in combination with other conservation practices, such as
no-till may be an effective strategy for reducing soil erosion. However,
indiscriminate use of manure may have detrimental impacts on water
quality as well.

15.4.2 Cover Crops

According to the Soil Science Society of America, cover crops are close-
growing crops that provide soil protection, seeding protection, and soil
improvement between periods of normal crop production or between
trees in orchards and vines in vineyards (SSSA 2008). Cover crops are
presently used as an important companion practice to no-till, reduced

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

tillage, alley cropping, agroforestry, and other conservation practices

designed to reduce soil erosion and improve quality of soil and water
resources. Retaining cover crops as mulch is more benefitting than
ploughing under in soils where the erosion rate is high. Cover crop mulch
on the soil surface increases soil organic matter content and suppresses
weeds in addition to protection against erosion (Blanco and Lal, 2008).

Figure 1 Cover crops on a field in Black Hawk County, Iowa (Photo

courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

15.4.3 Conservation Tillage

Conservation tillage is any system that reduces the number of tillage

operations, reduces the area of tilling in the field, and maintains residue
cover on the soil surface. The Soil Science Society of America (SSSA)
defines conservation tillage as a tillage system that leaves at least 30 % of
residue cover on the soil surface.

When combined with prudent management of crop residues, crop

rotations, and cover crops, conservation tillage is a useful technology for
protecting soil and sustaining crop production (Blanco and Lal, 2008).

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

Conservation tillage includes no-till and reduced or minimum tillage

systems such as mulch tillage, strip tillage, and ridge tillage. Cropping with
no-tillage or limited tillage is not as popular as with tillage. But for negative
impacts of conventional tillage, including exposure of the soil surface to
wind and water erosion, and loss of soil organic matter through oxidation,
conservation tillage is gaining popularity. These management strategies
have proved effective for controlling soil erosion and improving soil
quality. In no-tillage, crops are planted directly in the residues of the
previous crop with no prior tillage. For row crops, a slit is made in the soil
in which the seed is sown. Minimum tillage involves the minimum
manipulation of soil. It is actually a localized tillage. Minimum and no-
tillage leave more residues on the soil surface than conventional tillage,
resulting in enhanced infiltration and reduced runoff and soil erosion for
which they are called conservation tillage. A strip 30–45 cm wide is tilled
in the row between undisturbed spaces during strip tillage. Strip-till is less
effective than no-till and subsoil systems, because bare soil exposed in the
tilled strip is susceptible to erosion. It can be made effective by covering
the exposed part with organic residues.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 2 Young soybean seedlings in a no-till Figure 3 Strawberries grown through reduced
field (Photo courtesy of USDA-NRCS) tillage (Photo courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

15.4.4 Mulching

A cover spread or laid over the surface to protect soil is called mulch.
Organic mulches are efficient soil conservation measures. Organic mulches
include compost, composted manure, grass clippings, newspaper, straw,
and shredded leaves. They are natural and cheap, and along with
protection, they improve soil fertility. Mulching has multiple advantages. It
reduces the impact of solar radiation and raindrops. It protects soil
aggregates from detachment by raindrops. It reduces evaporation and loss
of soil moisture; it increases infiltration and reduces amount and velocity
of runoff. It decreases surface sealing, crusting, and compaction. Stubble
mulching is frequently recommended for reducing runoff and erosion.
Residues of wheat or stalk of corn of the previous crop are retained during
tilling the land for next crop without turning them under. Stubble mulch is
a very efficient protector of wind erosion. Organic mulches release
polysaccharides, polyuronides, and other cementing agents which improve

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

soil structure. Mulched plants have more roots than plants that are not
mulched. Inorganic mulches also provide many benefits to the landscape.
Materials that can be used as inorganic mulches are crushed gravel and
granite, river rock or small stones, lava or granite rock, decorative and
colored stones, sand, crushed brick, crushed graded recycled glass,
landscape fabric sometimes referred to as geo-textiles, plastic mulch, and
aluminized mulch.

Figure 4 Soybean mulched with corn straw (Photo courtesy of USDA-

NRCS)

15.4.5 Contour Cropping

Ploughing and planting crop in the contour that is across the slope is called
contour cropping or contour farming. Contours are arbitrary lines drawn
perpendicular to the direction of slope. So, contour farming is a cross-slope
farming system. Contours reduce velocity of runoff, give accumulated

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

water more time to infiltrate, and deposit detached soil particles along the
contour lines. It retains sediments in the field. In contour farming, ridges
and furrows are formed by tillage, planting, and other farming operations
to change the direction of runoff from directly down slope to around the
hill slope. Contour farming is most effective on slopes between 2 and 10 %.
Contour farming is not well suited to rolling topography having a high
degree of slope irregularity. Several factors influence the effectiveness of
contour farming to reduce soil erosion. They are rainfall intensity, slope
steepness, soil properties, ridge height, cover and roughness, and the
critical slope length. Cover, roughness, and ridge height can be influenced
by management. Spacing of contour lines is chosen on the basis of slope,
soil, rainfall, and crop type. Annual and perennial crops are planted in the
ridges or furrows of the contours. Contour farming can be combined with
strip cropping.

Figure 5 Contour cropping (Photo courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

15.4.6 Strip Cropping

In strip cropping, two or more crops are grown in alternate strips. Crops of
different strips vary in their root/shoot characteristics and cultural
requirements. Crop strips break sloping landscapes in wide segments with
diverse vegetative cover which intercepts runoff and promotes water
infiltration, thereby reducing runoff and soil erosion. Sod-forming crops
may be alternated with cereals, legumes with non-legumes, and root crops
with vegetables. Strip cropping gives yields as good as monocropping. The
width of the strips depends on soil slope, erosion potential, crop type, and
equipment size. Narrow strips reduce flow lengths more effectively than
wide strips. The width of strips must match the equipment turn or width
for cultivation. On gentle slopes of up to 5 %, a strip width of about 30 m
is recommended while on steeper slopes the width must be less than 20 m
(Bravo and Silenzi, 2002). Strip cropping may be successfully combined
with contour farming.

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 6 Strip cropping (Photo courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

15.4.7 Contour Strip Cropping

Contour strip cropping is planting row crops in strips on the contour. It is

more efficient in erosion control than contour farming and strip cropping
alone because of the plant and crop diversity. The grass, legumes, or small
grains used in strips slow runoff and trap sediments leaving row crops.
Permanent grass/legume strips must be maintained between strips in soils
with severe erosion. These strips can be used as traffic lanes for cultural
operations (Blanco and Lal, 2008).

Figure 8 Contour strip cropping (Photo courtesy of USDA-NRCS)

15.4.8 Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT)

SALT is a technology package of soil conservation and food production that

integrates several soil conservation measures (Tacio, 1993). It involves
planting field crops and perennial crops in bands 3–5 m wide between
double rows of nitrogen fixing shrubs and trees planted along the contour.

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

15.4.9 Agroforestry

Agroforestry is a system of growing agricultural or horticultural crops

or/and rearing livestock along with trees simultaneously or sequentially in
the same piece of land. The objectives of agroforestry include conserving
soil, recycling nutrients, and enhancing crop yields, while producing
fuelwood, fodder, grain, fruit, and timber. It involves the integration of
trees, plants, and animals in conservative, long-term, productive systems.
The positive interactions among all these components are exploited in
carefully designed sustainable agroforestry systems (Sanchez, 1995) by (i)
multiple use of land; (ii) improved utilization of land, labour, and resources;
(iii) protection and improvement of soil by reducing erosion and providing
soil organic matter; (iv) production of diverse food crops such as fruits,
nuts, grains, and seeds; (v) production of feed for farm animals; (vi) long-
term production of tree products; and (vii) enhanced productivity and net
economic returns.

15.4.10 Alley Cropping

In alley cropping, crops (grains, forages, vegetables, etc.) are grown

between tree rows spaced widely enough to accommodate the mature size
of the trees without interfering for light and moisture with the crops
between the rows. When light-demanding crops like corn (maize) will be
grown, the alleyways need to be wide enough to let in plenty of light even
when the trees have matured. Alternatively, the cropping sequence can be
planned to change as the trees grow. For instance, soybeans or corn could

19
 Problematic soils and their Management

be grown when the trees are very small; as the tree canopy closes, forages
could be harvested for hay; and finally, when the trees are fully grown and
the ground is more shaded, grazing livestock, or shade-tolerant crops like
mushrooms or ornamental ferns could occupy the alleyways.

Figure 9 Alley cropping of cowpea

with Leucaena (Photo courtesy of
IITA)

15.4.11 Buffer Strips

Buffer strips are zones of permanent vegetation – trees, shrubs, and

grasses – used for different purposes including reduction of erosion.
Buffers reduce runoff by obstructing its way and cutting downslopes, filter
sediments, and remove sediment borne chemicals and dissolved nutrients
and agrochemicals. Buffer strips are generally established between
agricultural lands and streams, rivers, and lakes. When placed
perpendicular to the direction of water flow, buffers are effective
measures for reducing sediment fluxes. Buffers are commonly used in
sloping lands of developing regions where access to heavy equipment and
construction of mechanical structures (terraces) can be unachievable.
Benefits of buffers include yield of good quality water, enhanced
agricultural production, secured wildlife habitat, and desired landscape
aesthetics. Buffers can trap > 70 % of sediments and > 50 % of nutrients

20
 Problematic soils and their Management

depending on the plant species, management, and climate (Blanco and Lal,
2008). Buffers are multifunctional systems. Above the surface, buffers
reduce the runoff velocity and trap sediments and nutrients, and below the
surface, they stabilize the soil in place, bind the soil aggregates, improves
the structural characteristics, and increase soil organic matter content and
water transmission characteristics.

15.4.12 Grassed Waterways

Grassed waterways are natural or constructed channels established at an

appropriate place over the field for safe transport of concentrated water
at a reduced velocity using adequate grass cover. They are generally broad
and shallow drainways to transport surface water across farmland without
causing soil erosion. Grassed waterways are used as outlets to prevent rill
and gully formation. The grass cover slows the flow of water and minimizes
channel erosion. Efficient grassed waterways can transport large water
flows downslope without causing any harm. Grassed waterways also act as
diversion channels. Grasses trap suspended sediments and absorb
dissolved nutrients. It also traps dissolved nitrates, phosphates, herbicides,
and pesticides and improves water quality of adjacent reservoirs.

21
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 10 Grassed waterways

(Photo courtesy of USDA-
NRCS)

15.4.13 Terracing

Terracing refers to the building of a mechanical structure, a channel and a

bank or an earthen ridge or a stone wall on the land to reduce steepness
of slope and divide the slope into short gently sloping sections. Terraces
are created to encourage infiltration, to intercept surface runoff, or divert
toward a pre-determined and protected safe outlet at a controlled velocity
to avoid soil erosion. Terracing reduces runoff velocity below this threshold
values. It is one of the oldest means of saving soil and water. Moreover, it
is the most widely used soil conservation practice throughout the world.
The diversion terraces are used to intercept runoff and channel it across
the slope to a suitable outlet. The retention terraces are used when the
objective is to conserve water by storing it on the hillside. These terraces
are normally recommended only for permeable soil on slope of less than
4.5 0C. The bench terraces consist of series of alternating shelves and risers
and are employed on steep slopes up to 30 0C.

Cut

22
 Problematic soils and their Management

Fill

Original land profile

Figure 11 A sketch of a typical bench terrace (FAO 2000)

15.5 Assessment of Soil Erosion by Wind

Wind Erosion Equation

Several factors of wind erosion have been included in the wind erosion
equation (WEQ), which is an erosion model designed to predict long-term
average annual soil losses from a field having specific characteristics. The
equation is shown as

E = f (IKCLV)

where

E = estimated average annual soil loss expressed in tons per hectare per
year

I = soil erodibility index (t ha-1 yr-1). It is defined as the potential soil loss in
tonnes per hectare per year from a wide, unsheltered isolated field with a

23
 Problematic soils and their Management

bare, smooth, non-crusted surface. This index is a function of soil

aggregates greater than 0.84 mm in diameter.

K = soil ridge roughness factor is a measure of soil surface roughness other

than that caused by clods or vegetation, i.e., it is the natural or artificial
roughness of the soil surface in the form of ridges or small undulations. It
can be determined from a linear measure of surface roughness.

C = climatic factor indicated by wind velocity and surface soil moisture

L = equivalent unsheltered distance across the field along the prevailing

wind erosion direction

V = equivalent vegetative cover factor which depends on standing line

biomass, standing dead residue and flattened crop residue.

15.6 Principles of Wind Erosion Control

As early as in 1910, a USDA Farmers’ Bulletin listed actions to control soil

blowing as follows:

 Increase the water content of the soil.

 Increase the amount of humus (organic matter).
 Provide a cover of growing vegetation.
 Leave the stubble of the previous crop still standing on the land.
 Provide an artificial cover of straw and brush lines.
 Plant windbreaks to protect fields.
 Leave the soil surface in small clods instead of in a finely pulverized
condition.

24
 Problematic soils and their Management

 Roughen the surface by proper cultivation at right angles to the

direction of dangerous winds.

15.7 Wind Erosion Control Measures

Many conservation practices can be implemented to control wind erosion.

Conservation practices are designed to either reduce the wind force at the
soil surface or create a soil surface more resistant to wind forces. Some
practices also trap saltating particles to reduce the abrasion of soil surfaces
downwind.

15.7.1 Stabilization of Soil

Various soil stabilizers have been employed for the control of wind erosion.
Many of these products successfully control wind erosion for a short time.
However, easy and inexpensive stabilization may also be obtained by
vegetative measures such as wheat straw anchored with a rolling disk
packer. Often, chemical soil-stabilizing agents are used with varying
success. The criteria for surface soil stabilizers according to Armbrust and
Lyles (1975) are as follows: (1) 100 % of the soil must be covered, (2) the
stabilizer must not adversely affect plant growth or emergence, (3) erosion
must be prevented initially and reduced for the duration of the severe
erosion hazard, usually for at least 2 months each season, (4) the stabilizer
should apply easily and without special equipment, and (5) cost must be
low enough for profitable use. They found five polymers and one resin-in-
water emulsion that met all these requirements. These were Coherex,
DCA-70, Petroset SB, Polyco 2460, Polyco 2605, and SBR Latex S-2 105.

25
 Problematic soils and their Management

These stabilizers may prevent wind erosion if applied to the total soil
surface and at a sufficiently high rate, but their costs are prohibitive. For
applying soil stabilizers in agricultural land, we need to develop (i) methods
for applying large volumes rapidly, (ii) reliable pre-emergent weed control
chemicals for use on coarse-textured soils, (iii) films strong enough to
withstand raindrop impact and still allow water and plant penetration, and
(iv) films that at have no adverse effects on the soil–water–air
environment.

15.7.2 Cover Crops

Cover crop means plants or a green manure crop grown for seasonal soil
protection or soil improvement. Cover crops help control soil movement
and protect the soil surface between crops. Cover crop reduces wind
erosion by shielding the soil with vegetation and anchoring the soil with
roots. Green manuring cover crops are tilled into the ground in the spring,
at least 1 month before planting the next crop. This provides additional
nutrients to the crop, as the cover crop decomposes. The Dust Bowl (a
period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural
damage to American and Canadian prairie lands in the 1930s) has taught
farmers the importance of planting cover crops for the control of wind
erosion. Legumes, such as soybean or clover, are common choices for
cover crops. Their vegetation reduces ground air pressure, and their roots
hold the soil in place, in addition to their contribution to fixation of
nitrogen.

26
 Problematic soils and their Management

15.7.3 Ridging and Surface Roughening

Chepil and Milne (1941) observed that the initial intensity of drifting was
always much less over a ridged than a smooth surface. Ridging cultivated
soils reduces the severity of drifting. However, ridging highly erosive dune
materials was less effective because the ridges disappeared rapidly.
Experimental data showed that the rate of flow varied inversely with
surface roughness. It is influenced by ridge spacing and ridge height, and it
is defined relative to a 1:4 ridge height to ridge spacing ratio. A soil ridge
roughness of 6 cm reduces wind erosion 50 %. Emergency tillage is most
effective when done at right angles to the prevailing wind direction.
Because clods eventually disintegrate (sometimes rapidly), emergency
tillage offers, at best, only temporary wind erosion control (Woodruff et al.
1972).

15.7.4 Residue Management

Residues of the harvested crops protect soil against wind erosion. Standing
crop residues provide non-erodible elements that absorb much of the
shear stress in the boundary layer. When crop residues are sufficiently high
and dense to prevent intervening soil, surface drag from exceeding
threshold drag, soil will not erode. Standing stubble effectively protects the
soil from wind erosion. Stubble mulching is a crop residue management
system using tillage, generally without soil inversion and usually with
blades or V-shaped sweeps. The goal is to leave a desirable quantity of
plant residue on the surface of the soil at all times. Residue is needed for a

27
 Problematic soils and their Management

period of time even after the crop is planted to protect the soil from
erosion and to improve infiltration. The residue used is generally that
remaining from a previous crop. Any crop residue, either grown in place or
hauled in and spread, can control wind erosion. Last year’s wheat or corn
residues are uniformly spread over the field; they form effective cover
mulch. However, residues must be spread and anchored to the soil surface
by a packer or an anchoring agent such as cutback asphalt or asphalt
emulsion. Depending on residue type, minimum amounts needed to
control wind erosion are 5–10 t ha−1.

15.7.5 Wind Barrier

Barriers reduces wind erosion by (1) reducing the field width, (2) reducing
the distance that wind travels in crossing unprotected field strips, (3)
decreasing wind velocity, and (4) trapping wind-blown and saltated soil.
Use of wind barriers is an effective old wind erosion control measure.
Different combinations of trees, shrubs, tall-growing crops, and grasses can
reduce wind erosion. Besides the more conventional tree windbreak many
other barrier systems are used to control wind erosion. They include
annual crops like small grains, corn, sorghum, Sudan grass, sunflowers and
tall wheat grass. Most barrier systems for controlling wind erosion,
however, occupy space that could otherwise be used to produce crops.
They are arranged usually perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing
wind. They reduce the velocity of the wind at the ground level to a distance
approximately ten times of the height of plants.

28
 Problematic soils and their Management

15.7.6 Strip Cropping

The practice of farming land in narrow strips on which the crops alternate
with fallow is an effective aid in controlling wind erosion. Strips are most
effective when they are at right angles to the prevailing wind erosion
direction but also provide some protection from winds that are not
perpendicular to the field strip. Strip cropping reduces erosion damage in
the following ways: it reduces the distance the wind travels across exposed
soil, localizes drifting that starts at a focal point, and reduces wind velocity
across the fallow strip when adjacent fields are covered with tall stubble or
crops.

15.7.7 Stabilization of Dunes

A dune is usually a low hill of sand built by the flow of wind or water. Dunes
occur in different forms and sizes throughout the world, from coastal and
lake shore plains to arid desert regions. In addition to the remarkable
structure and patterns, they are habitats of a variety of life adapted to this
unique environment. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side
where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter slip face in the
lee of the wind. Dunes are sensitive and unstable ecosystems. Dunes need
to be stabilized, and for it, every effort should be made to protect the
integrity of the natural dune ecology. Dune stabilization involves structural
and vegetative measures. Vegetative measures are more effective to
stabilize and rehabilitate the dunes. Vegetation establishment can be done
by planting native grasses, trees, shrubs, or ground covers. Dune grasses

29
 Problematic soils and their Management

can be effectively used for dune stabilization. Grass should be planted in a

staggered or diamond pattern for maximum erosion control. Holes should
be spaced 50 cm apart in areas where wind velocities and sand movement
are high. Culm-to-culm distance should be 60 cm in areas not directly
exposed to strong wind. The holes for plants should be between 15 and 25
cm deep to prevent the base of the stem from drying out and to prevent
the entire plant from blowing out. Sand should be firm and moist around
roots, with no air pockets near the base of the plants. Mulch should be
applied between plants to protect plantings against rain and wind. Trees
can be planted in beach grass after it has controlled sand movement, but
before the grass becomes too dense. This may be done about 2 years after
planting beach grass. Spacing of trees should be 2 × 2 m.

The mulch technique which consists of covering the dune uniformly

with a natural or artificial protective cover to prevent saltation can be
adopted on flat or reasonably even surfaces. The mulch can be made of
various materials, such as straw, branches, stalks, plastic film or acrylic
fiber, and mesh.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Armburst, D. V. and Lyles, L. (1975). Soil Stabilizers to Control Wind

Erosion. Soil Conditioners, 7, 77–82.

30
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 16 Compacted Soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
 Understanding soil compaction in terms of reduced porosity,
aeration, infiltration and increased bulk density.
 Understand the factors for soil compaction, mechanical impedance
to root growth and management of compacted soils.

Glossary of terms
1. Hardpan: It is a hardened soil layer in the lower A or in the B horizon
caused by cementation of soil particles with organic matter, silica,
sesquioxides and calcium carbonate, etc. The hardness does not
change appreciably with variation in soil moisture.
2. Hydraulic conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of a
material's capacity to transmit water. It is defined as a constant of
proportionality relating the specific discharge of a porous medium
under a unit hydraulic gradient in Darcy's law
3. Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil. Infiltration is governed by two forces, gravity,
and capillary action.
4. Puddling: Refers to breaking down soil aggregates at near saturation
into ultimate soil particles.
5. Soil compaction: Compaction of soil is the compression of soil
particles into a smaller volume, which reduces the size of pore space
available for air and water.
6. Soil porosity: “Soil porosity” refers to the amount of pores, or open
space, between soil particles. Pore spaces may be formed due to the

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

movement of roots, worms, and insects; expanding gases trapped

within these spaces by groundwater; and/or the dissolution of
the soil parent material.

16.1 Introduction

Soil compaction can be a serious and unnecessary form of soil degradation

that can result in increased soil erosion and decreased crop production.
Compaction of soil is the compression of soil particles into a smaller
volume, which reduces the size of pore space available for air and water.
Most soils are composed of about 50 per cent solids (sand, silt, clay and
organic matter) and about 50 per cent pore spaces. Soil compaction occurs
when soil particles are compressed together-especially when the soils are
wet that destroy soil structure, reducing porosity, and leading to a more
dense soil that is hard for crop roots and water to penetrate. Changes in
agricultural practices, such as increased number of field operations and
larger equipments, have made soil compaction more common on many
fields. Field operations, such as silage crop harvest when the soil is wet,
can lead to severe soil compaction. Grazing cattle on range and farmlands
is very common in the Southwest, but compaction due to grazing is short-
lived due to freeze/thaw cycles, and the total weight of grazing animals is
often not sufficient to initiate deeper compaction (Baumhardt et al., 2011).
However, soil puddling (trampling of soil by animals under very wet

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

conditions) can occur due to overgrazing, resulting in structural breakdown

at the soil surface and subsequent crust formation when the soil dries out.
Soil compaction affects many agricultural fields and can lead to yield
reductions if not properly managed.

16.2 Causes of soil compaction

Soil compaction occurs when soil density is increased by an energy input
into moist or wet soil. The force may be exerted by tyres, tillage tools or
animal hooves. In conventional tillage systems, most of the surface area of
a paddock receives at least one wheel pass during a fallow. The first pass
of a tractor wheel can create 90 per cent of the damage caused by five
passes. Most compaction occurs in the top 20 −30 centimetres of the soil.
Repeated tillage at the same depth can form a hardpan a dense,
impenetrable layer beneath the tilled soil. The most important factor
determining the extent and severity of soil compaction is the moisture
content at the time of tyre or implement passage. Other factors like
implement design and tyre-inflation pressures are important although
secondary to soil moisture content.

16.3 Types of soil compaction

Soil compaction can occur at the soil surface in the form of soil crusting, or
it can occur in the subsoil. Soil compaction is sometimes blamed for
reduced crop productivity, but it is important to correctly diagnose the
cause or causes of reduced crop production. Poor plant growth can be
caused by a number of factors, including soil compaction.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Compaction of agricultural soils can be caused by various farming

practices:
 Soil tillage that removes the protective residue from the soil surface,
leaving the soil prone to natural environmental forces or excessive
soil tillage that causes surface soil aggregates to break down or
degrade, can lead to soil crusting, causing the surface soil layer to
become hard, and compacted.
 Soil tillage implements can induce soil compaction just below the
depth of tillage, particularly when soils are wet.
 The weight of large farm equipment (tractors, seed carts, combines,
trucks, manure spreaders) can cause wheel traffic compaction to a
considerable depth within the root zone. As soil moisture content
increases, so too does the depth of soil compaction.

16.3.1 Surface soil crusting

Compaction by combination of soil tillage and raindrop or irrigation
water impact
Soil tillage can bury much of the protective residue cover on the soil surface
and degrade the granular structure of surface soils (mechanical crushing or
breaking of larger soil aggregates). The impact energy of rainfall or
irrigation droplets can also cause considerable degradation and
breakdown of soil aggregates, causing soil particles to become suspended
in water, flow together and then dry into a hard surface soil crust. The
crusted soil can restrict water infiltration into soil and restrict the
emergence of germinating crops.

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Surface soil crusting is the result of leaving bare soil exposed to the
forces of precipitation or irrigation water. The best way to prevent soil
crusting in fields is to both minimize tillage operations and ensure that a
protective layer of residue remains on the soil surface to absorb the impact
of water droplets before they strike and break down stable soil aggregates.
This can be achieved by reduced tillage or, preferably, by using direct
seeding practices. These methods leave greater amounts of residue on the
soil surface to reduce soil crusting and increase soil organic matter levels,
leading to improved surface soil structure.
Using crop management practices such as including forage in the
crop rotation or using direct seeding practices to increase the levels of soil
organic matter will aid in the development of a good granular-structured
soil that has greater resistance to breakdown. In irrigated fields, it is also
very important that water application is managed to ensure the infiltration
rate of soil is not exceeded.

16.3.2 Subsurface compaction

Hardpan tillage-induced compaction

A tillage-induced compaction layer is sometimes referred to as a
“hardpan,” or “plow pan” and occurs in the layer of soil just below the
depth of tillage. It occurs when soils are cultivated repeatedly at the same
depth. The weight of the tillage equipment, such as discs or cultivator
shovels, can cause compression of the soil and smearing at the base of

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

contact between the soil and tillage implement. Usually the compacted
layer is about 2 to 3 cm thick. Compaction will increase when soil moisture
conditions are wet at the time of tillage and/or if soils have a higher silt and
clay content. In extreme cases, the compaction can be quite serious,
affecting water and root penetration into the subsoil. However, with
coarser textured soils, the hardpan tends to be weaker and more friable,
and may not affect crop production. The clay may be hard when dry and
softer when wet, but always impedes the flow of water, causing drainage
problems. Fragipan is a layer of dense, compact cemented silt and fine
sand. Like other pans, it impedes the movement of water. Fragipan is hard
when dry, but brittle and fragile when wet.
To avoid the development of a tillage-induced hardpan, land should
be direct seeded to minimize tillage of the soil. If soil must be tilled, great
care is needed to ensure soils are not too moist to avoid tillage-induced
compaction. Further, for soils that must be cultivated, the development of
a hardpan can be reduced by varying the depth and direction of tillage for
each cultivation. For land seeded to row or root crops, where tillage is
required, soils should not be worked when wet.

16.3.3 Wheel traffic-induced compaction

Heavy farm equipments, including tractors, grain carts, combines, trucks,
manure spreaders and wheels of pivot irrigation systems, can exert
considerable weight onto the soil surface and, consequently, into the
subsoil. The effect of equipment weight can penetrate down to 60 cm (24
inches) when soils are moist. The concern of wheel traffic compaction has

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

increased in the past several decades due to the increasing size of farms,
farm equipment and the time needed to complete farm operations at
seeding and harvest. Tractor size and weight has increased to 15 to 20
tonnes for four-wheel drive tractors and fully loaded air seeder carts. The
weight of a full combine can be in the range of 15 tonnes.
Wheel traffic-induced compaction can be managed using good
agronomic practices, deep tillage or a combination of both. Ideally, it is
best to use agronomic practices both to prevent and correct wheel traffic
compaction. A good preventative management practice is to avoid having
equipment repeatedly travel on the same wheel tracks. For example, avoid
having grain trucks use the same path into and out of the field. Instead,
shift over and drive on a new path each time in the field. Another
suggestion is to load seeders and unload combines on the headlands of
fields to reduce the traffic in the field. A good agronomic option is to plant
a deep-rooted crop, such as alfalfa, to penetrate a compacted soil layer and
utilize natural wetting-drying and freeze thaw cycles to mellow the soil.
Great care is needed to avoid traffic on the land when soils are quite moist.

16.4 Effects of soil compaction

The various forces of soil compression by agricultural equipment can cause
soil particles to become compacted closer together into a smaller volume.
As particles are compressed together, the space between particles (pore
space) is reduced, thereby reducing the space available in the soil for air
and water. The compaction force may cause the crushing of soil
aggregates, which has a negative effect on soil aggregate structure. Soil

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

compaction can have a number of negative effects on soil quality and crop
production including the following:
 causes soil pore spaces to become smaller
 reduces water infiltration rate into soil
 decreases the rate that water will penetrate into the soil root zone
and subsoil
 increases the potential for surface water ponding, water runoff,
surface soil waterlogging and soil erosion
 reduces the ability of a soil to hold water and air, which are necessary
for plant root growth and function
 reduces crop emergence as a result of soil crusting
 impedes root growth and limits the volume of soil explored by roots
 limits soil exploration by roots and decreases the ability of crops to
take up nutrients and water efficiently from soil
 reduces crop yield potential
Compacted soil will restrict root growth and penetration into subsoil. This
situation can lead to stunted, drought stressed plants as a result of
restricted water and nutrient uptake, which results in reduced crop yields.
In wetter than normal years, soil compaction can decrease soil aeration
and lead to the increased loss of nitrate nitrogen by denitrification, which
is the conversion of plant available nitrate-nitrogen into gaseous nitrogen
forms that are lost to the atmosphere. This process occurs when soils are
in an anaerobic condition and soil pores are mostly filled with water.
Reduced soil aeration can affect root growth and function, and lead to

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

increased risk of crop disease. All these factors result in increased crop
stress and yield loss.

16.5 Importance of soil porosity

Soils consist of organic matter, various-sized soil particles referred to as soil
texture (proportion of solid particles including sand, silt and clay) and pore
spaces that contain air and water. The connectivity of soil pores coupled
with the size and number of pores is very important for water infiltration,
water and nutrient movement within soil and the ability of the soil to hold
water. Large, inter-connected soil pore spaces enhance several actions:
 water infiltration into soil
 water percolation into the root zone and subsoil
 air exchange with the atmosphere
Many important biological and chemical processes take place within soil
pores that require both water and air. Reduced pore size and number will
affect soil biological and chemical processes, such as the reduced cycling
and release of plant available nutrients.
Soil compaction changes pore space size and distribution and will
increase soil strength. One way to quantify the change is by measuring soil
bulk density. This procedure is done by carefully taking a soil core and
measuring the diameter and length to determine the volume of the core,
then oven drying the core to determine the soil dry weight.
Soil bulk density is the dry weight of soil divided by the volume of the
soil. It is usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). As the
pore space is decreased within a soil, the soil bulk density is increased.

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

Normally, loam to clay loam soils have a bulk density of about 1.3 to 1.4
g/cm3, and sandy loam to loamy sand soils have a bulk density of 1.4 to 1.6
g/cm3. Naturally dense horizons in a Solonetzic soil will have bulk densities
of 1.6 g/cm3 or greater, and root growth will be hindered. Disced or
cultivated surface soils will have bulk densities in the range of 1.0 to 1.2
g/cm3.
Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores and have a reduced
rate of water penetration through the compacted layer. Large soil pores
are the most effective in moving water through the soil. When large pores
are absent, the hydraulic conductivity of soil (rate water will move through
soil) will be greatly reduced.
In addition, the exchange of gases in soil with the atmosphere slows
down in compacted soils, causing an increase in the likelihood of aeration-
related problems. Soil compaction increases soil strength, which means
plant roots must exert greater force to penetrate the compacted layer.

16.6 Impact of soil compaction

Compacted soil lacks the interconnected air spaces that are essential to the
movement of water, gases and plant roots, and critical for a biologically
healthy soil.
Soil compaction can impair water infiltration into soil, crop emergence,
root penetration and crop nutrient and water uptake, all of which result in
depressed crop yield. Human-induced compaction of agricultural soil can

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

be the result of using tillage equipment during soil cultivation or result

from the heavy weight of field equipment. Compacted soils can also be the
result of natural soil forming processes. Solonetzic soils are an example of
natural soil compaction.
 In dry years, crop yields are most affected when plant roots are
unable to penetrate compacted layers to enable access to much
needed subsoil water.
 Water-use efficiency is greatly reduced as rain or irrigation water is
unable to penetrate the compacted layers of soil to re-fill the subsoil.
This results in more run-off and evaporation.
 Compacted soil requires more horsepower (and fuel) to cultivate.
Planting implements are less effective in compacted soil and poor
germination is the result.
 Fertiliser efficiency is also reduced as the large blocks of compacted
soil provide few surfaces to retain and release fertiliser for crop
growth.
 Most degradation in grazing lands occurs when surface cover is
removed as a result of high grazing pressures. This exposes soils to
raindrop impact, runoff and soil loss by erosion.

16.7 Management Strategies

Nature has built-in processes that reduce soil compaction, including cycles
of wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, as well as plant growth and
microbial activity. In the last 30 to 40 years, farming practices have

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

changed drastically, creating situations where natural rejuvenation of the

soil environment by wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles is inadequate to
maintain optimum conditions for crops. Performing field operations on
wet soils, using multiple field operations for crop production, eliminating
perennial crops from crop rotations, and using heavy equipment
contribute to more extensive and deeper compaction.
Soil compaction problems can be reduced or eliminated through use of
proper management practices.

16.7.1 Stay off Wet Soils

Soil is most susceptible to compaction when soil water in the 3- to 6-inch
soil depth is near field capacity or wetter. Under such moisture conditions,
the potential for compaction increases as soil clay content increases and
soil organic matter decreases.
The water content of a soil can be determined using the feel-and-
appearance method, or by molding soil from the 3- to 6-inch depth and
dropping the soil ball onto a hard surface; if it does not break or crack on
impact, it is too wet for field operations. Perform field operations in your
driest fields first to allow more drying time for wetter fields. If field
operations need to be conducted when the soil is near field capacity to
remain timely, minimize the axle load and increase tire size to reduce deep
compaction. Larger tires will compact more of the soil surface, but with less
pressure on the soil and less penetration of compactive forces.

16.7.2 Reduce Tillage

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Tilled soils are more susceptible to compaction than no-till soils. Tillage
contributes to the breakdown of soil structure by compressing and
breaking soil aggregates, which are necessary for good air and water
movement and good root growth. Tillage also results in the loss of soil
organic matter which is important to soil aggregate stability. Reduced
tillage systems leave greater amounts of plant residue on the soil surface
which helps prevent surface sealing, a form of compaction, by intercepting
raindrops before they hit the soil surface.
Tillage affects microbial activity in the soil. Reduced tillage causes fungal
decomposers of organic matter to increase relative to bacterial
decomposers. Fungal, as compared to bacterial, decomposers aid
aggregate formation and stability on fine-textured soils.

16.7.3 Build Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter promotes the development of good soil structure and
decreases soil bulk density. It helps bind soil particles together as
aggregates, so they are not as easily cracked, split, or compressed by tillage
or wheel traffic. Root derived organic matter is especially effective in
aggregate formation. Building soil organic matter also increases soil
nutrient mineralization and availability for crop growth, especially for
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and trace elements. Organic matter can be
added to the soil in the form of animal manure, municipal biosolids, or
green manure crops, and by leaving crop residues in the field. Tillage
generally accelerates the decomposition of soil organic matter.

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

16.7.4 Rotations with Perennial Crops

When crop rotations include alfalfa, clover, or grass, soils usually are less
compact than soils in fields without these rotations. This is true as 1) there
generally is no tillage for several years after seeding, 2) trips across the field
tend to be associated with hay harvesting when the soil is dry and less
susceptible to compaction, 3) the deeper rooting depth and large taproot
of alfalfa and clover keeps the soil more porous and 4) these crops remove
large amounts of water which helps dry the soil and increase cracking in
some soil types.

16.7.5 Crop rotations with others

Using diverse crop rotations, which include forage, cereal, oilseed and
pulse crops that vary in rooting depth and type (fibrous versus taproot),
combined with good agronomic management practices, such as direct
seeding will help reduce soil compaction issues. Good cropping practices
will help in several ways:
 promote plant roots to grow through and break up compacted soils
 increase soil organic matter
 improve soil structure, improve water infiltration and penetration
into soil
 promote biological diversity
A biologically healthy soil will be more resistant to soil compaction.

16.7.6 Alter the Tillage Depth

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

If you till the soil, vary tillage depth to minimize the development of a
“tillage pan” or compacted zone where the tillage implements shears the
soil. Till deeper in dry years when soil fracturing is greatest. Keep tillage
shallow in wet years to avoid formation of a deep tillage pan. Shallow pans
can be easily fractured with tillage when the soil is dry.

16.7.7 Control Wheel Traffic

Compaction will be intense but localized if all equipment wheel traffic is
restricted to “tracks” or traffic lanes in the field, while the non traffic areas
are protected from compaction. The area in traffic lanes is minimized when
the operating widths and wheel bases of various implements are well
matched. Farm implements have different wheel widths making it difficult
to confine traffic. Traffic control is easier with fewer operations such as
with ridge plant and no-till systems. Planning is required in equipment
purchase or hires to reduce the variability in wheel track
requirements. Infield operation on moist soils, such as with grain carts,
may be reduced to minimize compaction.

16.7.8 Deep Tillage

Compaction causes reduced yields and may worsen other problems that
reduce yields, such as disease and low nutrient supply because of reduced
root distribution. Assessment of the severity of compaction problems is
best done by inspection of crop roots. If root growth is restricted due to
compaction, deep tillage such as subsoiling may be warranted.

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

The depth of yield-limiting soil compaction will determine the required

depth of tillage and tillage tool selection. If compaction occurs in the top 6
to 8 inches of the soil, tillage tools such as a chisel plow or moldboardplow
can be used to shatter the compacted layer. However, if compaction is
below 8 to 10 inches, tillage tools such as a subsoiler, ripper, or paraplow
may be needed. Sub-soiling tillage is often best performed in the late
summer or fall but can be done whenever the soil is dry enough. The
relative success of subsoiling will vary with soil type, soil water content, soil
texture and bulk density, and the shape of the subsoiler shank.
“Slot ripping” allows roots and water to penetrate into the soil, especially
if the rows of the next crop follow the slots. Parabolic shanked subsoilers
heave the soil surface too much to allow slot planting of the next crop.
Secondary tillage may be used in the spring to level the field prior to
seeding but sub-soiled fields can redevelop a compacted layer if the
loosened soil is worked when wet or if wheel traffic is not controlled.

16.7.8.1 Adverse effects of deep tillage

Use deep tillage with great caution. Although deep tillage can be beneficial
under specific soil conditions, its use can also have very serious negative
effects on soil quality. Therefore, the use of deep tillage must be
considered carefully. Some potential concerns:
 Some rippers cause greater mixing of surface soil with subsoil, which
results in the deterioration of soil structure, reduction in soil organic
matter, reduced soil fertility and increased potential for surface soil

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

crusting. These conditions can be much worse than minor soil

compaction problems.
 Loss of plant available moisture can occur.
 Soluble salts in subsoil can be intermixed with surface soil, increasing
salt levels and reducing crop yield potential.
 Subsoiling can make the ground surface rough and lumpy and can
pull rocks to the surface. This potential outcome includes
implements that claim to cause lower surface soil disturbance.
 A sub-soiled field will often have a poor seedbed the following year
due to an uneven and soft surface soil and reduced soil moisture
conditions.
 If high or excessive amounts of moisture are received after
subsoiling, the fractured soil zones can become waterlogged and
unmanageable until dry.
16.8 Summary
Soil compaction is not considered a widespread, serious problem.
However, soil compaction can be a serious and unnecessary form of soil
degradation. Preventing soil compaction is far better than trying to correct
a compaction problem after it occurs. A number of management options
can be implemented to minimize the risk of soil compaction:
 Keep protective residue covers on the soil surface to reduce the
negative effects of rain or irrigation water causing soil crusting.
 Minimize or eliminate soil tillage to prevent soil aggregate
breakdown and induce the development of a tillage “hardpan” – this

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

goal can be achieved by direct seeding and the elimination of soil

cultivation.
 As far as possible, avoid field traffic when soils are wet; this is more
easily said than done, for example, when harvest schedules dictate
the crop must come off despite wet field conditions.
 Reduce the wheel traffic load on the soil, which can be done by
keeping axel loads to a minimum. Use radial tires at low inflation
pressures to create a larger footprint.
 Minimize the field traffic areas on fields. Load wagons or trucks on a
road (if it can be done safely) or on headlands.
 Improve soil organic matter and soil structure and increase biological
activity in soil by using best agronomic management practices.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References
Baumhardt, R.L., Schwartz R.C., MacDonald, J.C. and Tolk, J.A. (2011).
Tillage and cattle grazing effects on soil properties and grain yields in
a dryland wheat–sorghum–fallow rotation. Agronomy Journal, 103,
914–922.
Idowu, J. and Angadi, S. (2013). Understanding and Managing Soil
Compaction in Agricultural Fields. Circular 672. Cooperative
Extension Service. College of Agricultural, Consumer and
Environmental Sciences. New Mexico State University.

19
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 17 Flooded Soils – Concepts and Properties

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
 Understanding soil compaction in terms of reduced porosity,
aeration, infiltration and increased bulk density.
 Understand the factors for soil compaction, mechanical impedance
to root growth and management of compacted soils.

Glossary of terms
1. Hardpan: It is a hardened soil layer in the lower A or in the B horizon
caused by cementation of soil particles with organic matter, silica,
sesquioxides and calcium carbonate, etc. The hardness does not
change appreciably with variation in soil moisture.
2. Hydraulic conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of a
material's capacity to transmit water. It is defined as a constant of
proportionality relating the specific discharge of a porous medium
under a unit hydraulic gradient in Darcy's law
3. Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil. Infiltration is governed by two forces, gravity,
and capillary action.
4. Puddling: Refers to breaking down soil aggregates at near saturation
into ultimate soil particles.
5. Soil compaction: Compaction of soil is the compression of soil
particles into a smaller volume, which reduces the size of pore space
available for air and water.
6. Soil porosity: “Soil porosity” refers to the amount of pores, or open
space, between soil particles. Pore spaces may be formed due to the

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

movement of roots, worms, and insects; expanding gases trapped

within these spaces by groundwater; and/or the dissolution of
the soil parent material.

16.1 Introduction

Soil compaction can be a serious and unnecessary form of soil degradation

that can result in increased soil erosion and decreased crop production.
Compaction of soil is the compression of soil particles into a smaller
volume, which reduces the size of pore space available for air and water.
Most soils are composed of about 50 per cent solids (sand, silt, clay and
organic matter) and about 50 per cent pore spaces. Soil compaction occurs
when soil particles are compressed together-especially when the soils are
wet that destroy soil structure, reducing porosity, and leading to a more
dense soil that is hard for crop roots and water to penetrate. Changes in
agricultural practices, such as increased number of field operations and
larger equipments, have made soil compaction more common on many
fields. Field operations, such as silage crop harvest when the soil is wet,
can lead to severe soil compaction. Grazing cattle on range and farmlands
is very common in the Southwest, but compaction due to grazing is short-
lived due to freeze/thaw cycles, and the total weight of grazing animals is
often not sufficient to initiate deeper compaction (Baumhardt et al., 2011).
However, soil puddling (trampling of soil by animals under very wet

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

conditions) can occur due to overgrazing, resulting in structural breakdown

at the soil surface and subsequent crust formation when the soil dries out.
Soil compaction affects many agricultural fields and can lead to yield
reductions if not properly managed.

16.2 Causes of soil compaction

Soil compaction occurs when soil density is increased by an energy input
into moist or wet soil. The force may be exerted by tyres, tillage tools or
animal hooves. In conventional tillage systems, most of the surface area of
a paddock receives at least one wheel pass during a fallow. The first pass
of a tractor wheel can create 90 per cent of the damage caused by five
passes. Most compaction occurs in the top 20 −30 centimetres of the soil.
Repeated tillage at the same depth can form a hardpan a dense,
impenetrable layer beneath the tilled soil. The most important factor
determining the extent and severity of soil compaction is the moisture
content at the time of tyre or implement passage. Other factors like
implement design and tyre-inflation pressures are important although
secondary to soil moisture content.

16.3 Types of soil compaction

Soil compaction can occur at the soil surface in the form of soil crusting, or
it can occur in the subsoil. Soil compaction is sometimes blamed for
reduced crop productivity, but it is important to correctly diagnose the
cause or causes of reduced crop production. Poor plant growth can be
caused by a number of factors, including soil compaction.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Compaction of agricultural soils can be caused by various farming

practices:
 Soil tillage that removes the protective residue from the soil surface,
leaving the soil prone to natural environmental forces or excessive
soil tillage that causes surface soil aggregates to break down or
degrade, can lead to soil crusting, causing the surface soil layer to
become hard, and compacted.
 Soil tillage implements can induce soil compaction just below the
depth of tillage, particularly when soils are wet.
 The weight of large farm equipment (tractors, seed carts, combines,
trucks, manure spreaders) can cause wheel traffic compaction to a
considerable depth within the root zone. As soil moisture content
increases, so too does the depth of soil compaction.

16.3.1 Surface soil crusting

Compaction by combination of soil tillage and raindrop or irrigation
water impact
Soil tillage can bury much of the protective residue cover on the soil surface
and degrade the granular structure of surface soils (mechanical crushing or
breaking of larger soil aggregates). The impact energy of rainfall or
irrigation droplets can also cause considerable degradation and
breakdown of soil aggregates, causing soil particles to become suspended
in water, flow together and then dry into a hard surface soil crust. The
crusted soil can restrict water infiltration into soil and restrict the
emergence of germinating crops.

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Surface soil crusting is the result of leaving bare soil exposed to the
forces of precipitation or irrigation water. The best way to prevent soil
crusting in fields is to both minimize tillage operations and ensure that a
protective layer of residue remains on the soil surface to absorb the impact
of water droplets before they strike and break down stable soil aggregates.
This can be achieved by reduced tillage or, preferably, by using direct
seeding practices. These methods leave greater amounts of residue on the
soil surface to reduce soil crusting and increase soil organic matter levels,
leading to improved surface soil structure.
Using crop management practices such as including forage in the
crop rotation or using direct seeding practices to increase the levels of soil
organic matter will aid in the development of a good granular-structured
soil that has greater resistance to breakdown. In irrigated fields, it is also
very important that water application is managed to ensure the infiltration
rate of soil is not exceeded.

16.3.2 Subsurface compaction

Hardpan tillage-induced compaction

A tillage-induced compaction layer is sometimes referred to as a
“hardpan,” or “plow pan” and occurs in the layer of soil just below the
depth of tillage. It occurs when soils are cultivated repeatedly at the same
depth. The weight of the tillage equipment, such as discs or cultivator
shovels, can cause compression of the soil and smearing at the base of

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

contact between the soil and tillage implement. Usually the compacted
layer is about 2 to 3 cm thick. Compaction will increase when soil moisture
conditions are wet at the time of tillage and/or if soils have a higher silt and
clay content. In extreme cases, the compaction can be quite serious,
affecting water and root penetration into the subsoil. However, with
coarser textured soils, the hardpan tends to be weaker and more friable,
and may not affect crop production. The clay may be hard when dry and
softer when wet, but always impedes the flow of water, causing drainage
problems. Fragipan is a layer of dense, compact cemented silt and fine
sand. Like other pans, it impedes the movement of water. Fragipan is hard
when dry, but brittle and fragile when wet.
To avoid the development of a tillage-induced hardpan, land should
be direct seeded to minimize tillage of the soil. If soil must be tilled, great
care is needed to ensure soils are not too moist to avoid tillage-induced
compaction. Further, for soils that must be cultivated, the development of
a hardpan can be reduced by varying the depth and direction of tillage for
each cultivation. For land seeded to row or root crops, where tillage is
required, soils should not be worked when wet.

16.3.3 Wheel traffic-induced compaction

Heavy farm equipments, including tractors, grain carts, combines, trucks,
manure spreaders and wheels of pivot irrigation systems, can exert
considerable weight onto the soil surface and, consequently, into the
subsoil. The effect of equipment weight can penetrate down to 60 cm (24
inches) when soils are moist. The concern of wheel traffic compaction has

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

increased in the past several decades due to the increasing size of farms,
farm equipment and the time needed to complete farm operations at
seeding and harvest. Tractor size and weight has increased to 15 to 20
tonnes for four-wheel drive tractors and fully loaded air seeder carts. The
weight of a full combine can be in the range of 15 tonnes.
Wheel traffic-induced compaction can be managed using good
agronomic practices, deep tillage or a combination of both. Ideally, it is
best to use agronomic practices both to prevent and correct wheel traffic
compaction. A good preventative management practice is to avoid having
equipment repeatedly travel on the same wheel tracks. For example, avoid
having grain trucks use the same path into and out of the field. Instead,
shift over and drive on a new path each time in the field. Another
suggestion is to load seeders and unload combines on the headlands of
fields to reduce the traffic in the field. A good agronomic option is to plant
a deep-rooted crop, such as alfalfa, to penetrate a compacted soil layer and
utilize natural wetting-drying and freeze thaw cycles to mellow the soil.
Great care is needed to avoid traffic on the land when soils are quite moist.

16.4 Effects of soil compaction

The various forces of soil compression by agricultural equipment can cause
soil particles to become compacted closer together into a smaller volume.
As particles are compressed together, the space between particles (pore
space) is reduced, thereby reducing the space available in the soil for air
and water. The compaction force may cause the crushing of soil
aggregates, which has a negative effect on soil aggregate structure. Soil

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

compaction can have a number of negative effects on soil quality and crop
production including the following:
 causes soil pore spaces to become smaller
 reduces water infiltration rate into soil
 decreases the rate that water will penetrate into the soil root zone
and subsoil
 increases the potential for surface water ponding, water runoff,
surface soil waterlogging and soil erosion
 reduces the ability of a soil to hold water and air, which are necessary
for plant root growth and function
 reduces crop emergence as a result of soil crusting
 impedes root growth and limits the volume of soil explored by roots
 limits soil exploration by roots and decreases the ability of crops to
take up nutrients and water efficiently from soil
 reduces crop yield potential
Compacted soil will restrict root growth and penetration into subsoil. This
situation can lead to stunted, drought stressed plants as a result of
restricted water and nutrient uptake, which results in reduced crop yields.
In wetter than normal years, soil compaction can decrease soil aeration
and lead to the increased loss of nitrate nitrogen by denitrification, which
is the conversion of plant available nitrate-nitrogen into gaseous nitrogen
forms that are lost to the atmosphere. This process occurs when soils are
in an anaerobic condition and soil pores are mostly filled with water.
Reduced soil aeration can affect root growth and function, and lead to

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

increased risk of crop disease. All these factors result in increased crop
stress and yield loss.

16.5 Importance of soil porosity

Soils consist of organic matter, various-sized soil particles referred to as soil
texture (proportion of solid particles including sand, silt and clay) and pore
spaces that contain air and water. The connectivity of soil pores coupled
with the size and number of pores is very important for water infiltration,
water and nutrient movement within soil and the ability of the soil to hold
water. Large, inter-connected soil pore spaces enhance several actions:
 water infiltration into soil
 water percolation into the root zone and subsoil
 air exchange with the atmosphere
Many important biological and chemical processes take place within soil
pores that require both water and air. Reduced pore size and number will
affect soil biological and chemical processes, such as the reduced cycling
and release of plant available nutrients.
Soil compaction changes pore space size and distribution and will
increase soil strength. One way to quantify the change is by measuring soil
bulk density. This procedure is done by carefully taking a soil core and
measuring the diameter and length to determine the volume of the core,
then oven drying the core to determine the soil dry weight.
Soil bulk density is the dry weight of soil divided by the volume of the
soil. It is usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). As the
pore space is decreased within a soil, the soil bulk density is increased.

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

Normally, loam to clay loam soils have a bulk density of about 1.3 to 1.4
g/cm3, and sandy loam to loamy sand soils have a bulk density of 1.4 to 1.6
g/cm3. Naturally dense horizons in a Solonetzic soil will have bulk densities
of 1.6 g/cm3 or greater, and root growth will be hindered. Disced or
cultivated surface soils will have bulk densities in the range of 1.0 to 1.2
g/cm3.
Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores and have a reduced
rate of water penetration through the compacted layer. Large soil pores
are the most effective in moving water through the soil. When large pores
are absent, the hydraulic conductivity of soil (rate water will move through
soil) will be greatly reduced.
In addition, the exchange of gases in soil with the atmosphere slows
down in compacted soils, causing an increase in the likelihood of aeration-
related problems. Soil compaction increases soil strength, which means
plant roots must exert greater force to penetrate the compacted layer.

16.6 Impact of soil compaction

Compacted soil lacks the interconnected air spaces that are essential to the
movement of water, gases and plant roots, and critical for a biologically
healthy soil.
Soil compaction can impair water infiltration into soil, crop emergence,
root penetration and crop nutrient and water uptake, all of which result in
depressed crop yield. Human-induced compaction of agricultural soil can

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

be the result of using tillage equipment during soil cultivation or result

from the heavy weight of field equipment. Compacted soils can also be the
result of natural soil forming processes. Solonetzic soils are an example of
natural soil compaction.
 In dry years, crop yields are most affected when plant roots are
unable to penetrate compacted layers to enable access to much
needed subsoil water.
 Water-use efficiency is greatly reduced as rain or irrigation water is
unable to penetrate the compacted layers of soil to re-fill the subsoil.
This results in more run-off and evaporation.
 Compacted soil requires more horsepower (and fuel) to cultivate.
Planting implements are less effective in compacted soil and poor
germination is the result.
 Fertiliser efficiency is also reduced as the large blocks of compacted
soil provide few surfaces to retain and release fertiliser for crop
growth.
 Most degradation in grazing lands occurs when surface cover is
removed as a result of high grazing pressures. This exposes soils to
raindrop impact, runoff and soil loss by erosion.

16.7 Management Strategies

Nature has built-in processes that reduce soil compaction, including cycles
of wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, as well as plant growth and
microbial activity. In the last 30 to 40 years, farming practices have

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

changed drastically, creating situations where natural rejuvenation of the

soil environment by wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles is inadequate to
maintain optimum conditions for crops. Performing field operations on
wet soils, using multiple field operations for crop production, eliminating
perennial crops from crop rotations, and using heavy equipment
contribute to more extensive and deeper compaction.
Soil compaction problems can be reduced or eliminated through use of
proper management practices.

16.7.1 Stay off Wet Soils

Soil is most susceptible to compaction when soil water in the 3- to 6-inch
soil depth is near field capacity or wetter. Under such moisture conditions,
the potential for compaction increases as soil clay content increases and
soil organic matter decreases.
The water content of a soil can be determined using the feel-and-
appearance method, or by molding soil from the 3- to 6-inch depth and
dropping the soil ball onto a hard surface; if it does not break or crack on
impact, it is too wet for field operations. Perform field operations in your
driest fields first to allow more drying time for wetter fields. If field
operations need to be conducted when the soil is near field capacity to
remain timely, minimize the axle load and increase tire size to reduce deep
compaction. Larger tires will compact more of the soil surface, but with less
pressure on the soil and less penetration of compactive forces.

16.7.2 Reduce Tillage

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Tilled soils are more susceptible to compaction than no-till soils. Tillage
contributes to the breakdown of soil structure by compressing and
breaking soil aggregates, which are necessary for good air and water
movement and good root growth. Tillage also results in the loss of soil
organic matter which is important to soil aggregate stability. Reduced
tillage systems leave greater amounts of plant residue on the soil surface
which helps prevent surface sealing, a form of compaction, by intercepting
raindrops before they hit the soil surface.
Tillage affects microbial activity in the soil. Reduced tillage causes fungal
decomposers of organic matter to increase relative to bacterial
decomposers. Fungal, as compared to bacterial, decomposers aid
aggregate formation and stability on fine-textured soils.

16.7.3 Build Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter promotes the development of good soil structure and
decreases soil bulk density. It helps bind soil particles together as
aggregates, so they are not as easily cracked, split, or compressed by tillage
or wheel traffic. Root derived organic matter is especially effective in
aggregate formation. Building soil organic matter also increases soil
nutrient mineralization and availability for crop growth, especially for
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and trace elements. Organic matter can be
added to the soil in the form of animal manure, municipal biosolids, or
green manure crops, and by leaving crop residues in the field. Tillage
generally accelerates the decomposition of soil organic matter.

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

16.7.4 Rotations with Perennial Crops

When crop rotations include alfalfa, clover, or grass, soils usually are less
compact than soils in fields without these rotations. This is true as 1) there
generally is no tillage for several years after seeding, 2) trips across the field
tend to be associated with hay harvesting when the soil is dry and less
susceptible to compaction, 3) the deeper rooting depth and large taproot
of alfalfa and clover keeps the soil more porous and 4) these crops remove
large amounts of water which helps dry the soil and increase cracking in
some soil types.

16.7.5 Crop rotations with others

Using diverse crop rotations, which include forage, cereal, oilseed and
pulse crops that vary in rooting depth and type (fibrous versus taproot),
combined with good agronomic management practices, such as direct
seeding will help reduce soil compaction issues. Good cropping practices
will help in several ways:
 promote plant roots to grow through and break up compacted soils
 increase soil organic matter
 improve soil structure, improve water infiltration and penetration
into soil
 promote biological diversity
A biologically healthy soil will be more resistant to soil compaction.

16.7.6 Alter the Tillage Depth

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

If you till the soil, vary tillage depth to minimize the development of a
“tillage pan” or compacted zone where the tillage implements shears the
soil. Till deeper in dry years when soil fracturing is greatest. Keep tillage
shallow in wet years to avoid formation of a deep tillage pan. Shallow pans
can be easily fractured with tillage when the soil is dry.

16.7.7 Control Wheel Traffic

Compaction will be intense but localized if all equipment wheel traffic is
restricted to “tracks” or traffic lanes in the field, while the non traffic areas
are protected from compaction. The area in traffic lanes is minimized when
the operating widths and wheel bases of various implements are well
matched. Farm implements have different wheel widths making it difficult
to confine traffic. Traffic control is easier with fewer operations such as
with ridge plant and no-till systems. Planning is required in equipment
purchase or hires to reduce the variability in wheel track
requirements. Infield operation on moist soils, such as with grain carts,
may be reduced to minimize compaction.

16.7.8 Deep Tillage

Compaction causes reduced yields and may worsen other problems that
reduce yields, such as disease and low nutrient supply because of reduced
root distribution. Assessment of the severity of compaction problems is
best done by inspection of crop roots. If root growth is restricted due to
compaction, deep tillage such as subsoiling may be warranted.

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

The depth of yield-limiting soil compaction will determine the required

depth of tillage and tillage tool selection. If compaction occurs in the top 6
to 8 inches of the soil, tillage tools such as a chisel plow or moldboardplow
can be used to shatter the compacted layer. However, if compaction is
below 8 to 10 inches, tillage tools such as a subsoiler, ripper, or paraplow
may be needed. Sub-soiling tillage is often best performed in the late
summer or fall but can be done whenever the soil is dry enough. The
relative success of subsoiling will vary with soil type, soil water content, soil
texture and bulk density, and the shape of the subsoiler shank.
“Slot ripping” allows roots and water to penetrate into the soil, especially
if the rows of the next crop follow the slots. Parabolic shanked subsoilers
heave the soil surface too much to allow slot planting of the next crop.
Secondary tillage may be used in the spring to level the field prior to
seeding but sub-soiled fields can redevelop a compacted layer if the
loosened soil is worked when wet or if wheel traffic is not controlled.

16.7.8.1 Adverse effects of deep tillage

Use deep tillage with great caution. Although deep tillage can be beneficial
under specific soil conditions, its use can also have very serious negative
effects on soil quality. Therefore, the use of deep tillage must be
considered carefully. Some potential concerns:
 Some rippers cause greater mixing of surface soil with subsoil, which
results in the deterioration of soil structure, reduction in soil organic
matter, reduced soil fertility and increased potential for surface soil

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

crusting. These conditions can be much worse than minor soil

compaction problems.
 Loss of plant available moisture can occur.
 Soluble salts in subsoil can be intermixed with surface soil, increasing
salt levels and reducing crop yield potential.
 Subsoiling can make the ground surface rough and lumpy and can
pull rocks to the surface. This potential outcome includes
implements that claim to cause lower surface soil disturbance.
 A sub-soiled field will often have a poor seedbed the following year
due to an uneven and soft surface soil and reduced soil moisture
conditions.
 If high or excessive amounts of moisture are received after
subsoiling, the fractured soil zones can become waterlogged and
unmanageable until dry.
16.8 Summary
Soil compaction is not considered a widespread, serious problem.
However, soil compaction can be a serious and unnecessary form of soil
degradation. Preventing soil compaction is far better than trying to correct
a compaction problem after it occurs. A number of management options
can be implemented to minimize the risk of soil compaction:
 Keep protective residue covers on the soil surface to reduce the
negative effects of rain or irrigation water causing soil crusting.
 Minimize or eliminate soil tillage to prevent soil aggregate
breakdown and induce the development of a tillage “hardpan” – this

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

goal can be achieved by direct seeding and the elimination of soil

cultivation.
 As far as possible, avoid field traffic when soils are wet; this is more
easily said than done, for example, when harvest schedules dictate
the crop must come off despite wet field conditions.
 Reduce the wheel traffic load on the soil, which can be done by
keeping axel loads to a minimum. Use radial tires at low inflation
pressures to create a larger footprint.
 Minimize the field traffic areas on fields. Load wagons or trucks on a
road (if it can be done safely) or on headlands.
 Improve soil organic matter and soil structure and increase biological
activity in soil by using best agronomic management practices.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References
Baumhardt, R.L., Schwartz R.C., MacDonald, J.C. and Tolk, J.A. (2011).
Tillage and cattle grazing effects on soil properties and grain yields in
a dryland wheat–sorghum–fallow rotation. Agronomy Journal, 103,
914–922.
Idowu, J. and Angadi, S. (2013). Understanding and Managing Soil
Compaction in Agricultural Fields. Circular 672. Cooperative
Extension Service. College of Agricultural, Consumer and
Environmental Sciences. New Mexico State University.

19
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 18 Nutrient transformation under flooded soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

 Understanding the chemistry of waterlogged soils

Glossary of terms

1. Denitrification: Denitrification is defined as the “microbial reduction

of nitrate or nitrite coupled to electron transport phosphorylation
resulting in gaseous N either as molecular N2 or as an oxide of N.”
The key to denitrification as defined is the availability of the N oxides,
nitrite (NO2−) or nitrates (NO3−), which are formed from the
autotrophic nitrification pathway substrate, ammonia (NH3), which is
derived from ammonium (NH4+).
2. Mineralization: Mineralization is the decomposition (i.e., oxidation)
of the chemical compounds in organic matter, by which the nutrients
in those compounds are released in soluble inorganic forms that may
be available to plants.
3. Immobilization: Immobilization is the conversion of inorganic
compounds to organic compounds by micro-organisms or plants, by
which it is prevented from being accessible to plants.
4. Oxidation: Oxidation is the loss of electrons during a reaction by a
molecule, atom or ion. Oxidation occurs when the oxidation state of
a molecule, atom or ion is increased.
5. Reduction: Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gaining
of electrons by one of the atoms involved in the reaction between
two chemicals. The term refers to the element that accepts

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

electrons, as the oxidation state of the element that gains electrons

is lowered.

18.1 Nutrient Transformation

The most important change in the soil as a result of flooding is the

conversion of the root zone of the soil from an aerobic environment to an
anaerobic or near-anaerobic environment where oxygen is absent or
limiting (Patrick and Mahapatra, 1968). Oxygen deficiency or exclusion in
submerged soils can occur within a day after flooding. The oxygen
movement through the flooding water is usually much slower than the rate
at which oxygen can be reduced in the soil. This situation may result in the
formation of two distinctly different layers being formed in a waterlogged
soil. On the top is an oxidized or aerobic surface layer where oxygen is
present, with a reduced or anaerobic layer underneath in which no free
oxygen is present. A thin oxidized layer (usually 1 to 20 mm in thickness)
normally found at the interface between water and soil (Bouldin, 1986). In
addition, flooding also has major effects on the availability of macro and
micronutrients. Some nutrients are increased in availability to the crop,
whereas others are subject to greater fixation or loss from the soil as a
result of flooding (Patrick and Mikkelsen, 1971).

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Table 1 Changes in organic matter and availability of plant nutrients in

soils following their submergence under water

Chemical Change(s) following soil submergence

property
pH Favours convergence to neutral pH
Organic matter Favours accumulation of organic C and N
Ammonium-N Release and accumulation of ammonium favoured
P Improves P availability, especially in soils high in Fe
and Al oxides
K K availability improves through exchange of K
Ca, Mg, Na Favours release of Ca, Mg and Na in solution
S Sulphate reduction may reduce sulphur availability
Fe Iron availability improves in alkali and calcareous
soils, but Fe toxicity may occur in acidic soils high in
reducible Fe
Al Al toxicity is generally absent, except perhaps in acid
sulphate soils
Cu, Zn, Mo Improves availability of Cu and Mo but not of Zn
Reduction Production of sulphide and organic acids, especially
products in degraded soils may cause toxicity or injurious
effects to growing plants
Source: Sahrawat (2005)

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

18.2 Nitrogen

Nitrogen occurs in soils mainly as complex organic substances, ammonia,

molecular nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate. The transformations of nitrogen are
largely micro-biological inter-conversions regulated by the physical and
chemical environment of the soil. In submerged soils, the main
transformations are accumulation of ammonia, volatilization loss of
ammonia, denitrification, nitrogen fixation and leaching losses of nitrogen.
These transformations have an important bearing on the nutrition of rice.
It is evident that nitrogen is deficient in rice soils because of conditions
favourable for rapid transformations and losses of nitrogen from the soil.

18.2.1 Mineralization of Nitrogen and Accumulation of Ammonia

In aerated soils NO3– is the inorganic form and all of the nitrogen reactions
that follow the composition of organic matter proceed towards the
production of NO3–. Thus organic form of nitrogen undergoes
mineralization to NH4+, oxidation of NH4+ to NO2– and oxidation of NO2– to
NO3-.
The main inter-conversions are shown below:

In aerobic soils

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

But in anaerobic soils the absence of O2 inhibits the activity of the

Nitrosomonas micro-organisms that oxidises NH4+ and therefore, nitrogen
mineralization stops at the NH4+ form. In submerged soil

The accumulation of ammonia in submerged soils is, therefore, a good

index of the capacity of a soil to meet up the demand for nitrogen to the
rice crop. The transformation of nitrogen occurs in the aerobic and
anaerobic layers of a submerged soil.
In the aerobic surface layer, conditions are similar to those of a well-
drained soil and nitrogen mineralization proceeds to the NO3– form. The
presence of an aerobic layer above the anaerobic layer is the major cause
of instability of nitrogen in submerged soils and results in considerable loss
of nitrogen through nitrification-denitrification reactions.
Nitrate is stable and not subject to denitrification as long as it remains in
the surface aerobic layer, but it readily diffuses downward into the
anaerobic layer and undergoes denitrification as a result of a gradient in
the NO3– concentration between the aerobic layer and the anaerobic layer.
This process can proceed as long as NO3– is formed in the aerobic layer, and
that can readily happen if there is a sources of NH4+ in the aerobic layer
that can be nitrified (NO3–). The removal of NH4+ in that layer by
nitrification creates a concentration gradient that causes NH 4+ to diffuse
upward form the anaerobic layer (Figure 1).

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure1: Schematic diagram of N transformation in submerged soil

18.3 Phosphorus

Soil flooding is known to influence the transformation and availability of

both native and applied phosphorus. P is not directly involved in oxidation-
reduction reactions in redox potential change encountered in submerged
soils, but because of its reactivity with a number of redox elements, its
behavior is significantly affected by waterlogging (Figure 2). P chemistry is
linked with iron and Ca/Mg – phosphates formed depending upon the pH
of the soils. The increase in P availability on submergence may be
attributed to the following mechanisms:

1. Release of P from the mineralization of organic residues

2. Reduction of FePO4.2H2O to more soluble Fe3(PO4)2.8H2O and
increase in solubility of FePO4.2H2O and AlPO4.2H2O caused by
increase in pH coupled with reduction of acid soils.

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

3. Release of occluded phosphorus due to reduction of ferric

oxyhydroxide
4. Displacement of P from ferric and aluminium phosphates by organic
anions
5. Increase in solubility of calcium phosphates (CaHPO4.2H2O, Ca4H
(PO4)3.3H2O, Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2, Ca10 (PO4)6 CO3 and Ca10 (PO4)6F2)
associated with the decrease in pH caused by the liberation of CO2 in
the calcareous soils.
6. The release of P due to anion exchange reactions between clay and
phosphate or organic anions and phosphate. The decrease in the
concentration of available P at the later period of submergence may
be due to the fixation (through adsorption) of released phosphorus
by clay colloids (kaolinite, montmorillonite and hydrous oxides of Fe
and Al).

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 2: Solubility of phosphorus in relation to various redox potential-

pH combinations in submerged soils

18.4 Potassium

A net mobilization of K from reserve pools to the different forms is

observed due to submergence of the soils. These have arisen from a higher
level of soluble phosphate in the submerged soils and the residual soil
acidity, both acting jointly on the mineral K in the soils. The combined
effect of soluble phosphate and proton plays an important role on the
alteration of K-bearing minerals and, hence increasing its availability. With
submergence, soluble Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions increase and exchangeable K+ is
then displaced into the soil solution. It has been also reported that the
availability of applied potassium decreases in submerged soils due to
formation of Fe-K sparingly soluble complexes (Figure 3).

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 3 A schematic representations for the transformation of potassium

in submerged soil

18.5 Sulfur

In aerated soils the main transformations of Sulfur are (a) the oxidation of
elemental sulfur, sulfides, and organic sulfur compounds to sulfate, and (b)
the reduction of SO42- and incorporation of sulfur into plant and microbial
tissues. In anaerobic media, the main changes are the reduction of SO42- to
sulfide and the dissimilation of the amino acids, cysteine, cystine, and
methionine (derived from the hydrolysis of proteins) to H2S, thiols,
ammonia, and fatty acids. The reduction of sulfate is brought about by a
small group of obligate anaerobic bacteria of the genus Desulfovibrio,
which use as the terminal electron acceptor in respiration. The reduction
of sulfate in submerged soils has three implications for rice cultivation: the
sulfur supply may become insufficient, zinc and copper may be
immobilized, and H2S toxicity may arise in soils low in iron.

In submerged soil

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

The reduction of SO42- has three implications:

(i) Sulphur supply may become insufficient
(ii) Zinc and copper may be immobilized
(iii) H2S toxicity may arise in soils low in iron.

18.6 Iron
The most important chemical change that takes place when a soil is
submerged is the reduction of iron and the accompanying increase in its
solubility. Rice benefits from the increase in availability of iron but may
suffer, in acid soils, from an excess. Five to 50% of the free iron oxides
present in a soil may be reduced within a few weeks of submergence
depending on the temperature, the organic matter content, and the
crystallinity of the oxides. The lower the degree of crystallinity, the higher
is the reduction percentage. The increase in concentration of water-
soluble iron can, in most soils, be related to the potential and pH of the
Fe(OH)3-Fe2+system (Figure 4). Water-soluble Fe2+ diffusing to the
oxygenated soil-water interface and moving by mass flow and diffusion
from the surface of rice roots and to the oxidized zone below the plow sole
is deposited as mottles, tubules, and nodules, respectively.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

The initial increase in the concentration of ferrous iron (Fe2+) on soil

submergence is caused by the reductions that are shown below:

The decrease in the concentration of Fe2+ following the peak rise is caused
by the precipitation of Fe2+ as FeCO3 in the early stages where high partial
pressure of CO2 prevails and as Fe3(OH)8 due to decrease in the partial
pressure of CO2(pCO2)

Rice benefits from the increase in availability of iron but may suffer in acid
soils, from an excess.
The reduction of iron has some important consequences:
i. The concentration of water soluble iron increases,
ii. pH increases,
iii. Cations are displaced from exchange sites,
iv. The solubility of P and Si increases and
v. New minerals are formed.

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

Figure 4 A schematic representations for the transformation of iron in

submerged soil

18.7 Manganese

The main transformations of manganese in submerged soils are the

reduction of manganic (Mn4+) to manganous (Mn2+) and almost similar to
that of iron transformation. Like iron, the transformation for Mn is also
governed by the redox equilibria system.
In submerged soils, the transformation of Mn results an increase in the
concentration of water soluble Mn2+, precipitation of manganous
carbonate (MnCO3), and re-oxidation of Mn2+ diffusing or moving by mass
flow to oxygenated interfaces in the soil (Figure 5).
When an aerobic laterite soil is submerged the reduction of manganic
manganese (Mn4+) occurs almost concurrently with the nitrate (NO3–)
reduction, but this reduction precedes that of Fe reduction. The

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

concentration of Mn2+ (water soluble) increases initially and thereafter

declines with the period of soil submergence that is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Effect of submergence on the release of Mn2+ in soil solution

The initial increase in the concentration of Mn2+ may be due to the

reduction of soil as well as Mn4+ and the decrease of the same of the later
period may be due to the precipitation of Mn2+ on MnCO3 and Mn(OH)2 in
the soil solution.
The kinetics of manganese reduction varies markedly from soil to soil. The
changes in water soluble Mn2+ concentration depend upon the pH, organic
matter content and active Mn content of the soils. The mobilization of Mn
in soils is markedly increased after submergence due to the reduction of
manganic compounds to more soluble forms as a consequence of the
anaerobic metabolism of soil bacteria.
Acid lateritic soils high in active Mn regardless of organic matter content
will give higher peak of water soluble Mn2+ concentration sharply and low

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

organic matter content delayed the peak. Strongly acid soils with relatively
low Mn content will also give lower peaks. The smallest peak will produce
in slightly alkali soils and in soils very low in Mn content.
We know that the transformation of Mn in submerged soils largely
depends on the oxidation-reduction reactions and the reduction of
Mn4+ occurs when the redox potential value is within a range from +200 to
+400 mV.

It is evident that organic matter influences the manganese

transformation in soils through the following ways:
(i) The production of complexing agents that effectively reduces the
activity of free iron in solution.
(ii) The decrease in the oxidation-reduction potential of the soil either
directly or indirectly through microbial activity.
(iii) The stimulation of microbial activity that results in the incorporation of
Mn in biological tissue

18.8 Zinc

The transformation of zinc in submerged soils is not involved in the

oxidation-reduction process like that of iron and manganese. However, the
reduction of hydrous oxides of iron and manganese, changes in soil pH,
partial pressure of CO2, formation insoluble sulphide compound etc. In soil
on submergence is likely to influence the solubility of Zn in soil either
favorably or adversely and consequently the Zn nutrition of low and rice.

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

The reduction of hydrous oxides of iron and manganese, formation of

organic complexing agents, and the decrease in pH of alkaline and
calcareous soils on submergence are found to favour the solubility of Zn,
whereas the formation of hydroxides, carbonates, sulphides may lower the
solubility of Zn in submerged soils. Zinc deficiency in submerged rice soils
is very common owing to the combined effect of increased pH, HCO 3– and
S2– formation.
The solubility of native forms of Zn in soils is highly pH dependent and
decreases by a factor of 102 for each unit increase in soil pH. The activity of
Zn-pH relationship has been defined as follow:
Soil + Zn2+ Soil – Zn + 2H+
The pK value for the above reaction with the solid phase of soils is 6.0. This
equation holds good for submerged soils.
Some equations relating to solubility of Zn in submerged soils governed
by various meta-stable compounds are given below (Table 2):
Table 2 equations relating to solubility of Zn in submerged soils governed
by various meta-stable compounds

Many of these compounds are meta-stable intermediate reaction products

and varying mean residence time in submerged soils. Applied Zn tends to

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

approach the solubility of the native forms instead of having residual effect
in the former Zn forms.
When an aerobic soil is submerged, the availability of native as well as
applied Zn decreases and the magnitude of such decrease vary with the
soil properties. The transformation of Zn in soils was found to be greatly
influenced by the depth of submerged and application of organic matter.
If an acid soil is submerged, the pH of the soil will increase and thereby the
availability of Zn will decrease. On the other hand, if an alkali soil is
submerged, the pH of the soil will decrease and as a result the solubility of
Zn will generally increase.
The availability of Zn decreases due to submergence may be attributed
to the following reasons:
(i) Formation of insoluble franklinite (ZnFe2O4) compound in submerged
soils.

(ii) Formation of very insoluble compounds of Zn as ZnS under intense

reducing conditions,

(iii) Formation of insoluble compounds of Zn as ZnCO 3 at the later period

of soil submergence owing to high partial pressure of CO2(pCO2) arising
from the decomposition of organic matter,

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

(iv) Formation of Zn(OH)2 at a relatively higher pH which decreases the

availability of

(v) Adsorption of soluble Zn2+ by oxide minerals e.g. sesquioxides,

carbonates, soil organic matter and clay minerals etc. decreases the
availability of Zn, the possible mechanism of Zn adsorption by oxide
minerals is shown below:
Mechanism I:

In mechanism I, Zn2+ adsorption occurs as bridging between two neutral

sites, but in addition to this mechanism, Zn2+ could also be adsorbed to two
positive sites or to a positive and neutral site.
Mechanism II:

This mechanism occurs at low pH and results non-specific adsorption of

Zn2+. In this way Zn2+ is retained and rendered unavailable to plants.

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

(vi) Formation of various other insoluble zinc compounds which decreases

the availability of Zn in submerged soil e.g. high phosphatic fertilizer
induces the decreased availability of Zn2+,

A simplified diagram illustrating dynamic equilibria of Zn in submerged soils

is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Dynamic equilibria of Zn in submerged soils

It shows that rice receives Zn from the soil solution and the exchangeable
and adsorbed solid phase including the soil organic fractions.
Zinc sulphide (ZnS, Sphalerite) in the presence of traces of hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) in submerged soils may control the solubility of Zn. Zinc is
stable in submerged soils. So it can be concluded that higher the pH and
poorer the aeration, the greater is the likelihood of Zn deficiency if the soil
solution Zn activity is controlled by sphalerite (ZnS).
Therefore, a variety of chemical reactions in soils influence the availability
of Zn to rice. For example, high manganese concentration antagonises Zn

19
 Problematic soils and their Management

absorption and translocation. Calcium and magnesium may also affect Zn

uptake.
The reversible pH change of the submerged soils, where the pH tends to
increase in acid soil and decrease in alkaline soils, undoubtedly modify the
Zn equilibrium concentration in the soil solution. Because the solubility of
Zn minerals and Zn sobered by soil colloids is pH dependent (higher at
higher pH), an increase in the pH of an acid soil when submerged will tend
to decrease the Zn concentration in the soil solution.
In alkaline soil, however initially Zn uptake increases as the pH decreases
after submergence. Submerged alkali or calcareous soils possess all the
essential characteristics for the formation of high amount of bicarbonate
(HCO3-) ions which helps Zn2+ rendering unavailable to plants by forming
insoluble ZnCO3 compound.

18.9 Copper

Most of the copper in soils is very insoluble and can only be extracted by
strong chemical treatments which dissolve various mineral structures of
solubilize organic matter. The concentration of copper in soil solutions is
usually very low. At pH values below 6.9, divalent Cu2+ is the dominant
species. Above pH 6.9, Cu(OH)20 is the principal solution species and
CuOH+ at pH 7.0.
Hydrolysis reactions of copper ions are shown below:

20
 Problematic soils and their Management

The complexes CuSO40 and CuCO30 are also important forms of copper.
Solubility of copper is very pH dependent and it increases several times
(approx. 100 times) for each unit decrease in soil pH. The transformation
of copper in submerged soils is not involved in oxidation-reduction
reactions; its behaviour is influenced by simple submergence in soils.
It is evident that copper exists in soils as different discrete chemical pools
which are as follows:
i. Water soluble plus exchangeable Cu
ii. Copper associated with clay minerals
iii. Organically bound Cu
iv. Copper associated with different oxides in soils
v. Residual copper
The amount of each form of copper in soils depends on soil pH, amount of
organic matter, clay content, oxides of Fe and Mn etc. All these above
forms of Cu are in dynamic equilibrium in soils.
In submerged soils, copper comes into the soil solution or available pool
and becomes available to the plant as follows:

The chemical equilibria of Cu in submerged rice soils are similar to those of

Zn. The mechanism for removal of Cu from soil solutions in submerged soils

21
 Problematic soils and their Management

is so pronounced that copper is apparently removed from chelating agents

that is capable of keeping the element is solution phase in upland soils.
When an acid soil is submerged, the release of copper decreases due to
increase in soil pH, whereas submerging an alkali and calcareous soils, the
amount of copper in soil solution increases to a lesser degree. However, in
most of the soils, submergence decreases the availability of copper and
thereby creates deficiency to plants.
The possible explanations for the increase in the concentration of copper
in submerged soils are formation of organic complexes and decreased soil
pH (alkali soil). On the other hand, the decrease in the amount of copper
may be due to the insoluble precipitation as CuS, CuCO3 and Cu(OH)2 since
the production of sulphide, carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide is more
in submerged soils resulting from the reduction of soils.
Again submerging a soil high in organic matter, the amount of extractable
Cu either decreases or increases and it is contradictory. The decrease may
be due to the microbiological immobilization and the antagonistic effect of
increased concentration of iron, manganese and phosphorus forming
insoluble copper complexes in soils.
It is also evident that the higher concentration of phosphorus in submerged
soil decreased the availability of copper. The possible mechanism for
enhanced copper retention on allophane and oxides, in which phosphate
coordinates to the axial position of a surface bound copper (Cu2+) ion,
thereby produces a ternary surface copper complex.

22
 Problematic soils and their Management

Evidently due to application of organic matter in submerged soils the

amount of available copper increases. The increase may be due to the
reduction of coating of hydrous oxides of Fe3+ and Mn4+ on the copper
compounds and also for the production of soluble Cu-organic chelates and
thus increases its solubility.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Bouldin, D. R. (1986). The chemistry and biology of flooded soils in relations

to the nitrogen economy in rice fields. Fertilizer Research, 9, 1–14.

FAO-UNESCO. (2000). The FAO/UNESCO Digital Soil Map of the World and
derived Soil Properties on CD-Rom. Roma: FAO-AGL.

Patrick Jr., W. H. and Mahapatra, I. C. (1968). Transformation and

availability to rice of nitrogen and phosphorus in waterlogged soils.
Advances in Agronomy, 20, 323–356.

Patrick Jr., W. H. and Mikkelsen, D. S. (1971). Plant nutrient behavior in

flooded soil. In Fertilizer Technology and Use, 2nd ed., ed. R. A.
Olson, 187–215. Madison, Wisc.: Soil Science Society of America.

Ponnamperuma, F.N. (1972). The chemistry of submerged soils. Advances

in Agronomy, 24, 29-96.

23
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 19 Polluted Soils – Sources, Extent and Impact

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

 Awareness about soil pollutants, point and non-point sources of

pollution, reasons for soil pollution and effects on growth and
development of crop plants and natural flora and fauna

Glossary of terms

1. Pollutant: A pollutant is something which adversely interferes with

health, comfort, property or environment of the people.
2. Pollution: Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil
which affect human life, lives of other useful living plants and
animals, industrial progress, living conditions and cultural assets.
3. Emerging pollutants (EPs): Refers to a large number of synthetic or
naturally occurring chemicals that have recently appeared in the
environment and are not commonly monitored.
4. Microplastics: Microplastics are very small pieces of plastic that
pollute the environment. They are not a specific kind of plastic, but
rather any type of plastic fragment that is less than 5 mm in length.
5. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP): Are a group of chemicals which
are intentionally or inadvertently produced and introduced into the
environment.
6. Phytotoxicity: Phytotoxicity is a toxic effect by a compound on plant
growth. Such damage may be caused by a wide variety of

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

compounds, including trace metals, salinity, pesticides, phytotoxins

or allelochemicals.
7. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is defined as the build-up of pollutants
in soils like persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive
materials etc with adverse effects on plant growth and human
health.

19.1 Introduction

Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical,

chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil which affect
human life, lives of other useful living plants and animals, industrial
progress, living conditions and cultural assets. A pollutant is something
which adversely interferes with health, comfort, property or environment
of the people. Generally, most pollutants are introduced in the
environment by sewage, waste, accidental discharge or else they are by-
products or residues from the production of something useful. Due to this
our precious natural resources like air, water and soil are getting polluted.

Soil pollution is defined as the build-up of pollutants in soils like

persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials etc.
with adverse effects on plant growth and human health. The various
sources of soil pollution can be schematically represented as follows:

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Industrial wastes
Geogenic Anthropogenic
including
Parent Materials Peticides, effluents
(Sedimentary Herbicides,
Thermal power
Rocks) Manures and
plants
Ground water Fertilizers
Mining and
contamination
Smelting
Soil

Pollution

19.2 Types of Pollutants

19.2.1 Inorganic toxic compounds

Inorganic residues in industrial waste cause serious problems as regards

their disposal. They contain metals which have high potential for toxicity.
Industrial activity also emits large amounts of arsenic fluorides and sulphur
dioxide (SO2). Fluorides are found in the atmosphere from
superphosphate, phosphoric acid, aluminium, steel and ceramic industries.
Sulphur dioxide emitted by factories and thermal plants may make soils
very acidic. These metals cause leaf injury and destroy vegetation. Copper,
mercury, cadmium, lead, nickel, arsenic are the elements which can
accumulate in the soil, if they get entry either through sewage, industrial
waste or mine washings. Some of the fungicides containing copper and
mercury also add to soil pollution. Smokes from automobiles contain lead
which gets adsorbed by soil particles and is toxic to plants. The toxicity can

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

be minimized by building up soil organic matter, adding lime to soils and

keeping the soil alkaline.

19.2.2 Organic wastes

Organic wastes of various types cause pollution hazards. Domestic

garbage, municipal sewage and industrial wastes when left in heaps or
improperly disposed seriously affect health of human beings, plants and
animals. Organic wastes contain borates, phosphates, detergents in large
amounts. If untreated they will affect the vegetative growth of plants. The
main organic contaminants are phenols and coal. Asbestos, combustible
materials, gases like methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide, petrol are also contaminants. The radioactive
materials like uranium, thorium, strontium etc. also cause soil pollution.
Fallout of strontium mostly remains on the soil and is concentrated in the
sediments.

19.2.3 Sewage and sewage- sludge

Soil pollution is often caused by the uncontrolled disposal of sewage and

other liquid wastes resulting from domestic uses of water, industrial
wastes containing a variety of pollutants, agricultural effluents from animal
husbandry and drainage of irrigation water and urban runoff. Irrigation
with sewage water causes profound changes in the irrigated soils. Amongst
various changes that are brought about in the soil as an outlet of sewage
irrigation include physical changes like leaching, changes in humus content,

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

and porosity etc., chemical changes like soil reaction, base exchange
status, salinity, quantity and availability of nutrients like nitrogen, potash,
phosphorus, etc. Sewage sludges pollute the soil by accumulating the
metals like lead, nickel, zinc, cadmium, etc. This may lead to the
phytotoxicity of plants.

19.2.4 Heavy Metals

What is heavy metals?

The build-up of heavy metals in cultivated fields are mainly from the
sources like, industrial effluents, sewage, sludge, contaminated ground
water and river water. It is of rising apprehension as it induces detrimental
effects on soil biota which in turn is a potential risk to human and animal
health. Transfer of metals to the palatable portion of crops grown in
contaminated soils often renders the food crops unfit for human and
animal consumption. Excessive intake of metals and metalloids due to
ingestion of food stuffs grown in contaminated soil may resulted into
different physiological and metabolic disorders in human and animal. All
the micronutrient cations viz. zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), iron
(Fe) and nickel (Ni), which are indispensable for plant growth termed as
metal (atomic number > 20 and sp. gravity > 5.0). Based on the
concentrations, they exhibit both deficiency and toxicity in the
plants/organisms. Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg),
selenium (Se), arsenic (As) and fluorine (F) are other metal, metalloid and

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

non-metal of concern, which can cause toxicity to the plant/organisms,

when present at an elevated level.

19.2.5 Pesticides

Pesticides are quite frequently used tocontrol several types of pests now-
a-days. Pesticides may exert harmful effects to micro-organisms, as a result
of which plant growth may be affected. Pesticides which are not rapidly
decomposed may create such problems. Accumulation is residues of
pesticides in higher concentrations are toxic. Pesticides persistence in soil
and movement into water streams may also lead to their entry into food
chain and create health hazards. Pesticides particularly aromatic organic
compounds are not degraded rapidly and therefore, have a long
persistence time.

19.2.6 Persistent Organic Pollutants

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of chemicals which are

intentionally or inadvertently produced and introduced into the
environment. Due to their stability and transport properties, they are now
widely distributed around the world, found even in the most unlikely
places such as the arctic regions.

19.2.7 Microplastics

Microplastics are very small pieces of plastic that pollute the environment.
Microplastics are not a specific kind of plastic, but rather any type of plastic
fragment that is less than 5 mm in length according to the U.S. National

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European

Chemicals Agency. They enter natural ecosystems from a variety of
sources, including cosmetics, clothing, and industrial processes.

19.2.8 Emerging Pollutants

Emerging pollutants (EPs) refers to a large number of synthetic or naturally

occurring chemicals that have recently appeared in the environment and
are not commonly monitored. They have the potential to enter the
environment and to cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or
human health effects. Emerging pollutants may well become pollutants of
emerging concern, as new facts or information have demonstrated that
they are posing a risk to the environment and human health. Emerging
pollutants encompass chemicals such as pharmaceuticals, endocrine
disruptors, hormones and toxins, among others, and biological pollutants,
such as micropollutants in soils, which include bacteria and viruses. Other
major groups of emerging contaminants are manmade nanoparticles
(MNPs) and treatment by-products.

19.3 Extent of Soil Pollution

The Status of the World's Soil Resources Report (SWSR) identified soil
pollution as one of the main soil threats affecting global soils and the
ecosystems services provided by them. Concerns about soil pollution are
growing in every region. Recently, the United Nations Environmental
Assembly (UNEA-3) adopted a resolution calling for accelerated actions

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

and collaboration to address and manage soil pollution. This consensus,

achieved by more than 170 countries, is a clear sign of the global relevance
of soil pollution and of the willingness of these countries to develop
concrete solutions to address the causes and impacts of this major threat.
The anthropogenic production of chemicals has experienced a rapid
growth globally since the 1970s. In the European Union in 2016, the
chemical industry produced 319 million tonnes of hazardous and non-
hazardous chemicals. Of these, 117 million tonnes were deemed to be
hazardous to the environment (EUROSTAT, 2018). Global production is
projected to increase annually by approximately 3.4 percent until 2030,
and non-OECD countries will be much greater contributors to this
production in the future (OECD, 2008). Production and use of hazardous
chemicals have been reduced over the last ten years; however, the
uncertainties that still remain and the lack of information from many
developing countries make it impossible to conclude that risks to the
environment and human health have been successfully reduced. As the
global population increases, so does the generation of waste. In developing
and least developed countries, high rates of population growth and
increasing waste and sludge production, combined with lack of municipal
services that deal with waste management, create a dangerous situation.
According to a World Bank report, the global production of municipal solid
waste was estimated to be 1.3 billion tonnes per year in 2012, varying from
0.45 kg per person and per day in sub-Saharan Africa to 2.2 kg per capita
annually in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

(OECD) countries. Future predictions are worrying, however, as waste

production is expected to rise to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025.

Although, surge in India’s economic growth aided by higher levels of

industrialization has remained a subject of pride, there is also a huge
concern for the environmental degradation that slowly but loudly being
voiced out. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) identified critically
polluted industrial areas and clusters or potential impact zone based on its
Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) rating. Forty three
critically polluted zones were reported in the 16 states which have CEPI
rating more than 70. Among the 43 sites, 21 sites exist in only four states
namely Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Information
on soil pollution has been generated by research organizations in several
of these critically polluted areas and such information is unevenly
distributed. In some areas having very high CEPI rating like Haldia, Bhiwadi,
Chandrapur, Singrauli, Bhiwadi, published information on the soil pollution
in nearby agricultural areas is practically absent.

Industries, particularly those associated with chlor-alkali, textiles,

glass, rubber production, animal hide processing and leather tanning,
metal processing, pharmaceuticals, oil and gas drilling, pigment
manufacture, ceramic manufacture, soap & detergent production are the
major consumers of salts (mainly NaCl) produced in the world today. When
released into the environment, salt ions present in the industrial effluents
percolate through the soil profile and contaminate the ground- water due

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

to their high mobility in the matrix. Most of the effluent treatment plants
don’t remove salts from the effluent water. As a result of this, salinity of
groundwater has been found elevated in and around many industrial
clusters of India; deteriorating drinking and irrigation water quality.

Table 1 Heavy metals accumulated in soil under different industrial areas

are as follows:

Location Name of the industries Heavy

Metals
accumulated
Pithampur Automobile manufacturing, food Cr, Zn, Co
(Dhar), Madhya processing, chemical processing,
Pradesh distilleries, textile industries and
other manufacturing industries
Debari Zinc smelter Zn, Cd, Pb
(Udaipur),
Rajasthan
Korba, Thermal power plant, Metallurgical Cd, Cr
Chhattisgarh (Al), Textiles, Engineering
workshops, Tyre rethreading, and
others
Coimbatore, Electroplating, Textile, Dye Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr
Tamil Nadu
Kanpur-Unnao Textile, leather tanning, fertilizer, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn
(UP) miscellaneous small scale chemical
factories
(Panwar et al., 2010)

Table 2 Indian standards for heavy metals in soil, food and drinking water
Heavy metal Soil (mg Kg-1) Food(mg Kg-1) Water(mg L-1)
Cd 3-6 1.5 0.01

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

Cr - 20 0.05
Cu 135-270 30 0.05
Fe - - 0.03
Ni 75-150 1.5 -
Pb 250-500 2.5 0.10
Zn 300-600 50 5.00
As - 1.1 0.05
Mn - - 0.10

Table 3: Regulatory limit and pollutant loading rates of heavy metals in

sewage-sludge

Elements Maximum concentration in sludge USEPA mg/kg

As 75
Cd 85
Cr 3000
Cu 4300
Hg 57
Mo 75
Ni 420
Pb 840
Se 100
Zn 7500
USPEA = US environmental protection agency (1993)

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

19.3.1 Arsenic (As)

Arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater in the Ganga-

Brahmaputra fluvial plains in India and Padma-Meghna fluvial plains in
Bangladesh and its consequences to the human health have been reported
as one of the world’s biggest natural groundwater calamities to the
mankind. In India, seven states namely- West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh in the flood plain of the Ganga River; Assam and Manipur in
the flood plain of the Brahamaputra and Imphal rivers and Rajnandgaon
village in Chhattisgarh state have so far been reported to be affected by
Arsenic contamination in groundwater above the permissible limit of 10
μg/L. People in these affected states have chronically been exposed to
drinking Arsenic- contaminated hand tube-wells water. With every new
survey, more Arsenic affected villages and people suffering from Arsenic
related diseases are being reported, and the issues are getting complicated
by a number of unknown factors. These fluvial plains represent Holocene
aquifers of recent alluvial sediments and have the routes originated from
the Himalayan region. Arsenic groundwater contamination has far-
reaching consequences including its ingestion through food chain which
are in the form of social disorders, health hazards and socio-economic
dissolution besides its sprawling with movement, and exploitation of
groundwater. Arsenic contamination is understood to be of geogenic origin
released from soil under conditions conducive to dissolution of Arsenic
from solid phase on soil grains to liquid phase in water, and percolation of
fertilizer residues might have played a modifying role in its further

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

exaggeration. The toxicity of arsenic compounds in groundwater/soil

environment follows the order: Arsine [AsH3; valence state of arsenic: 3] >
organo-arsine compounds > arsenites and oxides (trivalent arsenic form) >
arsenates (pentavalent arsenic form) > arsonium metals (monovalent
arsenic form) > native arsenic metal. There are a number of hypotheses
about the source of Arsenic and probable reasons of occurrence in
groundwater. Over the last 25 years since the groundwater Arsenic
contamination was first surfaced in the year 1983, a number of restorative
and precautionary measures coupled with action plans focusing mainly on
detailed investigations to understand the physiochemical process and
mechanism, alternate arrangement to supply Arsenic free water to the
affected populace and development of devices for Arsenic removal and
their implementation at the field, etc. have been initiated mainly in West
Bengal while in other States, they are meagre. The organo-arsenic
complexation can increase the stability of the complex and thus mitigate
the entry in the food chain to some extend (Mukhopadhyay and
Sanyal,2004). Despite a number of corrective and precautionary measures,
the spread of Arsenic contamination in groundwater continued to grow
and more new areas have been added to the list of contaminated area.
While drinking water is considered as the most important source for
arsenic exposure, food is equally important exposure route and most
important route of exposure in areas with safe drinking water. Food gets
contaminated mainly due to application of contaminated irrigation water
resulting in soil-crop-food transfer. According to World Health

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

Organization (WHO), maximum permissible limit of As concentration in rice

grain is 1.0 mg kg-1, which is more stringent in case of United States
Department of Agriculture (0.15 mg kg-1) and European Union (0.5 mg kg-
1
). However, these permissible limits do not have much practical
significance as there exist diversity from region to region with respect to
the amount and type of food being consumed.

19.3.2 Selenium (Se)

Selenium (Se), a component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase may be

beneficial or toxic to plants, animals and humans depending upon its
concentration. It is also an inorganic carcinogenic agent at elevated levels.
The recommended human intake of Se is between 50 and 200 ppb Se day-
1
according to World Health Organization. Geogenic-driven Se toxicity has
been reported from some pockets of Punjab where as high as 2.41 mg Se
kg-1 soil has been obtained. More than 1000 ha of such seleniferous soils
exist in the North Eastern Punjab, where toxic Se sites are located at the
terminal ends of the seasonal rivulets. The soils are alkaline in reaction,
calcareous, silty loam to silty clay loam in texture and are well drained.
Irrigation with groundwater in seleniferous region has led to the
accumulation and toxicity of Se in soils of Punjab. During wheat season
(upland conditions) 14% of the total Se in surface soil was present as
selenate-Se (Si6+) form. In contrast under submerged rice conditions, only
2.5% of the total Se was present as Si6+ whereas the remaining amount was

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

predominantly present as selenite-Se (Si4+) form. Se in water is an

important criterion for determining its suitability for different purposes.
According to United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) the
maximum concentration level (MCL) of Se in water for drinking purpose is
10 ppb and the maximum permissible level (MPL) for water used for
irrigation purpose is 20 ppb.

19.3.3 Fluoride (F)

The presence of Fluoride (F) in water is essential for protection against the
dental caries and weakening of the bones, but excess F- may lead to dental
or skeletal fluorosis. In India the problem has been assumed alarming
proportion in at least 17 states of the country, mostly from the geogenic-
driven causes, rather than from industrial emissions. Indeed the
groundwater of around 50-100 % districts are thus affected by fluoride
toxicity in erstwhile, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat
and Rajasthan; 30-35% districts are fluoride toxic in Bihar, Haryana,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Orissa and West
Bengal. Fluoride occurs exclusively as the F- ion in soils, where it complexes
strongly with metal ions such as Al3+ and Fe3+ ions. It may be present as the
structural component of hydrous minerals, isomorphously substituting for
structural OH. In acid soils solubility and mobility of F could be enhanced
due to formation of soluble Al-F cationic and anionic complexes. In
calcareous soils its solubility and mobility is limited by its incorporation into
insoluble Ca-minerals.

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

19.4 Impacts of soil pollution

The predicted world’s population of over nine billion by 2050 will require
the provision of enough good quality food and water. FAO’s latest
projections indicate that global food production will increase by 60 percent
between 2005/07 and 2050 under its baseline scenario. This represents a
downward revision, based on updated data and information, from the 70
percent increase projected for the same period in 2009. (World Agriculture
Towards 2030/2050: The 2012 revision ESA E Working Paper No. 12-03
http://www.fao.org/economic/esa/esag/en/). The quantity and
nutritional quality of food supports human health, and 95 percent of food
production depends on soils (FAO, 2015). Only healthy soils can provide
the needed ecosystem services and secure supplies of more food and fibre.
The provision of ecosystem services has received considerable attention
and can be defined as “the capacity of natural processes and components
to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, directly or
indirectly” (Groot, 1992). Food security is defined as “the availability,
access, utilization and stability of food supply.” Soil pollution reduces food
security both by reducing crop yields due to toxic levels of contaminants
and by causing the produced crops to be unsafe for consumption (FAO and
ITPS, 2015). Some major effects of Soil pollution are as follows:

19.4.1 Effects on Plants and Animals

If a contaminant is highly toxic to plants at low concentrations and is not

easily translocated to shoots, fruits or tubers to pose a hazard to animals

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

and humans, it is unlikely to enter the food chain and become a hazard.
This concept was termed the “Soil-Plant Barrier” by Chaney almost 40
years ago for metals and metalloids. Since soil pollution is often
accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant life ceases
to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminium can
prove toxic to plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the salinity
of the soil, making it inhospitable for the growth of plant life. Plants that
are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil
pollutants through a process known as bioaccumulation. When these
plants are consumed by herbivores, all the accumulated pollutants are
passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of many
desirable animal species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their
way to the top of the food chain and manifest as diseases in human beings.

19.4.2 Effects on the Ecosystem

Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the
atmosphere by winds or can seep into underground water reserves, soil
pollution can be a direct contributor to air and water pollution. It can also
contribute towards acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into
the atmosphere). Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms
that improve soil texture and help in the decomposition of organic matter.
Thus, the negative effects of soil pollution also impact soil quality and
texture. Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China,
over 12 million tons of grain (worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

to be unfit for human consumption due to contamination with heavy

metals (as per studies conducted by the China Dialogue).

19.4.3 Effect on the human

Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous).
Therefore, these contaminants can find their way into the human body via
several channels such as direct contact with the skin or through the
inhalation of contaminated soil dust.

The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include: a)

Headaches, nausea, and vomiting b) Coughing, pain in the chest, and
wheezing c) Irritation of the skin and the eyes d) Fatigue and weakness.

A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some

such diseases are listed below.

a) Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the

nervous system. Children are particularly vulnerable to lead.

b) Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).

c) Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.

d) Higher risk of developing cancer.

It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons

and industrial solvents have been linked to congenital disorders in humans.
Thus, soil pollution can have several negative effects on human health.

Table 4 Effect of metal toxicity on human health

19
 Problematic soils and their Management

Element Impact on human health due to toxicity

Arsenic Skin cancer, hyperkeratosis, hyperpigmentation, black foot,

rashes, cancer of internal organs

Cadmium Renal tubular dysfunction, proteinuria, glucosuria,

aminoaciduria, itai-itai disease

Chromium Renal dysfunction, lung cancer

Fluoride Calcification of the ligaments, osteosclerosis, endochondral

ossification, thickening of the flat bones, osteomalacia and
osteoporosis

Copper Wilson’s disease and cirrosis, haemolysis, hepatic necrosis,

renal damage and salivary gland swelling

Lead Encephalopathy (damage to brain), failure in reproduction,

metabolic disorder, neurophysical deficit in children, affects
the haematologic and renal system

Mercury Neurological defects, depression, irritability, confusion,

tremor, visual and auditory defects

Selenium Persistent, adverse clinical signs developed with as high as

50% morbidity

Zinc Interferes with reproduction, impair the growth of embryo

(Golui et.al., 2019)

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

20
 Problematic soils and their Management

FAO and ITPS. (2015). Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR) - Main
Report. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils.
(http://www.fao.org/3/ a-i5199e.pdf ).

Golui, D., Datta, S.P., Dwivedi, B.S., Meena, M.C., Varghese, E., Sanyal, S.K.,
Ray, P., Shukla, A.K. and Trivedi, V.K. (2019). Assessing soil
degradation in relation to metal pollution-A multivariate approach.
Soil and Sediment Contamination, 28(7), 630-649.

Groot, R.S. de. (1992). Functions of nature: evaluation of nature in

environmental planning, management and decision making.
Groningen, Wolters-Noordhoff. 315 pp.

Mandal, J.,Golui, D., Ray, P. and Bhattacharyya, P. (2020). Heavy Metal

Pollution in Soil and the Remediation Strategies In Soil Management
for Sustainable Agriculture New Research and Strategies, Apple
Academic Press

Mukhopadhyay,D. and Sanyal,S.K. (2004),. Complexation and release

isotherm of arsenic in arsenic-humic/fulvic equilibrium study.
Australian Journal of Soil Research 42(7): 815-824.

Panwar, N.R., Saha, J.K. and Adhikari, T. (2010). Soil and water pollution in
India: some case studies, IISS Technical Bulletin. Indian Institute of
Soil Science

21
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 20 Remediation Technique for Polluted soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
Learning Objective

 Understanding various physical, chemical and biological methods as

remediation techniques for polluted soils

Glossary of terms

1. Soil washing: This is an ex-situ technique of transferring metals from

soil matrix to washing fluids (mostly acids, e.g. HCl) followed by
precipitation of metals as metal salts and revert of unpolluted soil
residue to the site.
2. Soil replacement: It is the process of using unpolluted soil to swap
or partially replenish the polluted soil with the objective of diluting
metal intensity.
3. Thermal treatment: It is the technique of heating contaminated soils
using steam, microwave, IR radiation to make the pollutant (e.g. Hg,
As) unstable and collecting unstable metals using void negative
pressure or carrier gas for the abstraction of metals and metalloids
from the soil.
4. Electrokinetic remediation: This technique of remediation is centred
on the principles of electrochemistry, which involves application of
direct current (DC) electricity via electrodes injected in the
contaminated soil for facilitating the migration of cations to the
cathode and negatively charged ions to the anode under a
recognized electric field.
5. Phytostabilization: It refers to the immobilization of metals and
metalloids in soil by plant roots.

20.1 Remediation approaches for polluted soils

2|Page
Nathanail referred to sustainable remediation as “remediation that
eliminates and/ or controls unacceptable risks in a safe and timely manner,
and which maximizes the overall environmental, social and economic
benefits of the remediation work” (Nathanail, 2011). Sustainable
management requires the incorporation of the best available techniques,
not only during the remediation process itself, but for the whole process,
including risk assessment and risk reduction. Best management practices
(BMPs) are individual or combinations of management, cultural and
structural practices that researchers (academic or governmental) have
identified as the most effective and economical way of reducing damage
to the environment. Remediation is commonly done on a site-by-site basis,
since for every combination of pollutant, soil property, land use, property
and liability regimes and technical and economic reality of the site or area,
a different technique or combination of techniques may be more
appropriate.

The remediation of the soils contaminated with metals and

metalloids, although challenging, can be achieved following physico-
chemical and biological approaches. The physical approach involves
removal of soil from contaminated site, decontamination of soil, and
return of clean soil residue to the site (in some cases). In the chemical
approach, heavy metals in contaminated soil are mostly immobilized or
fixed through alteration of soil chemistry and facilitating the formation of
insoluble chemical species using amendments or additives. The biological
approach involves use of plants or microbes to trim down the level of
contamination in soils. Mostly, the physical approach of remediation is

3|Page
based on the principle of ex-situ techniques. However, chemical and
biological approaches of remediation are mostly based on the principles of
in-situ techniques. Ex-situ techniques involve exclusion of contaminated
soils for treatment on- or off site, and in-situ techniques involve
remediation without excavation of polluted soils. Usually, remediation of
metal polluted soils encompasses physical removal (decontamination) or
immobilization of metals, rather degradation of metals.

20.2 Physical Approach

(i) Excavation and land-filling: It involves bulk digging out of contaminated

soil and burial (land-filling) at a hazardous waste site.

ii) Soil washing: This is an ex-situ technique of transferring metals from soil
matrix to washing fluids (mostly acids, e.g. HCl) followed by precipitation
of metals as metal salts and revert of unpolluted soil residue to the site.
Although chemical extractants (washing fluids) are used in this method, it
does not detoxify or considerably revise the contaminants

(iii) Soil replacement: It is the process of using unpolluted soil to swap or

partially replenish the polluted soil with the objective of diluting metal
intensity.

(iv) Thermal treatment: It is the technique of heating contaminated soils

using steam, microwave, IR radiation to make the pollutant (e.g. Hg, As)
unstable and collecting unstable metals using void negative pressure or
carrier gas for the abstraction of metals and metalloids from the soil.

20.3 Chemical Approach

4|Page
(i) Immobilization (stabilization) of metals: The technique involves
addition of reagents or amendments to the polluted soil to yield more
chemically durable components. Immobilization of metals and metalloids
is achieved mainly through chemical adsorption, precipitation of the
metals, and complexation/chelation reactions which cause in the
reallocation of contaminants from the soil solution phase to solid phase,
and thereby reducing their bioavailability. The effectiveness of different
amendments, viz. phosphate compounds, liming materials, organic
ameliorant and metal oxides in immobilization of metals and metalloids
has been attributed to sound chemical reactions in soil by various authors.

Phosphate compounds immobilize metals and metalloids in soils

due to direct adsorption/substitution of heavy metals by phosphorus
compounds, phosphorus anion-induced metal adsorption, and
precipitation of metals and metalloids with solution phosphorus as metal
and metalloid-phosphates.

Liming, a technique to ameliorate the acid soils, its usefulness to

check the movement of metals in contaminated soil as reported. Liming
causes the rise of soil pH which results in precipitation of the metals as
their hydroxides and carbonates and hence reduces its bioavailability.

In chemical immobilization (stabilization) technique, soil ecological

conditions such as pH, redox potential (Eh), cation exchange capacity (CEC)
and soil organic matter content can affect the substantial release of
immobilized heavy metals and metalloids in soil solution (Table 1).

Table 1: Mineral amendments used for the reduction of heavy metals

5|Page
 Amendment Metals immobilized

Al-Montmorillonite Cd, Ni, Zn

Clinoptilolite Cd, Pb, Zn

Di ammonium phosphate Cd, Pb, Zn

Ferrous sulphate As, Cr

Hydroxyappetite Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn

Lime Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb

Manganese oxide Cd, Pb

Water treated sludge Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn

(ii) Vitrification: It involves high-temperature (1400-20000C) treatment of

the contaminated soil to transform into glass like solids. Heavy metals are
encapsulated in to glass like solid materials. Vitrified substances with
particular traits may be attained by using sand, clay, and/or native soil. In-
situ vitrification is favoured over ex-situ technique due to lower energy
requirement and cost.

(iii) Electrokinetic remediation: This technique of remediation is centred

on the principles of electrochemistry, which involves application of direct
current (DC) electricity via electrodes injected in the contaminated soil for
facilitating the migration of cations to the cathode and negatively charged
ions to the anode under a recognized electric field. Under a DC electric field
the metal ions migrate which is primarily via electroosmosis,

6|Page
electromigration (movement of ions to the counterpart electrode),
electrophoresis and diffusion due to gradient force.

20.4 Biological Approach

(i) Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is an in-situ remediation,

involving employment of plants to extract metals from contaminated soil
or stabilize them in soil. In general, reduction in metal(loid) contamination
in soil is achieved through phytoextraction (removal technology) and
phytostabilization (containment technology). Phytoextraction denotes the
uptake of metals and metalloids by plant roots into the aerial parts of
plants. Phytostabilization refers to the immobilization of metals and
metalloids in soil by plant roots. For being potentially suitable for
phytostabilization, plants must have high root biomass. Agrostis tenuis,
Festuca rubra, Gentiana pennelliana, Hyparrhenia hirta, Zygophyllum
fabago, and Vossia cuspidate are some important plant species for
phytostabilizing soils contaminated by Pb, Zn, Cr, and Cu.
Phytoremediation of As can be done by Pteris vittata, Eleocharis acicularis,
Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Hibiscus cannabinus L., Corchorus capsularis L.,
Cladophora sp, Chlorodesmis sp., Himetainubie, BR-29 rice, Chotoshama,
Zinnia elegans, Gomphrena globose and Brassica juncea

(ii) Bioremediation: This technique involves the use of microorganisms for

remediation purpose. The mechanisms by which microorganisms detoxify
metal(loid)s include intracellular accumulation, extracellular chemical
precipitation, oxidation-reduction reaction, sorption on microbial cell
surface and volatilization. For example, Bacillus circulans and Bacillus

7|Page
megaterium have been reported to be potential bacterial strains for
biosorption and bioaccumulation of hexavalent (VI) chromium.

20.5 Applicability of remediation techniques

The applicability and assortment of any remediation technique is

depended on the nature and source of contamination, contamination
level, cost-effectiveness, long-term permanence, general acceptance,
remediation goal, time requirement and ease in implementation. All these
criteria are important for selection of remediation technique based on site-
specific issues. In developing countries like India with limited funds
allocated for environmental restitution, cost-effective and ecologically
viable alternatives are required for restoration of metal(loid)
contaminated soils in order to diminish associated health risk and enhance
food and nutritional security. The ex-situ remediation technologies, due to
involvement of high cost, are usually not preferred. Chemical
immobilization and phytoremediation are the encouraging tools for
remediation of soil polluted by metal(loid)s in developing countries.
Chemical immobilization and phytoremediation can be followed for highly
contaminated and low to moderately contaminated soils, respectively. In
excessively-high contaminated soils, e.g. mining and smelting sites,
chemical immobilization technique can be practiced to minimize the
toxicity due to high-accumulation of metal(loid)s in soil for establishing
plants, followed by phytoremediation to restore the contaminated site
gradually in long-run. For successful implementation of any remediation
technology, proper planning in view of the merits and demerits of the
proposed techniques is of immense importance.
8|Page
20.6 Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Uptake by Plant

Contaminant uptake by plants and its mechanisms have been being

explored by several researchers. It could be used to optimize the factors to
improve the performance of plant uptake. The plants act both as
“accumulators” and “excluders”. Accumulators survive despite
concentrating contaminants in their aerial tissues. They biodegrade or
biotransform the contaminants into inert forms in their tissues. The
excluders restrict contaminant uptake into their biomass.

Plants have evolved highly specific and very efficient mechanisms to obtain
essential micronutrients from the environment, even when present at low
ppm levels. Plant roots, aided by plant-produced chelating agents and
plant-induced pH changes and redox reactions, are able to solubilize and
take up micronutrients from very low levels in the soil, even from nearly
insoluble precipitates. Plants have also evolved highly specific mechanisms
to translocate and store micronutrients. These same mechanisms are also
involved in the uptake, translocation, and storage of toxic elements, whose
chemical properties simulate those of essential elements. Thus,
micronutrient uptake mechanisms are of great interest to
phytoremediation.

The range of known transport mechanisms or specialized proteins

embedded in the plant cell plasma membrane involved in ion uptake and
translocation include (1) proton pumps (″-ATPases that consume energy
and generate electrochemical gradients), (2) co- and antitransporters
(proteins that use the electrochemical gradients generated by ″-ATPases

9|Page
to drive the active uptake of ions), and (3) channels (proteins that facilitate
the transport of ions into the cell). Each transport mechanism is likely to
take up a range of ions. A basic problem is the interaction of ionic species
during uptake of various heavy metal contaminants. After uptake by roots,
translocation into shoots is desirable because the harvest of root biomass
is generally not feasible. Little is known regarding the forms in which metal
ions are transported from the roots to the shoots.

Plant uptake-translocation mechanisms are likely to be closely regulated.

Plants generally do not accumulate trace elements beyond near-term
metabolic needs. And these requirements are small ranging from 10 to
15 ppm of most trace elements suffice for most needs. The exceptions are
“hyperaccumulator” plants, which can take up toxic metal ions at levels in
the thousands of ppm. Another issue is the form in which toxic metal ions
are stored in plants, particularly in hyperaccumulating plants, and how
these plants avoid metal toxicity. Multiple mechanisms are involved.
Storage in the vacuole appears to be a major one.

Water, evaporating from plant leaves, serves as a pump to absorb nutrients

and other soil substances into plant roots. This process, termed
evapotranspiration, is responsible for moving contamination into the plant
shoots as well. Since contamination is translocated from roots to the
shoots, which are harvested, contamination is removed while leaving the
original soil undisturbed. Some plants that are used in phytoextraction
strategies are termed “hyperaccumulators.” They are plants that achieve a
shoot-to-root metal-concentration ratio greater than one.
Nonaccumulating plants typically have a shoot-to-root ratio considerably
10 | P a g e
less than one. Ideally, hyperaccumulators should thrive in toxic
environments, require little maintenance and produce high biomass,
although few plants perfectly fulfill these requirements.

Metal accumulating plant species can concentrate heavy metals like Cd, Zn,
Co, Mn, Ni, and Pb up to 100 or 1000 times those taken up by
nonaccumulator (excluder) plants. In most cases, microorganisms bacteria
and fungi, living in the rhizosphere closely associated with plants, may
contribute to mobilize metal ions, increasing the bioavailable fraction.
Their role in eliminating organic contaminants is even more significant than
that in case of inorganic compounds.

Heavy metal uptake by plant through phytoremediation technologies is

using these mechanisms of phytoextraction, phytostabilisation,
rhizofiltration, and phytovolatilization as shown in Figure 1.

11 | P a g e
Figure 1 The mechanisms of heavy metals uptake by plant through
phytoremediation technology.

20.6.1 Phytoextraction

Phytoextraction is the uptake/absorption and translocation of

contaminants by plant roots into the above ground portions of the plants
(shoots) that can be harvested and burned gaining energy and recycling
the metal from the ash.

20.6.2 Phytostabilisation

Phytostabilisation is the use of certain plant species to immobilize the

contaminants in the soil and groundwater through absorption and
accumulation in plant tissues, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation
within the root zone preventing their migration in soil, as well as their
movement by erosion and deflation.

20.6.3 Rhizofiltration

Rhizofiltration is the adsorption or precipitation onto plant roots or

absorption into and sequesterization in the roots of contaminants that are
in solution surrounding the root zone by constructed wetland for cleaning
up communal wastewater.

20.6.4 Phytovolatilization

Phytovolatilization is the uptake and transpiration of a contaminant by a

plant, with release of the contaminant or a modified form of the
contaminant to the atmosphere from the plant. Phytovolatilization occurs
as growing trees and other plants take up water along with the

12 | P a g e
contaminants. Some of these contaminants can pass through the plants to
the leaves and volatilize into the atmosphere at comparatively low
concentrations.

Plants also perform an important secondary role in physically stabilizing

the soil with their root system, preventing erosion, protecting the soil
surface, and reducing the impact of rain. At the same time, plant roots
release nutrients that sustain a rich microbial community in the
rhizosphere. Bacterial community composition in the rhizosphere is
affected by complex interactions between soil type, plant species, and root
zone location. Microbial populations are generally higher in the
rhizosphere than in the root-free soil. This is due to a symbiotic relationship
between soil microorganisms and plants. This symbiotic relationship can
enhance some bioremediation processes. Plant roots also may provide
surfaces for sorption or precipitation of metal contaminants.

In phytoremediation, the root zone is of special interest. The contaminants

can be absorbed by the root to be subsequently stored or metabolised by
the plant. Degradation of contaminants in the soil by plant enzymes
exuded from the roots is another phytoremediation mechanism.

For many contaminants, passive uptake via micropores in the root cell
walls may be a major route into the root, where degradation can take
place.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

13 | P a g e
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 21 Quality and Standards of Irrigation water

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
Learning Objective

 Understanding the criteria for evaluating irrigation water quality –

salinity hazard, sodicity hazard, RSC and Excessive concentrations of
elements that cause ionic imbalance

Glossary of terms

1. Deflocculation: Deflocculation is the process by which the solids that

are stuck together are dispersed either by electrolyte concentration,
raising the pH of the slurry, or adding thinners or dispersants to the
system. Through the dispersion process the particles are usually
broken down into finer ones. It is also defined as the act of reducing
the viscosity of a suspension by adding a thinning agent, also known
as a deflocculant.
2. Infiltration Rate: A measure of how fast water enters the soil,
typically expressed in inches per hour but recorded in minutes for
each inch of water applied to the soil surface.
3. Permeability Index: Permeability index (PI) was used to classify the
irrigation water quality and was calculated by the formula given by
Doneen. The concentration of all ions was taken in meq L−1:
Na2+ + √HCO−
3
Permeability Index (PI) = ( ) X 100
Ca2+ +Mg2+ +Na+

4. Salt index: Salt index is a numerical value expressed as a ratio in

which the selected fertilizer product is compared to the same weight
of sodium nitrate (NaNO3), where sodium nitrate is assigned a value
of 100.

2|Page
 5. Water Quality Index (WQI): It may be defined as a rating, reflecting
the composite influence of different water quality parameters on the
overall quality of water.

21.1 Introduction
The ever increasing human population, climate change due to increased
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and intensification of agriculture,
are putting severe pressure on the world’s two major non-renewable
resources of soil and water, and thus pose a big challenge to produce
sufficient food to meet the current food demand. The present world
population of 7.3 billion people is predicted to grow over 9 billion by 2050,
with the majority of this population increase occurring in developing
countries, most of which already face food shortages. A 70% increase in
current agricultural productivity will be required to produce sufficient food
if these human population growth predictions prove to be correct. In this
context, concerted efforts are being made globally to improve the
effectiveness of water which will be used for enhancing the production of
irrigated crops. The concentration and composition of soluble salts in
water will determine its quality for various purposes (human and livestock
drinking, irrigation of crops, etc.). The quality of water is, thus, an
important component with regard to sustainable use of water for irrigated
agriculture, especially when salinity development is expected to be a
problem in an irrigated agricultural area.

3|Page
 The suitability of irrigation water depends upon several factors, such
as, water quality, soil type, plant characteristics, irrigation method,
drainage, climate and the local conditions. The integrated effect of these
factors on the suitability of irrigation water (SI) can be expressed by the
relationship given below:
SI= ƒ(QSPCD)
where,
Q = quality of irrigation water, that is, total salt concentration, relative
proportion of cations, etc;
S = soil type, texture, structure, permeability, fertility, calcium carbonate
content, type of clay minerals and initial level of salinity and alkalinity
before irrigation;
P = salt tolerance characteristics of ‘the crop to be grown, its variety and
growth stage;
C = climate, that is, total rainfall, its distribution and evaporation
characteristics; and
D = drainage conditions, depth of water table, nature of soil profile,
presence of hard pan or lime concentration and management practices.
There is a number of different water quality guidelines associated with
irrigated agriculture. Separately each is valuable but none is completely
acceptable because of the wide variability in field conditions. The modified
guideline by Ayers and Westcot (1985) was found to be the most reliable
to predict the water quality for irrigation. The suitability criterion of water
for agriculture is determined not only by the total amount of salt present
but also by the type of salt. Many soil and crop related problems are

4|Page
incurred as the total salt content increases. Special management practices
may be required to maintain desirable crop yields. Water quality for use in
agriculture is judged on the potential severity of problems that can be
expected to be developed during long-term use. The process is slow and
gradual so one must be very careful about the quality of water being used
for domestic as well as for irrigation purpose. Evaluating the quality of
water for domestic purpose especially for potable use Water Quality Index
(WQI) based on chemical characteristics is found to be one of the most
effective tools. Water Quality Index (WQI) was formulated in many
countries based on their National standards. Horton (1965) proposed the
first WQI to be used as a tool for assessing the overall quality of water.
As per Gupta and Gupta (2003) the characteristics of irrigation water that
have been the most important in determining its quality, depends upon
climatic condition, irrigation practices, soil water retention characteristics,
crop tolerance, depth of water table and agronomic practices etc. are the
following :
i. Salinity hazard (Total concentration of soluble salts): Electrical
conductivity (EC)
ii. Specific ion toxicity hazard (Ionic composition)
a. Major constituents (Na, Mg , Cl , HCO3 , CO3 , Silica, NO3 )
b. Minor constituents (B, Li, F and other micro toxicants).
iii. Sodicity hazard (Relative proportion of Na to other cations, sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR), sodium to calcium activity Ratio (SCAR),
adjusted SAR/SCAR.

5|Page
iv. Alkalinity hazard (Bicarbonate concentration as related to the
concentration of (Ca + Mg) or calcium alone; residual sodium
carbonate (RSC) or residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC).
In addition to above individual parameters combined evaluation of two
parameters viz., 1) EC and SAR, 2) SAR and RSC is also of practical
importance.

21.2 Water quality criteria for irrigation

The following chemical properties shall be considered for determining
water quality criteria for irrigation:

21.2.1 Electrical Conductivity

Salinity is estimated in terms of electrical conductivity (EC) and is obtained
from the resistance recorded across a conductivity cell from the following
relationship.
EC=K/R.
Where K is the cell constant and R is the resistance expressed in deci-
-1
Siemens per meter (dSm ) according to SI units (from the system
International units). EC of the soil extracts at saturation (EC e) has been
widely recognized as an index to evaluate the plant growth. Ideally it would
be inferred that EC of irrigation water should be as low as possible, but the
water which is completely free of the soluble salts is never the best for
irrigation. The water having EC less than 0.2 dS/m have no fertility value
and are well known to create permeability problem in the soil. The
irrigation water should however have EC preferably less than 1.5 dS/m so

6|Page
that the irrigated soil does not ever become saline and there is full choice
to grow the crops (Table 1).

1. It can be stated that with an increase in EC of water Mg/Ca ratio

tends to increase. It was believed that if the proportion of Ca + Mg is
high, the sodicity hazard is low. If Na predominates the hazard is
high. One of the most important criteria in determining quality of
water for irrigation is the Mg content of the irrigation water. A
harmful effect on soil appears when the ratio Mg: Ca + Mg exceeds
0.5.
2. The occurrence of chloride ions in natural irrigation water increase
with an increase in EC and sodium ions. Therefore high salinity water
is dominated by these ions. Unlike the sodium ions, neither the
chloride ions have any effect on the physical properties the soil nor
they adsorbed by the soil.
3. Nitrate (NO3) is a highly water soluble molecule made up of nitrogen
and oxygen. It is formed when nitrogen for ammonia or other
sources combines with oxygen dissolved in water. Bureau of Indian
Standard has set the maximum permissible level of nitrate-nitrogen
in public drinking water at 20 mg /l or 20 ppm (parts per million) (BIS
2002) which is further revised in 2004 to maximum permissible level
of 45 ppm. Infants who are fed water or formula made with water
that is high in nitrate content can develop a condition called
methemoglobinemia.
Table 1 Salinity hazard due to total concentration of soluble salts or
electrical conductivity (dsm-1)
7|Page
 Water EC (dsm-1) Salt concentration Remarks

Low salinity 0 – 0.25 < 0.16 Can be used safely

Medium 0.25 – 0.75 0.16 – 0.50 Can be used with

salinity moderate leaching

Highly salinity 0.75- 2.25 0.50- 1.50

Very high 2.25 – 5.00 1.50 - 30 Cannot be use for

salinity irrigation purposes

12.2.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio

High concentration of sodium are undesirable in water because sodium
adsorbs on the Soil Carbon exchange sites, causing soil aggregates to break
down (deflocculation), sealing the pores of the soil and making it
impermeable to water flow. The tendency for sodium to increase its
proportion on the carbon exchange sites at the expense of other types of
cations is estimated by the ratio of sodium content of the content of
calcium plus magnesium in the irrigation water (Table 2).

Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - shall be calculated from the following

formula:
Na+
SAR =
(Ca2+ + Mg 2+ )/2
√

where,
SAR = sodium adsorption ratio
Na = sodium ion concentration, (me L-1)
Ca = calcium ion concentration, (me L-1)
Mg = magnesium ion concentration, (me L-1)

8|Page
NOTE- (me L-1) = milliequivalent/litre.
Most annual crops are not so sensitive, but may be affected by higher
concentration. Sodium sensitive crops included deciduous fruits, nuts,
citrus and beans. These plants suffer injury as a result of sodium
accumulation in the leaves.

Table 2 Water class according to SAR value

Water class SAR Remarks

Value

S1 Low sodium hazard 0 – 10 Little or no hazard

S2 Medium sodium 10 – 18 Appreciable hazard, but can be
hazard used with appropriate
management
S3 High sodium hazard 18 – 26 Unsatisfactory for most of the
S4 Very high sodium >26 crops
hazard

21.2.3 Residual Sodium Carbonate

The bicarbonate (HCO3) anion is an important in irrigation water as regards
calcium and to a lesser degree also of magnesium as their carbonate in the
soil. This brings about a change in the soluble sodium percentage (SSP) in
the irrigation water and therefore, an increase of the sodium hazard. The
RSC is used to evaluate the quality of irrigation water (Table 3) and is
expressed in mel-1.
RSC = (CO32- + HCO3-) - (Ca2++ Mg2+)
Where,
RSC = Residual Sodium Carbonate
CO32- = Carbonate ion concentration (me L-1)

9|Page
HCO3- = Bicarbonate ion concentration (me L-1)
Ca = Calcium ion concentration, (me L-1)
Mg = Magnesium ion concentration, (me L-1)
Table 3 Water class according to RSC values
Class RSC values Remarks
Low Below 1.5 Water can be used
safely
Medium 1.5-3.0 Water can be used
with certain
management
High 3.0-6.0 Unsuitable for
irrigation purposes
Very High Above 6.0

21.2.4 Salt index

It is also used for predicting sodium hazard. It is the relation between Na +,

Ca++ and CaCO3 present in irrigation water.

Salt index = (Total Na – 24.5) - [(Total Ca – Ca in CaCO3) x 4.85] being

reckoned as calcium.

The salt index is negative (-24.5 to 0) for irrigation water of high

quality and any positive value of the salt index is harmful for irrigation
purposes. The relative degree on both sides (negative & positive sides)
depends on the magnitude of the “Salt index” factor.

21.2.5 Boron Content

Boron is essential for the normal growth of the plant, but the amount
required is very small. The occurrence of boron in toxic concentration in
certain irrigation waters makes it necessary to consider this element in
10 | P a g e
assessing the water quality. Boron, though a nutrient, becomes toxic if
present in water beyond a particular level. The permissible limits of boron
in irrigation water are given below (Table 4).

Table 4 Permissible limits of Boron in irrigation water

Boron Concentration (ppm)
Boron Class Sensitive Semi Tolerant
Remarks
Crops tolerant Crops
Crops
Very low < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.00 Can be used
safely
Low 0.33 to 0.67 0.67 to 1.33 1.00 to 2.00 Can be used
with
management
Medium 0.67 to 1.00 1.33 to 2.00 2.00 to 3.00 Unsuitable for
High 1.00 to 1.25 2.00 to 2.50 3.00 to 3.75 irrigation
Very high >1.25 >2.50 > 3.75 purposes

21.2.6 Chloride Concentration

The chloride ion has no effect on the physical properties of a soil and is no
adsorbed on the soil complex and so it has generally not been included in
modern classification system. However, it can be used as a factor in some
regional water classification. Permissible limit of Cl in irrigation water is
listed in Table 5.

Cl- Concentration (mel -1 ) = Cl- + NO3-

CO32- + HCO3- + SO42- + Cl- + NO3-

Table 5 Permissible limits of Chloride in irrigation water

11 | P a g e
 Cl- Concentration (mel -1 ) Water quality

4–7 Excellent water

7 – 12 Moderately good water

12 – 20 Slightly usable

>20 Not suitable for irrigation

21.2.7 Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP)

Na ×100
SSP =
Ca+Mg+Na

All soluble cations are expressed in mel-1 irrigation water having SSP
value of 60 and above are considered as harmful.

21.2.8 Magnesium hazard

It is believed that the one of the important qualitative criteria in judging

the irrigation water is its magnesium content in relation to total divalent
cations, since high magnesium adsorption by soil affects their physical
properties. A harmful effect on soils appears when Ca: Mg ratio declines
below 50.

Mg2+
Mg Adsorption ratio = x 100
Ca2+ +Mg2+

Magnesium hazard in irrigation water is expected having Mg: Ca ratio more

than 1.

21.2.9 Nitrate Concentration

Very frequency groundwater contains high amount of nitrate. When such

type of irrigation water is applied on soils continuously various physical

12 | P a g e
properties will be affected very badly which causes poor growth of the
plants.

21.2.10 Lithium

Lithium is an important trace element which may be found in most of saline

groundwater and irrigated soils. It has been found that small concentration
(0.05 – 0.1 ppm) of Lithium in irrigation water produced toxic effects on
the growth of citrus crops.

21.2.11 Water Infiltration Rate

Infiltration is an indicator of the soil’s ability to allow water movement into
and through the soil profile. Soil temporarily stores water, making it
available for root uptake, plant growth and habitat for soil organisms. A
high infiltration rate is generally desirable for plant growth and for the
environment. In some cases, soils that have unrestricted water movement
through their profile can contribute to environmental concerns if
unscrupulous application of nutrients and chemicals reach groundwater
and surface water resources via subsurface flow.

Na2+ + √HCO−
3
Permeability Index (PI) = X 100
Ca2+ +Mg2+ +Na+

PI <60 per cent – good quality water and suitable for irrigation
PI >60 per cent – poor quality water and unsuitable for irrigation

21.3 Water Quality Index

Water Quality Index (WQI) is a single score derived by considering different
important parameters of water quality. It is an integration of the individual

13 | P a g e
effect of all the parameters in right proportion in deciding the quality of
water.
At first each parameter was assigned a weight (wi) according to its relative
importance in the overall quality of water for drinking purposes based on
per cent of samples within the permissible limit as per the standards.
Weights of 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 are assigned to the quality parameters when 0-20,
21-40, 41-60, 61-80 and 81-100 % of samples are within the permissible
limit respectively (Raychaudhuri et al. 2011). Secondly, the relative weight
(Wi) is computed from using the following equation:

Wi = wi⁄∑n wi
i=1

where, Wi is the relative weight, wi is the weight of each parameter and n

is the number of parameters.
Third step involves assignment of a quality rating scale (qi) for each
parameter by dividing its concentration in each water sample by its
respective standard according to the guidelines laid down in the BIS
followed by multiplication with 100:

qi = (Ci/Si) x 100
where, qi denotes the quality rating, Ci denotes the concentration of each
chemical parameter in each water sample in mg/L, and Si is the Indian
drinking water or irrigation water standard for each chemical parameter in
mg/L according to the guidelines of the BIS 10500, 1991 or FAO
respectively. For computing the WQI, the SI is first determined for each

14 | P a g e
chemical parameter, which is then used to determine the WQI as per the
following equation:
SIi = Wi.qi
WQI = ∑ni=1 SIi
SIi is the subindex of ith parameter; qi is the rating based on concentration
of ith parameter and n is the number of parameters. The computed WQI
values are then categorised into five classes, “excellent” “good”, “poor”,
“very poor” and “unsuitable” for drinking purpose and in four classes based
on “none”, “slight”, “moderate” and “severe” restrictions for irrigation use.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References
Ayers, R.S., and D.W. Westcot. (1985). Water Quality for Agriculture, FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 rev 1. FAO, UN, Rome 174pp.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) (2002). Tolerance Limits of Selected Water
Quality Parameters for Inland Surface Water Prescribed for Different
uses by Bureau of Indian Standards in India. Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.

BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). (1991). Drinking Water Specification

(First Revision), IS: 10500: 1991. Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.

BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). (2004). Drinking Water Specification

(First Revision), IS: 10500: 2004-05. Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
15 | P a g e
Gupta, I. C. and Gupta, S. K. (2003). Use of Saline water in Agriculture. A
study of Arid and Semiarid Zones of India. Revised third edition.
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. pp 297.
Horton, R.K. (1965). An index number system for rating water quality.
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 37 (3), 300–306.

Raychaudhuri, M., Raychaudhuri, S., Dhal, S, Kumar, A and Jena, S. K.

(2011). Groundwater quality along Daya river for irrigation use. In:
Workshop on Ground Water Development and Management
Prospect in Odisha (March 7th, 2011) (Eds D. P. Pati, P. K. Mahapatra,
D. N. Mandal, C. Mohanty and A. Chowdhury). Central Ground Water
Authority & Central Ground Water Board, SE Region, Ministry of
Water Resources, GOI. 111 – 121.
.

16 | P a g e
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 22 Use of saline water in agriculture

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

 Understand the tolerance of plants to salinity and conjunctive use of

saline and fresh waters for irrigation

Glossary of terms

1. Desalinization: The removal of salt or other chemicals from

something, such as seawater or soil. Desalinization can be achieved
by means of evaporation, freezing, reverse osmosis, ion exchange,
and electrodialysis.
2. Electrical conductivity (EC): Electrical Conductivity of water is its
ability to conduct an electric current.
3. Evapotranspiration (ET): The process by which water is transferred
from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and
other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.
4. Green manure: Green manure is a cover crop sown on an agricultural
plot in order to fertilize the soil for the following crop mainly through
the intake of nitrogen. This cover crop is sown between two sales
crops (usually between two highly demanding nitrogen crops) or in
combination with the previous crop.
5. Leaching requirement (Lr): Leaching requirement is the minimum
amount of irrigation water that must be drained through the crop
root zone to control the soil salinity at the given specific level.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

6. Permeability: Permeability refers to the movement of air and water

through the soil, influencing the supply of root-zone air, moisture,
and nutrients available for plant uptake.
7. Salinity: The term salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts
that are present in water. Sodium and chloride are the predominant
ions in seawater, and the concentrations of magnesium, calcium, and
sulphate ions are also substantial.

22.1 Introduction

Total volume of water available on earth is 1.4 X 109 Km3 and out of
which 97.7 % is saline. Slightly to moderate saline water can be used for
agricultural purposes; however, strong saline water can only be used for
irrigation and other purposes after their proper treatment/desalinization.
Now, we have technologies and plant machineries to desalinize the
brackish/ saline/ briny water for agriculture and human consumption.
Solar or nuclear energy based desalinization plants have been established
in various part of the globe.

22.2 Assessing the Suitability of Saline Water for Crop Production

The suitability of water for irrigation should be evaluated on the basis of

criteria indicative of its potential to create soil conditions hazardous to
crop growth and subsequently to animals or humans consuming those
crops. Relevant criteria for judging irrigation water quality in terms of
potential hazards to crop growth are primarily (Rhoades et al., 1992):

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

 Permeability and tilth

 Salinity
 Toxicity and nutritional imbalance

While discussing the global water security through use of saline

water in agriculture, we must not surpass the anthropogenic addition of
pollutants through either run-off from agricultural chemicals or poor
management practices. Carbonates and bi-carbonates of sodium and/or
potassium play an important role for poor irrigation water quality.

The total salt concentration and the proportion of sodium (Na) have
long been recognized as key parameters in characterizing saline/brackish
waters. The quantity of salts dissolved in water is usually expressed in
terms of electrical conductivity (EC), mg/L (ppm), or meq/L, the former
being most popular because of ease and precision in its measurement. The
cations Na+ Ca2+, and Mg2+ and the anions Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- and CO32- are the
major constituents of saline water. Plant growth is affected adversely with
saline irrigation, primarily through the impacts of excessive salts on
osmotic pressures of the soil solution, though the excessive concentration
and absorption of individual ions, for example, Na, Cl, and B, may prove
toxic to plants and/or retard the absorption of other essential plant
nutrients. The reduced water availability at high salinity thus causes water
deficits for plants, and plant growth becomes inhibited, under field
situations, the first reaction of plants for the use of saline water is

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

reduction in the germination, but the most conspicuous effect is the

growth retardation of crops.

22.3 Management of Saline water for use in agriculture

Management of saline water in agriculture includes an important

aspect of safe use of saline water for irrigation. . The management
practices for optimal crop production with saline/alkali water must aim at
preventing the build-up of salinity, sodicity, and toxic ions in the root zone
to levels that limit the productivity of soils, control the salt balances in the
soil–water system, as well as minimize the damaging effects of salinity on
crop growth. For sustainable agricultural production, a salinity balance has
to be maintained at the irrigation and basin levels. Conjunctive use, water
table management, rainwater conservation, and chemical amelioration of
alkali waters are some of the important practices to achieve these
objectives. The success of applying salt-rich irrigation water can only be
achieved if factors such as rainfall, climate, and water table and water
quality characteristics on soils and crops are integrated with appropriate
crop and irrigation management practices. The available management
options mainly include irrigation, crop, chemical, and other cultural
practices, but there seems to be no single management measure to control
salinity and sodicity of irrigated soils. Nevertheless, the crop production
with saline/alkaline water is generally more costly per unit area of land,
whereas crop yields are very low.

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Saline/briny water can be classified on the basis of electrical

conductivity, sodium adsorption ratio (Na+/[(Ca++ + Mg++)/2]1/2) and
residual sodium carbonate [(CO3-- +HCO3--)-(Ca++ + Mg++)]. As per United
State Salinity Laboratory, water containing less than 0.25 dSm-1 electrical
conductivity can be used any type of soils. However, water having 0.25-
0.75, 0.75-2.25 and 2.25-5.0 dSm-1 electrical conductivity can be used by
providing small, good and very good drainage facilities in respective soils.
If salinity level in irrigation water is > 5.0 dSm-1 than only salt tolerant crops
can be grown with good drainage facility. As far use of water for irrigation
of crop on the basis of sodium adsorption ratio is concerned, water having
0-10 SAR can be used in any kind of soils and crops. Water having SAR
values 10-18, 18-26 and >26 can be used with moderate, good and very
good drainage facility (combined with gypsum) respectively. Water having
more than 10.00 mel-1 RSC can safely be used in soil receiving more than
700 mm annual rainfall, but if rainfall is lesser then we should not use the
water having >7.5 mel-1 RSC. To prevent the excessive accumulation of salt
in the root zone from irrigation, extra water (or rainfall) must be applied in
excess of that needed for evapotranspiration (ET) and must pass through
the root zone in a minimum net amount; over the long term. This amount
may be referred to as the "leaching requirement" (Lr, the fraction of
infiltrated water that must pass through the root zone to keep salinity
within acceptable levels; US Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954).

Saline water can also be used for irrigation purposes, but the
methods of treatment depend on extent of salinity in water (Table 1).

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

Table 1 Classification of irrigation water based on its electrical

conductivity (USSLS, 1954)
EC (µ mhos/cm) Use in Agriculture

<250 Safe to use in agriculture for irrigation.

250-750 Can be used with some leaching facility

750-2250 Can be used with good drainage facility

2250-5000 Salt tolerant crops can be grown with good

drainage facility
>5000 Salt tolerant crops can be grown with good
drainage facility

Conclusively, it can be stated that, saline water can also be used for
irrigation purposes. But, irrigation water having high EC, SAR and RSC
values can be used for agricultural purposes only after proper treatment.

22.3.1 Leaching Requirement

Leaching requirement is the minimum amount of irrigation water that

must be drained through the crop root zone to control the soil salinity at
the given specific level. The concept of leaching requirement is mainly of
practical importance for the situations of no or very low rains, while it is
invalid for irrigation with waters having residual alkalinity.

Leaching requirement (LR) can be calculated by following formula:

LR = Ci/Cd = Dd/Di

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

where, Ci =Salt concentration in irrigation water

Cd =Salt concentration in drainage water

Di =Depth of irrigation water

Dd =Depth of drainage water

However, depth of irrigation water (Di) based on electrical conductivity can

be calculated by following formula:

Di = [ECd/(ECd - ECi)]Dc

Where, ECd = EC of drainage water

ECi = EC of irrigation water

Di = Depth of irrigation water, and

Dc = Equivalent depth of water representing consumptive use

22.3.2 Irrigation Water Management

Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water
and then using for irrigation reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow
irrigation favours growth of plant than flooding. Drip, sprinkler and pitcher
irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood
irrigation method since relatively lesser amount of water is used under
these improved methods. Irrigation in saline soils should be more frequent
because it reduces the cumulative water deficits (both matric and osmotic)
between the irrigation cycles.

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

22.3.3 Fertilizer/Organic manure Management

Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25% of recommended

level will compensate the low availability of N in these soils. Addition of
organic manures like, FYM, compost, etc. helps in reducing the ill effect of
salinity due to release of organic acids produced during decomposition.
Green manuring (Sunhemp, Daincha, Kolingi) and or green leaf manuring
also counteracts the effects of salinity.

22.3.4 Soil / Cultural Management

Planting the seed in the centre of the raised bed / ridge may affect the
germination as it is the spot of maximum salt accumulation. A better
salinity control can be achieved by using sloping beds with seeds planted
on the sloping side just above the water line. Alternate furrow irrigation is
advantageous as the salts can be displaced beyond the single seed row.
Application of straw mulch had been found to curtail the evaporation from
soil surface resulting in the reduced salt concentration in the root zone
profile within 30 days.

22.3.5 Use of Amendments

Chemical amendments such as gypsum, when added to water will increase

the calcium concentration in the water, thus reducing the sodium to
calcium ratio and the SAR, thus improving the infiltration rate. The adverse
effects of high Na on physical and chemical properties of soils can be
mitigated by the use of amendments which contain Ca (e.g., gypsum).

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

Acids or acid-forming substances such as sulphuric acid or pyrites, which

on reaction with soil CaCO3 release Ca2+ in solution, can also be used.
Whether or not to use amendments for saline–sodic conditions should be
judged from their effectiveness in improving soil properties and crop
growth in relation to the cost involved.

22.3.6 Crop Choice / Crop Management

The intergenic differences in crop tolerance can be exploited to select

crops those produce satisfactory yield under the given levels of root zone
salinity and sodicity. The general recommendations are that, for successful
utilisation of saline waters, semi-tolerant to tolerant crops (mustards,
wheat, cotton) and those with low water requirement should be grown
whereas crops like rice, sugarcane and berseem requiring excess amount
of water should be avoided. In low rainfall areas (< 400 mm), mono
cropping is recommended. Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity
level (Gupta and Gupta, 2003).

22.4 Guidelines for using saline water

The suitability of specific water for irrigation purposes, it is necessary
to know not only its composition, but also the exact conditions of its
proposed use (soil, climate, crops, etc.), the method of irrigation, and other
management practices followed. Because of inherent problems in
integrating the effects of all these factors, it is difficult to develop rigid
standards universally. Therefore, broad guidelines for assessing the
suitability of irrigation water have been suggested from time to time for

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

average use conditions. Based upon the field experiences and the results
of long-term experimentation, consultants recommended guidelines and
the results for utilizing poor-quality water and their wider applicability in
different agro-ecological zones in India (Table 2). Some of the points added
to these guidelines are as follows:
 Use of gypsum for saline water
 Additional phosphorus application
 Use of canal water at early growth stages, including pre-sowing
irrigation, in conjunction with saline water
 Using 20% extra seed and irrigating soon after sowing (within 2-3
days) to improve germination
 Irrigation with saline water just before the onset of the monsoon will
lower the soil salinity and raise the soil moisture, resulting in greater
salt removal by the rains
 Use of organic materials in a saline environment to improve crop
yields
 For soils having either a shallow water table (within 1.5 m for a crop
sown just before the monsoon) or hard subsoil layers, canal type
irrigation is applicable
Table 2 Guidelines for using saline irrigation waters in India (USSLS, 1954)
Soil Texture (% Clay) Crop ECiw (dS m-1) limit for rainfall
Tolerance region
<350 350-550 >550
Sensitive 1.0 1.0 1.5
Fine (> 30)
Semi-tolerant 1.5 2.0 3.0

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

Tolerant 2.0 3.0 4.5

Sensitive 1.5 2.0 2.5
Moderately Fine
Semi-tolerant 2.0 3.0 4.5
(20-30)
Tolerant 4.0 6.0 8.0
Sensitive 2.0 2.5 3.0
Moderately Coarse
Semi-tolerant 4.0 6.0 8.0
(10-20)
Tolerant 6.0 8.0 10.0
Sensitive - 3.0 3.0
Moderately Coarse
Semi-tolerant 6.0 7.5 9.0
(<10)
Tolerant 8.0 10.0 12.5

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References
Gupta, I. C. and Gupta, S. K. (2003). Use of Saline water in Agriculture. A
study of Arid and Semiarid Zones of India. Revised third edition.
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. pp 297.
Rhoades, J.D., Kandiah, A and Mashali, A.M. (1992). The use of saline
waters for crop production. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 48. pp
145
US Salinity Laboratory Staff. (1954). In: Diagnosis and Improvement of
Saline and Alkali Soil. L.A. Richards (ed.). US Dept. Agric. Handbook No. 60.

12
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Utilization of Remote Sensing and GIS for diagnosis
Lesson 23 and management of problem soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective

 Understand the potential of RS-GIS based diagnostic tools in change

detection, cropped areas, floods, drought monitoring and land use
change

Glossary of terms

1. Remote Sensing: Remote sensing is the acquisition of information

about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact
with the object and thus is in contrast to on-site observation.
2. Active sensors: Provide their own source of energy to illuminate the
objects they observe. An active sensor emits radiation in the
direction of the target to be investigated. The sensor then detects
and measures the radiation that is reflected or back scattered from
the target.
3. Passive sensors: They detect natural energy (radiation) that is
emitted or reflected by the object or scene being observed. Reflected
sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by
passive sensors.
4. Geographical Information System (GIS): A geographic information
system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking,
and displaying data related to positions on Earth's surface. GIS can
show many different kinds of data on one map, such as streets,
buildings, and vegetation.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

5. Global Positioning System (GPS): The Global Positioning

System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based
radionavigation system owned by the United States government and
operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that
provides geolocation and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.

23.1 Introduction

Agriculture plays a vital role in every nation economy. It represents a

substantial trading industry for an economically strong country.
Production of food in a cost-effective manner is the essential goal of
every farmer, large-scale farm manager, and regional agricultural agency.
Remote sensing and Geographic information system used to analyze and
visualize agricultural environments has proved to be very beneficial to
farming community as well as industry. It plays great role in agriculture
throughout the world by helping farmers in increasing production,
reducing costs, and managing their land more efficiently. Geographic
information systems (GIS) has been widely applied and been recognized
as effective and powerful tool in detecting land cover and land use
change. Using remote sensing and GIS are important to understand the
health of crop, extent of infestation, potential yield and soil conditions.
It applied to explore agricultural applications such as crop identification,

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

area estimation, crop condition assessment, soil moisture estimation,

yield estimation, agriculture water management, agro meteorological
etc.
Applications of remote sensing in agriculture includes important
aspects such as; biomass and yield estimation, vegetation vigor and
drought stress monitoring, assessment of crop phenological
development, crop acreage estimation and cropland mapping, mapping
of disturbances and land use land cover changes in addition to precision
agriculture and irrigation management. GIS based mapping application
can help to identify location of crops growing across the country and to
adapt different variables, monitor the health of individual crops,
estimate yields from a given field, and maximize crop production. By
using land-use and primary food crop statistics, along with data collected
by different tools including mobile devices able to identify areas in need
and underlying causes of food insecurity, GIS is an instrumental in the
efforts to end global hunger and it is an integral part of automated field
operations.
Using data collected from remote sensors, and from sensors
mounted directly on farm machinery, farmers have improved decision-
making capabilities for planning their cultivation to maximize yields.
Previous crop yields, terrain specifics, organic matter content, pH,
moisture, and nutrient levels of the soil all aid in proper preparation for
precise farming. Combine harvesters equipped with GPS tracking units
can measure crop yields along with crop quality values like plant water

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

content and chlorophyll levels in real time and at the exact location in
the field from which they are harvested. Rapidly emerging remote
sensing and geospatial technology can play vital role for crop growth
monitoring, identification and management of different types of
stresses, regional yield estimations, to sustain the natural resources and
agricultural productivity.

Further, the timely information on the extent and geographic

distribution of degraded lands viz., areas under soil erosion and shifting
cultivation, salt affected soils, waterlogged areas, ravines, etc. forms an
essential input for planning reclamation/conservation programmes of
these lands. Moreover, these lands are to be monitored at regular
intervals of time to know the impact of the implemented
reclamation/conservation measures.

23.2 Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about the Earth’s

surface by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation without coming
into direct contact with the object. In much of remote sensing, the
process involves an interaction between incident radiation and the
targets of interest (Figure 1). The most useful electromagnetic radiation
in remote sensing includes visible light (VIS), near infra red (NIR) and
shortwave infrared (SWIR), to thermal infrared (TIR) and microwave
bands. Passive remote sensing sensors record incident radiation reflected
or emitted from the objects while active sensors emit their own radiation,

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

which interacts with the target to be investigated and returns to the

measuring instrument (Atzberger, 2013).

Figure 1 Processes involved in Remote Sensing

23.2.1 Stages in Remote Sensing

 Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR (sun/self- emission)

 Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth,
as well as absorption and scattering
 Interaction of EMR with the earth’s surface: reflection and emission
 Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor
 Sensor data output
 Data Transmission and processing

23.2.2 Types of Remote Sensing

There are two types of remote sensing technology, active and

passive remote sensing.

Active sensors emit energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon
a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or
backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is
measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object.
Passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object
or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of
radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote
sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices,
and radiometers.

23.2.3 Components of Remote Sensing

These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process from
beginning to end as shown in the figure.

Figure 2 Components of Remote Sensing

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) – the first requirement for remote
sensing is to have an energy source which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – as the energy travels from its
source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a

second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to
the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target
depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor
(remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record the
electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded
by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a
receiving and processing station where the data are processed into
an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted,
visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information
about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is
achieved when we apply the information we have been able to
extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a
particular problem.

23.3 Remote Sensing Technology and GIS in India

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

Among the new technologies developed for the study of natural

resources the space borne remote sensing technology in association with
computer technology proved to be the most valuable one to study the
various aspects of environmental degradation. The systematic efforts in
the application of remote sensing technology in the study of natural
resources has resulted in the development of well established
methodologies for mapping and monitoring of various degraded lands in
a cost effective manner.

In India, initially aerial photographs were used in deriving

information on degraded lands. The application of remotely sensed data
in mapping degraded lands from space borne sensors started with the
launch of the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite ERTS-l/Landsat-1.
However, the satellites Landsat-TM, SPOT and Indian Remote Sensing
Satellites (IRS) with better spatial and spectral resolution, enabled to map
and monitor degraded lands more efficiently. Many studies are reported
in literature on the use of Landsat-MSS, TM, IRS and SPOT data for
inventory of degraded lands. Studies are carried out on mapping eroded
lands, ravines, watershed prioritisation, salt affected soils and shifting
cultivation (Wójtowicz et. al., 2016).

23.4 Geographical Information System (GIS)

The advancements in the field of computer technology, image processing,

global position system, and mathematical morphology have resulted in
the development of Geographical Information System (GIS) technology

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

for storage, retrieval, management of spatial data (e.g. maps derived

from remotely sensed data etc.), attribute data (eg. Soil properties,
climatic parameters etc) and other related ancillary information are
efficiently. GIS proved to be an effective tool in handling spatial data
available at different scales, voluminous point data such as soil
information, rainfall, temperature etc. and socioeconomic data and to
perform integrated analysis of data on various resources of any region
and to arrive at optimum solutions for various problems. In India, GIS is
being used in various fields such as for optimum land use planning,
planning for sustainable development of land resources, assessment of
crop water requirements, development of wastelands etc.

The efforts are going on to use GIS in crop yield modelling,

developing measures for reclamation / management of Salt-affected
soils, quantification of soil loss to suggest suitable conservation
processes, evaluation of soils for various purposes like horticulture,
agroforestry, silvipasture, and aquaculture development.

23.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Remote Sensing

Advantages of remote sensing are:

 Provides data of large areas

 Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions
 Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time
through which the any anthropogenic or natural changes in the
landscape can be analyzed

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

 Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of

surveyors
 Easy and rapid collection of data
 Rapid production of maps for interpretation
Disadvantages of remote sensing are:

 The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level

 Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data
 Data from multiple sources may create confusion
 Objects can be misclassified or confused
 Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of
sensor and source

23.6 Remote Sensing in Agriculture

A recent report by the FAO projects that an increase in world population

to 9.15 billion by 2050, which may need the current food production to
increase by 60%. Many efforts are underway to increase overall
production to feed the burgeoning population by increasing efficiency in
production such as high intensity agriculture, efficient water use, and
high yield varieties. Agricultural production follows strong seasonal
patterns related to the biological lifecycle of crops. The production also
depends on the physical landscape (e.g., soil type), as well as climatic
driving variables and agricultural management practices. All these
variables are highly variable in space and time. Moreover, as productivity

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

can change within short time periods, due to unfavourable growing

conditions, agricultural monitoring systems need to be real time for
higher productivity. Therefore, use of remote sensing is indispensable in
monitoring of agricultural field, crop & soil health, water management
and its quality, and atmospheric conditions with emphasis to yield.

During the last two decades, remote sensing techniques are applied to
explore agricultural applications such as crop discrimination, crop acreage
estimation, crop condition assessment, soil moisture estimation, yield
estimation, precision agriculture, soil survey, agriculture water
management, agro meteorological and agro advisories. The application of
remote sensing in agriculture, i.e. in crops and soils is extremely complex
because of highly dynamic and inherent complexity of biological materials
and soils. As mentioned, there are many applications of remote sensing in
the agricultural sector. Below is a summary of these applications (Sinha et
al., 2018)

23.6.1 Crop Production Forecasting: Remote sensing is used to forecast

the expected crop production and yield over a given area and determine
how much of the crop will be harvested under specific conditions.
Researchers can be able to predict the quantity of crop in a given
farmland over a given period.

23.6.2 Assessment of Crop Damage and Crop Progress: In the event of

crop damage or crop progress, remote sensing technology can be used to

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

penetrate the farmland and determine exactly how much of a given crop
has been damaged and the progress of the remaining crop in the farm.

Crop
Production
Forecasting Assessmen
Water t of Crop
Resources Damage
Mapping and Crop
Progress

Crop
Monitoring
Identificatio
of Droughts
n

Agriculture

Crop
Soil
Acreage
Mapping
Estimation

Crop Yield
Soil
Modelling
Moisture
Identificatio and
Estimation
Estimation
n of Pests
and
Disease
Infestation

Figure 3 Use of Remote Sensing in Agriculture

23.6.3 Crop Identification: Remote sensing has played an important role

in crop identification especially in cases where the crop under
observation shows some mysterious characteristics. The crop data
collected will be taken to labs where various aspects of crop including the
crop culture are studied.

23.6.4 Crop Acreage Estimation: Remote sensing has also played a very
important role in the estimation of the farmland on which a crop has

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

been planted. This is usually a cumbersome procedure if it is carried out

manually because of the vast sizes of the lands being estimated.

23.6.5 Crop Yield Modelling and Estimation: Remote sensing also allows
farmers and experts to predict the expected crop yield from a given
farmland by estimating the quality of the crop and the extent of the
farmland. This is then used to determine the overall expected yield of the
crop.

23.6.6 Identification of Pests and Disease Infestation: Remote sensing

technology plays a significant role in identification of pests in farmland
and gives data on the right pests control mechanism to get rid of the
pests and diseases on the farm.

23.6.7 Soil Moisture Estimation: Soil moisture can be difficult to measure

without the help of remote sensing technology. Remote sensing gives the
soil moisture data and helps in determining the quantity of moisture in
the soil and hence the type of crop that can be grown in the soil.

23.6.8 Soil Mapping: Soil mapping is one of the most common yet most
important uses of remote sensing. Through soil mapping, farmers are
able to tell which soils are suitable for which crops and which soil require
irrigation and which ones do not. This information helps in precision
agriculture.

23.6.9 Monitoring of Droughts: Remote sensing technology is used to

monitor the weather pattern of a given area. The technology also
monitors drought patterns of the area too. The information can be used

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

to predict the rainfall patterns of an area and also tell the time difference
between the current rainfall and the next rainfall which helps to keep
track of the drought.

23.6.10 Water Resources Mapping: Remote sensing is instrumental in the

mapping of water resources that can be used for agriculture over a given
farmland. Through remote sensing, farmers can tell where water
resources are available for use over a given land and whether the
resources are adequate.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content
References

https://grindgis.com/remote-sensing/

Atzberger, C. (2013). Advances in remote sensing of agriculture: Context

description, existing operational monitoring systems and major
information needs. Remote Sensing, 5(2), 949-981.

Sinha, N.K., Mohanty, M., Somasundaram, J., Shinogi, K.C., Hati, K.M. and
Chaudhary, R.S. (2018). Application of Remote Sensing in
Agriculture, Harit Dhara, 1(1), July – December, 15-16.

Wójtowicz, M., Wójtowicz, A., and Piekarczyk, J. (2016). Application of

remote sensing methods in agriculture. Communications in Bio

15
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 24 Role of trees in bio-remediation of problem soils

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI

University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objective
 Develop understanding about phytoremediation and use of
multipurpose tree species

Glossary of terms
1. Agroforestry: Agroforestry is the collective name for all land use
systems in which woody perennials are deliberately grown with
agricultural crops and/or animals either in some form of spatial or
temporal sequence.
2. Allelopathy: The chemical inhibition of one plant (or other organism)
by another, due to the release into the environment of substances
acting as germination or growth inhibitors.
3. Bio-remediation: Bio-remediation means to use biological organisms
to solve an environmental problem such as contaminated soil or
groundwater.
4. Multipurpose trees: Multipurpose trees are trees that are
deliberately grown and managed for more than one output.
5. Phytoremediation: It is defined as the use of green plants and the
associated microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and
agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic
environmental contaminants harmless.
6. Reclamation: Land reclamation is the process of improving land to
make it more suitable for intensive use.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

7. Shelterbelts: A shelterbelt is defined as a barrier of trees and shrubs

that provides protection from wind and storm and decreases
erosion.
8. Windbreaks: A windbreak is a planting usually made up of one or
more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide
shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion.

24.1 Introduction

"Remediate" means to solve a problem and "Bio-remediation" means to

use biological organisms to solve an environmental problem such as
contaminated soil or groundwater. Agroforestry is the collective name for
all land use systems in which woody perennials are deliberately grown with
agriculture crops and/or animals either in some form of spatial or temporal
sequence. In agroforestry system there must be ecological and economic
interaction between the components. Agroforestry systems have the
potential to make use of marginal and degraded lands through the soil
improving effects of trees (Lundgren and Raintree, 1982). Problematic soils
are those soils which are not suitable for arable farming because of specific
limitations.

24.2 Multipurpose Trees

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

Multipurpose trees are trees that are deliberately grown and

managed for more than one output. They may supply food in the form
of fruit, nuts, or leaves that can be used as a vegetable; while at the same
time supplying firewood, add nitrogen to the soil, or supply some other
combination of multiple outputs. "Multipurpose tree" is a term common
to agro-forestry, particularly when speaking of tropical agro-forestry
where the tree owner is a subsistence farmer.

24.2.1 Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways:

A single tree can yield more than one product: For example, farmers in
South India grow Glyricidia sepium as live fence that provide fuel, fodder,
and green manure for agricultural crops-all at the same time.
Trees of same species, when managed differently, can yield different
product: for example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some
trees will principally yield wood while others principally produce leaf meal.
Multipurpose trees can also be defined as all woody perennials that
are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution
to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system. They are
so classified according to the attributes of the plant species as well as to
the plant's functional role in the agroforestry technology under
consideration (Burley and von Carlowitz, 1984). Any woody perennial
species can be 'multipurpose' in one situation and 'single purpose' in
another.
While all trees can be said to serve several purposes, such as
providing habitat, shade, or soil improvement; multipurpose trees have a

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

greater impact on a farmer’s well being because they fulfill more than one
basic human need. In most cases multipurpose trees have a primary role;
such as being part of a living fence, or a windbreak, or used in an ally
cropping system. In addition to this they will have one or more secondary
roles, most often supplying a family with food or firewood, or both.
When a multipurpose tree is planted, a number of needs and
functions can be fulfilled at once. They may be used as a windbreak, while
also supplying a staple food for the owner. They may be used as fencepost
in a living fence, while also being the main source of firewood for the
owner. They may be intercropped into existing fields, to supply nitrogen to
the soil, and at the same time serve as a source of both food and firewood.

24.2.2 Common multipurpose trees include:

 Gliricidia sepium – the most common tree used for living fences,
firewood, fodder, fixing nitrogen into the soil.
 Moringa (Moringa oleifera) – edible leaves, pods and beans, commonly
used for animal forage and shade (it does not fix nitrogen as is
commonly believed)
 Coconut palm – used for food, purified water (juice from inside the
coconut), roof thatching, firewood, shade.
 Neem – limited use as insect repellent, antibiotic, adding nitrogen to
the soil, windbreaks, biomass production for use as mulch, firewood.

Ideally most trees found on tropical farms should be multipurpose,

and provide more to the farmer than simply shade and firewood. In most

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

cases they should be nitrogen fixing legumes, or trees that greatly increase
the farmer's food security.

24.3 Role of Multipurpose trees

Agro-forestry can be applied at different scales in a landscape. The smallest

scale is the individual farm, where trees might be grown around the
homestead or as boundary markers. At the macro scale, agro-forestry
practices may be applied to whole watersheds or to large expanses of open
cereal farms, where the trees may be used to control water or wind
erosion, as contour barriers or shelterbelts.

24.3.1 Forestry Applications

 Protection forestry,
 Land reclamation and rehabilitation
 Management of natural vegetation
 Industrial plantations
 Community woodlots
 Farm woodlots

24.3.2 Windbreaks and shelterbelts Trees

Species grown for this purpose should:

 tolerate harsh environments;
 have a bushy, deep crown that still allows some wind penetration;
 keep lower limbs for a long time;
 have strong roots;

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

 grow quickly;
 live long
 tolerate pests and diseases; and
 should not have roots that compete excessively with nearby crops
for water and nutrients.
Some species often used for windbreaks and shelterbelts are: Casuarina
equisetifolia and Erythrina peoppigiana.

24.3.3 Shade and nurse trees

Species grown for this purpose should:

 have fast early growth;
 establish easily, preferably by cuttings;
 be evergreen;
 live long;
 tolerate soil compaction by animals walking and sitting beneath
them, as happens on pasture land;
 coppice well and withstand some lopping;
 fix nitrogen in the soil to enhance soil fertility;
 have a dense, suppressing crown, if used to shade grazing animals;
 have a light crown, if used as nurse trees for other crops; and
 should not compete with crops for soil nutrients if used as nurse
trees.

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

Some species often used as shade or nurse trees are: Erythrina

poeppigiana, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, and Sesbania
grandiflora.

24.3.4 Soil protection and rehabilitation

The properties which are likely to make a woody perennial suitable
for soil fertility maintenance or improvement are:
 Should reproduce vigorously, for example, from root suckers, or
through abundant natural seed fall and seedling development.
 A dense network of fine roots, with a capacity for abundant
mycorrhizal association.
 A vigorous root system to bind the soil and a strong taproot
especially in the areas prone to landslides.
 Should associate well with nitrogen-fixing organisms and have high
rate of nitrogen fixation.
 A high and balanced nutrient content in the foliage; litter of high
quality (high in nitrogen, low in lignin and polyphenols).
 An appreciable nutrient content in the root system.
 Either rapid litter decay where nutrient release is desired or a
moderate rate of litter decay, where maintenance of a soil cover is
required.
 Absence of toxic substances in the litter or root residues.
 Capacity to grow on poor soils.

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

 Absence of severe competitive effects with crops, particularly for

water.
 Low invasiveness.
 Productive functions or service functions other than soil
improvement.
Some species often used for soil protection and rehabilitation are: Acacia
auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia and Prosopis juliflora.

24.4 Soil Management through agroforestry

Approaches to soil management, including problems of soil

degradation and low soil fertility, have recently undergone major changes.
The former view was to concentrate on achieving high levels of production
from the more fertile areas, leaving the marginal lands for extensive use
only. Steeply sloping and highly drought-prone areas were preferably not
to be cultivated at all. Soil constraints were to be overcome by inputs:
improved crop varieties, fertilizers, chemical control of pests and diseases,
and the use of irrigation. It had been demonstrated that crop yields could
be raised by a factor of three to five times or more by the use of fertilizers,
applied to the newly developed high-yielding crop varieties. This approach
was successful in giving large increases in crop productivity in Western
countries and Asia and moderate improvements elsewhere, but it
encountered problems of many kinds. Fertilizers are costly in terms of
energy resources to produce them, and continued high rates of use lead to
environmental problems. Yield responses to fertilizers have declined, for

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

example because of soil physical degradation or micronutrient

deficiencies. Above all, large numbers of poor farmers simply cannot afford
high levels of fertilizers and other purchased inputs, nor do they have the
capital to take on the risk which these involve. Finally, the former solution
of increasing the area under irrigation has run into severe constraints in
the form of limits to available freshwater resources. Aspects of this new
approach include:
 find ways of making the use of marginal lands sustainable; reclaim
and restore degraded land;
 improve germplasm to produce plant varieties which are adapted to
soil constraints;
 maintain soil organic matter and biological activity, with benefits
both for soil physical conditions and balanced nutrient supplies;
 improve nutrient cycling and nutrient use efficiency in agro
ecosystems;
 use fertilizers and other external inputs at moderate levels, seeking
strategic use to overcome deficiencies that cannot otherwise be
remedied;
 Improve water-use efficiency.
Agroforestry can contribute to all these aspects and has a major role to
play in some. The capacity of trees to grow under difficult climatic and soil
conditions, coupled with their potential for soil conservation, gives
agroforestry a potential in the main types of marginal lands: semiarid,
sloping and those with soil constraints. There is a demonstrated potential

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

for reclamation of degraded land. As well as crop breeding, research

programmers’ are under way to select or, in the longer term, breed trees
tolerant of adverse soil conditions.

Tree litter and pruning’s can substantially help to maintain soil organic
matter and improve physical properties and at the same time supply
nutrients. The contrast between natural and agricultural ecosystems
suggests a high potential for agroforestry to lead to improved nutrient
cycling and hence fertilizer use efficiency. In the case of water-use
efficiency, there is a known potential, as demonstrated in studies of
windbreaks and contour hedgerow, although tree-crop competition for
water presents problems.

24.4.1 How Do We Know That Trees Improve Soils?

Underlying all aspects of the role of agroforestry in maintenance of soil

fertility is the fundamental proposition that trees improve soils. How we
know that this is true?
1. The soil that develops under natural forest and woodland is fertile. It
is well structured, has a good water-holding capacity and has a store
of nutrients bound up in the organic matter. Farmers know they will
get a good crop by planting on cleared natural forest.
2. The cycles of carbon and nutrients under natural forest ecosystems
are relatively closed, with much recycling and low inputs and
outputs.

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

3. The practice of shifting cultivation demonstrated the power of trees

to restore fertility lost during cropping.
4. Experience of reclamation forestry has demonstrated the power of
trees to build up fertility on degraded land.

24.4.2 What Makes a Good Soil-Improving Tree?

It would be useful to have guidelines on which properties of a tree or shrub

species make it desirable for the point of view of soil fertility. This would
help in identifying naturally occurring species and selecting trees for
systems which have soil improvement as a specific objective.
Nitrogen fixation and a high biomass production have been widely
recognized as desirable. However, many properties are specific to
particular objectives of systems in which the trees are used. Even species
that are shunned for their competitive effects may have a role in certain
designs. An example is the way in which Eucalyptus species with a high
water uptake, which adversely affects yields in adjacent crops, have been
employed to lower the water table and so reduce salinization.

24.4.3 Bioremediation of soils with physical problems through

agroforestry

 Tree species: Eucalyptus robusta, Syzygium cumuni, Terminalia

arjuna, Salix tetrasperma, Dalbergia latifolia, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Eucalyptus grandis
 Grasses: Brachiaria mutica, Dichanthium caricosum,Paspalum
notatum, Brachiaria decumbens.

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

24.4.4 Mechanism for reclamation of saline soils

Halophytes are the native flora of saline soils. Few are suitable for
reclamation. The basic principle of reclamation is the removal of excess salt
to a desired level in root zone. Providing proper drainage, use of salt free
irrigation water, acidic fertilizers, organic manures etc. are some of the
mechanisms adopted. The process of salinization is accelerated by rapid
evaporation from the surface. Leaching with water of good quality and
adequate drainage of excess water from the soil is carried out. The
selection of salt tolerant species is done which include suitable tree species
such as Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix articulate, Acacia nilotica etc.
Agricultural crops include barley, sugarbeet, cotton wheat, rice beans etc.
 The removal of excess salts to a desired level in root zone.
 Leaching and adequate drainage.
 Mulching to reduce salinity.
 Organic matter addition keeps the salts in diluted form and increases
water holding capacity of soil.
 Green manuring, tree planting.

24.4.4.1 Bioremediation of saline through Agroforestry

Promising woody species for saline soils are Salvadora spp., Prosopis
juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Parkinsonia aculeata, Butea monosperma,
Terminalia arjuna, Salix spp., D. sissoo and Casurina equisetifolia.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

Highly salt tolerant and high biomass producing grass species include
Aeluropus lagopoides, Sporobolus helvolus, Cynodon dactylon and
Brachiaria ramosa.

24.4.5 Mechanism for reclamation of alkali soils

The reclamation practice include proper drainage of water to remove salts

from the root zone use of salt free irrigation water, addition of organic
matter, addition of molasses, alkali tolerant crops such as paddy, cotton,
mustard, wheat, tomato, onion etc. Green manuring of Dhaincha has been
found to be beneficial. Higher dose of N should be made as there is N loss
because of volatilization. Application of zinc should be done in initial years
of reclamation.

24.4.5.1 Bioremediation of alkali soils through Agroforestry

Prosopis juliflora and Karnal grass improves the soil condition to such an
extent that after some time or years, less tolerant but more palatable
fodder species such as-
Berseem (Trifolium alexandricum) senji (Melilotus parviflora) and shaftal
(Trifolium resupinatum) can be grown under trees (Singh et al., 1993).

24.4.6 Mechanism for reclamation of saline-sodic soils

Such soils have the mixture of characteristics of both saline and alkali soils.
Therefore soils showing high salinity should be reclaimed for both first for
salinity and later for excessive exchangeable sodium. Growing of crops
tolerant to high exchangeable sodium ensures reasonable returns during
initial years of reclamation. Cropping practice including a green manure

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

crop and/or legume is common. Low organic matter and high pH deters
the biological activity and thus decreases the transformation of\and
availability of nutrients, and causes significant volatilization of nitrogen
from applied nitrogenous fertilizers. Tolerant crops such as rice, sugarbeet
and dhaincha are used. Trees species include Prosopis juliflora, Acacia
nilotica, Prosopis chinensis etc.

24.4.6.1 Bioremediation of saline-sodic soils through Agroforestry

Acacia auriculiformis, Azadirachta indica, Casurina equisetifoia, Dalbergia
sissoo, Alianthus excelsa, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia tortilis and A. nilotica
tree species are used for bioremediation of the saline and sodic soils.
Several tree species, pastures, agricultural crops, and horticultural
crops/trees adopted in different agroforestry systems such as agri-
silvicultural system, silvi-pastoral system, multipurpose wood lot, and agri-
horti-silvicultural system are well suited for reclamation of salt affected
soils. These trees or plants physiologically ameliorating the salt affected
soil particularly saline and alkali soils by reducing soil pH, EC, and ESP and
by increasing CEC organic carbon; and available nutrient such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium status of soil. Therefore, it is suggested to grow
these MPT species in agroforestry systems to ameliorate the salt affected
soil over a period of time to get the multiple benefits (Behera et al., 2015).

24.5 Summary of Effects of Trees on Soils

The capacity of trees to maintain or improve soils is shown by the high
fertility status and closed nutrient cycling under natural forest, the

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

restoration of fertility under forest fallow in shifting cultivation, and the

experience of reclamation forestry and agroforestry.
Soil transects frequently show higher organic matter and better soil
physical properties under trees. Some species, most notably Faidherbia
albida, regularly give higher crop yields beneath the tree canopy. Trees
improve soil fertility by processes which:
 increase additions to the soil;
 reduce losses from the soil;
 improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions
The most important sets of processes are those by which trees:
 check runoff and soil erosion;
 maintain soil organic matter and physical properties;
 increase nutrient inputs, through nitrogen fixation and uptake from
deep soil horizons;
 promote more closed nutrient cycling
Trees may also adversely affect associated crops. The effects of allelopathy
(inhibition effects) have probably been exaggerated by mistaking them for,
or confounding them with, other processes. Competition for water is a
serious but not insuperable problem in all dry environments, whereas
competition for nutrients has rarely been demonstrated. Where the net
effect of tree-crop interactions is positive, the length of the tree-crop
interface, or extent of the ecological fields, should be maximized. If the net
effect is negative, the aim of agroforestry system design should be to
reduce the length of the interface. A range of properties have been

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

identified which make tree species suited to soil improvement. For many
purposes, high biomass production, nitrogen fixation, a combination of
fine feeder roots with tap root and litter with high nutrient content are
suitable. Tolerance to initially poor soil conditions is clearly needed for
reclamation. About 100 species have been identified which are known to
fulfil soil improving functions, but there is much scope to increase this
range (Bhatt et al., 2017).
The following are the principal trees and shrubs that have been employed
for soil improvement.
Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia senegal, Albizi alebbeck, Anacardium
occidentale, Alnus acuminate, Alnus spp., Azadirachta indica,
Bactrisgasipaes, Bamboo genera, Cajanus cajan, Casuarina
cunninghamiana, Casuarina equisetifolia, Casuarina glauca, Centrosema
pubescens, Crotalaria spp., Dalbergia sissoo, Erythrina caffra, Erythrina
orientalis, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala,
Prosopis chilensis, Senna reticulate, Senna siamea (Cassia siamea,) Senna
spectabilis (Cassia spectabilis), Sesbania grandiflora, Sesbania rostrata,
Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ziziphus
nummularia, Zizyphus spina-christi

24.6 Recent Study

The soil-improving capacities of trees, and how these can be applied in
practical agroforestry systems, continues to be a major focus of
agroforestry. One important recent change of emphasis is that less
attention is being given to hedge-row intercropping (alley cropping), in

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

view of the observed reluctance of farmers to adopt this system, whilst

more emphasis is now placed on systems of managed tree fallows. An
account of using trees to lower the water table, referred to above, is given
by Burgess et al. (1998). A continuity of land disturbance from up- to down
slope will facilitate sediment transport to streams. Roads, trails, and
footpaths within these land management mosaics will further exacerbate
linkages to streams. Fragmented intensive land uses that are interspersed
by trees or brush land appear to be a viable solution for mitigating down
slope sediment transport by providing areas of high infiltration along with
‘roughness elements’ on the landscape where sediment deposition can
occur. A better understanding of sediment transport and routing processes
is needed at the catchment scale to develop improved predictive methods
and to assess the cumulative effects of distributed tropical land uses.
Recognition of the “truths, myths, and uncertainties” related to erosion
processes and consequences in tropical Southeast Asia will assist land
managers, land owners, and policy makers in formulating appropriate and
prudent decisions that will contribute to more sustainable use of forest
lands as well as options for rehabilitation of previously forested lands that
have been degraded. While widespread land cover changes in support of
recreation have been noted to increase erosion and sedimentation in the
region few studies have attempted to link either surface erosion or
landslide processes with specific recreational impacts, such as forest
clearance, resort construction, water diversions, roads, hiking and animal
trails, and all-terrain vehicle tracks, in steep terrain. Agroforestry proves to

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

be one of the cheapest and best modes for the reclamation of all such
degraded lands.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References

Behera, L., Nayak, M.N., Patel, D., Mehta, A., Sinha, S. K. And Gunaga, R.
(2015). Agroforestry practices for physiological amelioration of salt
affected soils. Journal of Plant Stress Physiology, 1(1), 13-18.
http://sciencefl ora.org/journal/jpsp/doi: 10.5455/jpsp.2015-06-06.
Bhatt, H., Husain, M., Rathore, J. P. and Sah, V.K. (2017). Bioremediation of
problematic soils through Agroforestry practices. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6(5), 2044-2048.
Burgess, S., Adams, M., Ward, B., Turner, N., Ong, C., and Khan, A. (1998).
Trees as water pumps: restoring water balances in Australian and
Kenya soils. Agroforestry Today, 10(3), 18-20.
Burley, J. and von Carlowitz, P., eds. (1984). Multipurpose tree germplasm.
Nairobi: ICRAF, 318 pp.
Lundgren, B. and Raintree, J.B. (1982). Agroforestry presented at the Conf.
of Directors of National Agro-forestry Research Systems in Asia. 12
Singh, Gurubachan., Singh, N. T. and Tomar, O. S. (1993). Agro forestry in
salt affected soils. Technical bulletin 17, CSSRI, Karnal. 65.

19
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management
Land Capability Classification- Understanding its
Lesson 25
Importance
Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
Learning Objectives
 To develop understanding about the key concepts of Land Capability
Classification
 To assists in identifying optimal crop selection for a given field, and
land use capability gives an indication of potential agronomic
productivity.
 To predict the agricultural capability of the land development units
in utility of the land resources

Glossary of terms
1. Land Capability Classification: Land capability classification is a
scientific appraisal of the physical characteristics of the land,
including characteristics of the soil and is a systematic grouping of
different kinds of land according to the properties that determine the
ability of the land to produce almost on a permanent basis.
2. Land Capability Classes: In all eight land capability classes are
recognized. The soils having greatest capabilities for response to
management and least limitations are grouped in Class-I and those
having least capabilities and greatest limitations are grouped in
Class-VIII.
3. Land Capability Sub-Classes: A capability subclass is defined in the
original system as a group of capability units that have the same
major conservation problem. It may be defined alternatively as land
which has the same kinds of limitation.
4. Land Capability Unit: Land capability unit is the smallest and last
category in the land capability classification system. A capability unit

2|Page
 consists of soil, which are nearly uniform in their characteristics,
potentialities, and limitations and require fairly similar conservation
treatments and management practices.
5. Land Use Planning: The land use planning is a multi-disciplinary
holistic approach that not only meets the functions of the land but
also actively involves all the stake holders through a participatory
appraisal.

25.1 LAND USE PLANNING

According to FAO, it is the systematic assessment of land and water
potential, alternative pattern of land use and physical, social and economic
conditions, for the purpose of selecting and adopting land use options
which are most beneficial to land users without degrading the resources or
the environment, together with the selection of measures most likely to
encourage such land uses.
Land use planning may be at international, national, district or local levels.
It includes participation by land users, planners and decision-makers and
cover educational, legal, fiscal and financial measures.
25.1.1 Land Use Plan
A coherent set of decisions about the use of land and ways to achieve the
desired use.
25.1.2 Land Use
The management of land to meet human needs. This includes rural, urban
and/or industrial land use.
25.2 LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION

3|Page
The improper use of land leads to erosion hazards and deterioration of land
with a consequent fall in productivity. For optimum productivity, every unit
of land should be managed in accordance with its inherent characteristics,
capability and limitations due to climate and local hazards. Because the
factors affecting soil use and erosion may vary so widely and the
combinations of factors are so numerous, some grouping of land according
to its capability is needed. This involves grouping of an individual soil unit
or tract having different characteristics into a few categories..
“Land capability classification is a scientific appraisal of the physical
characteristics of the land, including characteristics of the soil and is a
systematic grouping of different kinds of land according to the properties
that determine the ability of the land to produce almost on a permanent
basis.”
“The land capability classification is the grouping of a land unit(s) into
defined class(es) based on its capability. It is a broad grouping of soils based
on their limitations and is designed to emphasize the hazards in different
kinds of soils.”
The land capability classification serves as a guide to assess suitability of
land for arable crops, grazing and forestry. The classification also enables
the farmers to use the land properly for long time production with
suggestions for taking such measures as control of erosion, improved soil
and water conservation and utilization.
The grouping of soils into capability classes and sub-classes is done on the
basis of their capability to produce crops and pasture plants without
deterioration over a long period of time. The criteria used in assessing a

4|Page
land unit are the physical land properties and degree of limitation as a
function of the severity with which crop growth is inhibited. It is mainly
based on:
1. The inherent soil properties
2. The external land features and
3. The environmental factors that limit land use.
The first two informations are provided by standard soil survey report and
the third information, that is environment factors such as climate and
vegetation, is provided by other agencies.
The following different factors that determine the capability of a soil are:
i. Depth of soil, stoniness, rockiness
ii. Drainage condition of soil
iii. Texture and structure of soil
iv. Relief (slope)
v. Intensity of soil erosion
vi. Permeability (movement of air and water through soil)
vii. Susceptibility to overflow and flooding and degree of wetness
viii. Problematic soils with particular reference to salts, alkali, acidity and
other unfavorable chemical properties such as pH, gypsum etc.
ix. Climatic variation (temperature and moisture)

The land capability classification scheme was developed by the Soil

Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA). The classification scheme has four categories namely:
i. Land suitability classification: It is the first category of classification
scheme and is a broad grouping of land into

5|Page
(i) Land suited for cultivation, and

(ii) Land not suitable for cultivation because of severe limitations such as
extreme wetness or dryness, very severe stoniness, steepness and rough
land surface etc.

ii. Land capability classes: It is the second category comprises eight land
capability classes.

iii. Land capability sub-class: It is third category and is a subgroup of land

capability class

iv. Land capability units: It is fourth category and further subdivision of the
sub-class.
25.2.1 Land Capability Classes: In all eight land capability classes are
recognized. The soils having greatest capabilities for response to
management and least limitations are grouped in Class-I and those having
least capabilities and greatest limitations are grouped in Class-VIII. The
class I (very good land), class II (good land), class III (moderately good land)
and class IV (fairly good land) under the group – land suitable for
cultivation; class V, class VI and class VII – land suitable for pasture and
grazing and class VIII land suitable for wildlife and watershed under the
broad group of land not suitable for cultivation. The gradation from class I
to class VIII indicates the increased limitations for crop cultivation and
hazards and decreased adaptability and freedom of choice of use.
25.2.2 Land Capability Sub-Classes: A capability subclass is defined in the
original system as a group of capability units that have the same major
conservation problem. It may be defined alternatively as land which has
the same kinds of limitation. These are subdivisions of capability classes,

6|Page
made on the basis of four dominating limitations, namely, (i) risk of
erosion (e), (ii) wetness, drainage or overflow (w), (iii) rooting zone
limitations (s), and (iv) climatic limitations (c). The sub-classes are mapped
by adding the limitation symbol to the capability class number, e.g., IIe,
IIIs, etc. There are no sub-classes in Class I.
25.2.3 Land Capability unit: Land capability unit is the smallest and last
category in the land capability classification system. A capability unit
consists of soil, which are nearly uniform in their characteristics,
potentialities, and limitations and require fairly similar conservation
treatments and management practices. Adding numbers to the sub
classes forms land capability units. For example, capability unit IIc 1, IIIc 2
would represent several class II soils with climate hazards arising from
different causes. Some might be because of erosion due to water or wind,
salt other might be because of factors like overflow or too hot or cold
conditions.
25.3 LAND CAPABILITY CLASSES
25.3.1 Land Suitable for Cultivation
Class I: Soils in this class are very good cultivable land, very deep, nearly
level, productive land with almost no limitation. They are not subjected to
overflow (runoff) damage. Class I soils used for crops, need practices to
maintain soil fertility and soil structure. These practices involve use of
fertilisers, cover cropping, green manure crop and crop rotation. Soils in
this class are suitable for intensive cultivation of all climatically adapted
crops or variety of crops including wheat, barley, cotton, maize, tomato
and been. In this class, soils need no special management practices for

7|Page
cultivation. Thus, Class I does not have any sub-class. Class I land shown by
green colour on maps.
Class II: As far as natural conditions are concerned, it is a good cultivable
land on almost level plain or gentle slopes that have slight limitations of
soil depth, salinity, texture, drainage or erosion that reduce the choice of
crops/plants. These soils may require special practices, such as contour
tillage, crop rotation and water-control devices. In general, these soils are
suitable for wheat, barley and cotton; moderately suitable for maize,
alfalfa, tomato; and slightly suitable for beans. Recommendation is to
cultivate with precaution and need simple management practices. Class II
land shown by yellow colour on maps.
Class III: These are moderately good cultivable land on almost level plain
or on moderate slope. These soils have limitation(s) of moderate erosion,
soil depth, soil salinity, soil texture. These soils have steep slopes and suffer
from either some ecological problem (as soil erosion) or climatic problem
(rainfall irregularity) which inhibits intensive commercial exploitation. Also,
these soils are inherently low in fertility. These soils require cropping
systems that produce adequate plant cover. They have vertic
characteristics or drainage problem that reduces the choice of crop. In
general, these areas have varying suitability for different crops. They are
unsuitable for growing vegetable crops. Recommendation is to cultivate
with careful management practices and need intensive care. Class III land
shown by brown colour on maps.
Class IV: It is a fairly good land on almost level plains or moderately steep
slopes which are vulnerable to erosion. There are severe limitations on the

8|Page
choice of crops in these soils. These lands are suitable only for occasional
or limited cultivation. These soils are generally unsuitable for growing a
variety of crops because of strong or very strong salinity (S3/S4), shallow
depth, erosion, fine texture or poor or excessive drainage. Suitable for
selected crops and for pasture. These soils are affected by severe
permanent hazards like waterlogging and water deficiency. The soils are
low in fertility. Such soils may not be economical to cultivate as they need
intensive soil and moisture conservation measures, like water disposal of
terraces, contour tillage and stabilization of gullies, should be undertaken.
These soils are shown by pink colour on maps.
25.3.2 Land Unsuitable for Cultivation but Suitable for Permanent
Vegetation (Grazing)
Class V: These soils are found in foothills or in mountain valleys and are
suitable for grasses, shrubs, etc. These soils should be used for pasture or
forestry operations. Cultivation is not feasible because these soils are wet
and stony. The land is nearly level and subject only to slight erosion by wind
or water, if properly managed. There are few permanent limitations.
Grazing should be regulated in these soils. These soils are shown as dark
grey on maps.
Class VI: These soils have moderate permanent limitations and are
unsuitable, for cultivation. These soils should be used for grazing and
forestry. Have moderate limitations such as steep slope, severe erosion,
limited soil depth, strongly gypsiferous, stony or sand-dune areas and more
prone to erosion than class V soils. These soils are shown as orange on
maps.

9|Page
Class VII: The severity of environmental constraints is much greater in
these soils, compared to class VI soils. As a result, these soils are subject to
severe permanent hazards. They are fairly well suited for grazing or
forestry. These soils are steep, eroded, shallow or swampy and are
completely unsuitable for cultivation. Strict management should be
applied to these soils. These soils are indicated on the land capability maps
by red colour.
Class VIII: Class VIII land covers Bad Lands, sand dunes, barren mountain
tops and extremely rough, rocky, arid, wet or extremely saline land. These
soils can serve the purposes of preserving some rare species or acting as a
water catchment zone. Soils of this class are extremely rough, arid, or
swampy and are unsuitable for cultivation. They are not suited for forestry
or grazing. They may be used for wildlife or recreation. Have very severe
limitations. These soils are indicated on the land capability maps by purple
colour.

10 | P a g e
LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

LAND

Land use suitability

(Broad grouping)

Land suitable for cultivation Land not suitable for cultivation

Land Capability class Land Capability class

Class I Class II Class III Class IV Suitable for pasture and grazing Class VIII
Very good Good land Moderately Fairly good Suitable for
land (with no (with good land land (with wildlife and
limitation) minor (with major major watershed
limitation) limitation) limitation,
occasional Class V Class VI Class VII
cultivation) with no with minor with major
limitation limitation limitation

11 | P a g e
 Land capability subclass
[grouped according to kind of limitation in each
subclass viz.,erosion (e), climate (c),excess of wetness
(w), soil limitation (s)]

Land capability units

(land management grouped based on physical characteristics- land that is suited for essentially the same kind
of management and same kind of management and same kind of soil and water conservation treatment)
Examples: IIe, IIc, IIw mean good land with problem of erosion, climate condition, wetness and soil
limitations, respectively.

12 | P a g e
 Problematic soils and their Management

25.4 LAND USE PLANNING

25.4.1 Land Use Planning Concept

The land use planning is a multi-disciplinary holistic approach that not only
meets the functions of the land but also actively involves all the stake
holders through a participatory approach. Land use planning is as old
humankind. The optimal land use planning is to create the pre-conditions
to achieve sustainable and environmentally sound, socially desirable and
economically viable form of land use. Land use planning process involves
spatial zoning of the resources across the land units.
This concept is different in rural agricultural land use planning as compared
to peri-urban land use planning. In the rural agricultural planning the
agricultural production and environmental protection attains importance.
In this process, usually bio-physical characteristics, qualities of the various
land units (climate, soil, water, resources and existing land use) and
prevailing socio- economic conditions are considered. The basic purpose of
land use planning in the rural areas across the land units is to obtain
homogenous land resource management units (resource management
domains). While the peri-urban land use planning is the allocation of land
for specific use such as housing, industry, recreation and development of
physical, infrastructure through legal rules and market value.

25.4.2 Land Use Planning Approaches

“Top-down” or “bottom –top” are two basic approaches to land use

planning. Land use planning addresses the present and projected land

14 | P a g e
 Problematic soils and their Management

utilization pattern under agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. It

attempts to strike a balance between agricultural and non-agricultural
sectors as per the potential of land and demand of the growing population
in an area. The soil resource, climatic, land use information and the data
base as per the management unit differ for sustainable planning at
State/Regional, district and village level.
The state/regional level planning usually emphasizes the top-down
approach and is primarily concerned with the priority allocation of the
resources between the competing demands of different sectors which may
form the key for sustainable land use planning. The land systems, land
facets Agro-eco regions and sub-regions provide information on the
potentials and problems of an area. This enables a planner, a policy maker
to allocate the land resources under different sectors of agricultural and
non-agricultural uses. This also helps to distribute the input resources as
per the priorities and problems. A perspective land use plan includes a set
of decisions about the ways and means to bring out the desired land use.
Land use planning at district level requires a data base such as soil
information at series level, climatic information at tahsil level and present
land use. This information will provide guidance for planner to allocate
funds as per the need in the region. For framing the villages as independent
viable units, detailed land resource information, socio-economic status of
the farmers and other related factors that contribute to yield variation
form a base for planning.

25.4.3 Strategies for Perspective Land Use Planning

15 | P a g e
 Problematic soils and their Management

25.4.3.1 State level planning: The soil resource information at great group,
subgroup land family level could be utilized for planning at state level. The
state/regional level planning usually emphasizes the top-down approach
and is primarily concerned with the priority allocation of the resources
between the competing demands of different sectors which may form the
key for sustainable land use planning. The land systems, land facets Agro-
eco regions and sub-regions provide information on the potentials and
problems of an area. This enables a planner, a policy maker to allocate the
land resources under different sectors of agricultural and non-agricultural
uses. This also helps to distribute the input resources as per the priorities
and problems. A perspective land use plan includes a set of decisions about
the ways and means to bring out the desired land use.

25.4.3.2 District level planning: Land use planning at district level requires
a data base such as soil information at series level, climatic information at
tahsil level and present land use. This information will provide guidance for
planner to allocate funds as per the need in the region. There are two
approaches in planning at district level viz. (i) Agro-eco approach and (ii)
Growing period zone approach. This plan helps for sectoral allocation of
resources at district level.

25.4.3.3 Village/Watershed level planning: For framing the villages as

independent viable units, detailed land resource information, socio-
economic status of the farmers and other related factors that contribute
to yield variation could form a base for planning. The detailed soil

16 | P a g e
 Problematic soils and their Management

information at series /phase level, weekly/daily climatic data, socio-

economic data and present land use will form a data base at
village/watershed/farm level planning. Participatory/negotiative PRA
approaches with the involvement of all the stake holders in the village are
mandatory for successful planning at this level.

25.5 SIGNIFICANCE
Land capability classification has value as a grouping of soils. National
Resource Inventory information, Farmland Protection Policy Act, and many
field office technical guides have been assembled according to these
classes. The system has been adopted in many textbooks and has wide
public acceptance. Some state legislation has used the system for various
applications.

25.6 APPLICATION
All map unit components, including miscellaneous areas, are assigned a
capability class and subclass. Agriculture Handbook No. 210 (Exhibit 622-2)
provides general guidance, and individual state guides provide
assignments of the class and subclass applicable to the state. Land
capability units can be used to differentiate subclasses at the discretion of
the state. Capability class and subclass are assigned to map unit
components in the national soil information system.

17 | P a g e
 Problematic soils and their Management

As an output from soil survey, classification provides a framework for

making local generalization about soil, based on the properties of the soil
series identified. Recently, for making soil survey data a more precise and
useful, geographic information system (GIS) and soil information system
(SIS) techniques are being used to give physical distribution of soil classes,
to assess full range of soil variability, to relate individual data with the
spatial variability of social properties, to interpret individual components
of map units and other current information about land use practices
through a comprehensive electronic database. However, of late, these
techniques have been widely used to increase efficiency and speed of the
soil survey and land use planning programme. These modern systems were
developed mainly because it was not possible for humans to handle in an
orderly way the huge amounts of data derived from soil and land surveys
until and unless advanced computer hardware and software technology is
used for the purpose.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

References
F.A.O. (1977). A Framework for land evaluation. Soil Bulletin. No.1
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (1980): Handbook of agricultural
(Ed.) Jaiswal et. al., New Delhi. pp 46-48.
USDA. (1961). Land Capability Classification. Agriculture Handbook No. 21

18 | P a g e
Course Name Problematic soils and their Management

Lesson 26 Land suitability classification- Concepts

Content Creator Name Dr. SHWETA SHAMBHAVI
University/College Name Bihar Agricultural University, Bhagalpur
Course Reviewer Name DIBYENDU MUKHOPADHYAY
University/college Name Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar

1
 Problematic soils and their Management

Learning Objectives
 Understanding the scientific basis of suitability of soils for specific
land use – with or without improvements and the concept of the
length of growing season

Glossary of terms
1. Current Suitability: Refers to the suitability for a defined use of land
in its present condition, without major improvements.
2. Land Evaluation: Land evaluation is a process for matching the
characteristics of land resources for certain uses using a scientifically
standardized technique. The results can be used as a guide by land
users and planners to identify alternative land uses.
3. Land Suitability: Land Suitability is the degree of appropriateness of
land for a certain use.
4. Land Suitability Order: Land suitability Orders indicate
whether land is assessed as suitable or not suitable for the use under
consideration. There are two orders represented in maps, tables,
etc.
5. Land Suitability Units: Land Suitability Units reflect minor
differences in the required management within Subclasses (e.g. S2d-
2, etc.)
6. Land Suitability Subclasses: The sub classes reflect kinds of
limitations or major improvements required within classes.

2
 Problematic soils and their Management

7. Potential Suitability: Refers to the suitability, for a defined use, of

land units in their condition at some future date, after specified
major improvements have been completed where necessary.
8. Qualitative Classification: A qualitative classification is one in which
relative suitability is expressed in qualitative terms only, without
precise calculation of costs and returns. Qualitative classifications
are based mainly on the physical productive potential of the land,
with economics only present as a background.
9. Quantitative classification: A quantitative classification is one in
which the distinctions between classes are defined in common
numerical terms, which permits objective comparison between
classes relating to different kinds of land use.

26.1 Land Suitability

26.1.1 The concept of land evaluation and suitability
Land evaluation is a process for matching the characteristics of land
resources for certain uses using a scientifically standardized technique. The
results can be used as a guide by land users and planners to identify
alternative land uses. Land Suitability is the degree of appropriateness of
land for a certain use. Land suitability could be assessed for present
condition (Actual Land Suitability) or after improvement (Potential Land
Suitability). Actual Land suitability is a land suitability that is based on
current soil and land conditions, i.e. without applying any input. The
information is based on physical environment data generated from soil or
land resources surveys. The information is based on soil characteristics and

3
 Problematic soils and their Management

climate data related to growth requirements of crops being evaluated.

Potential Land Suitability is the suitability that could be reached after the
land is improved. The land to be evaluated can be natural (conversion)
forest, abandoned or unproductive lands, or land currently used for
agriculture, at a sub-optimal level of management in such a way that the
productivity can be improved by changing to more suitable crops.

26.1.2 Land suitability classification

The land suitability classification, using the guidelines of FAO (1976) is
divided into Order, Class, Sub Class, and Unit. Order is the global land
suitability group. Land suitability Order is divided into S (Suitable) and N
(Not Suitable). Class is the land suitability group within the Order level.
Based on the level of detail of the data available, land suitability
classification is divided into: (1) For the semi detailed maps (scale 1:25.000-
1:50.000) the S order is divided into Highly Suitable (S1), Moderately
Suitable (S2), and Marginally Suitable (S3). The “Not Suitable” order does
not have further divisions. (2) For reconnaisance level map (scale
1:100.000-1:250.000), the classes are Suitable (S), Conditionally Suitable
(CS) and Unsuitable (N). The difference in the number of classes is based
on the level of details of the database in each scale.

26.1.2.1 Suitability Criteria

Most of the plant species need well drained, moderately fine to medium
texture soils, free of salinity and having optimum physical environment.

4
 Problematic soils and their Management

Soil resource maps based on several parameters, can aid in predicting the
behaviour and suitability of soils for growing field crops, horticultural
crops, forest species and other plantation crops once the suitability criteria
is established. Within limits, it may also find application in transfer of
technology to other areas with comparable soil-site characteristics.

26.1.2.2 Land suitability units

This grouping is used to identify land development units having
minor differences in management requirements. This can indicate the
relative importance of land development works. It is indicated by Arabic
numerals, enclosed in parenthesis, following the subclass symbol.
The FAO land suitability classification system has four different
categories:
 Orders
 Classes
 Subclasses
 Units.
There are two orders (S and N) which reflect the kind of suitability (S for
suitable and N for unsuitable land).
Order "S" -Suitable land
Land on which sustained use for the defined purpose in the defined
manner is expected to yield benefits that will justify required recurrent
inputs without unacceptable risk to land resources.
Order "N"-Unsuitable land

5
 Problematic soils and their Management

Land having characteristics which appear to preclude its sustained use for
the defined purpose in the defined manner or which would create
production, upkeep and/or conservation problems requiring a level of
recurrent inputs unacceptable at the time of interpretation.

26.1.2.3 Land Suitability Classes

The framework at its origin permits complete freedom in determining the
number of classes within each order. However, it has been recommended
to use only 3 classes within order S and 2 classes within order N. The class
will be indicated by an Arabic number in sequence of decreasing suitability
within the order and therefore, reflects degrees of suitability within the
orders.
Examples:
S1: Suitable
S2: Moderately suitable
S3: Marginally suitable
N1: Actually unsuitable but potentially suitable
N2: Actually and potentially unsuitable

26.1.2.4 Land Suitability Subclasses

The sub classes reflect kinds of limitations or main kinds of improvement
measures required within classes. They are indicated in the symbol using
lower case letters.
c: Climatic conditions
t: Topographic limitations

6
 Problematic soils and their Management

w: Wetness limitations
n: Salinity (and/or alkalinity) limitations
f: Soil fertility limitations not readily to be corrected
s: Physical soil limitations (influencing soil/ water relationship and
management).
Table 1: Structure of the FAO land suitability classification

S SUITABLE The land can support the land use indefinitely and
benefits justify inputs
S1 Highly Land without significant limitations. Include the best 20-
suitable 30% of suitable land as S1. This land is not perfect but is
the best that can be hoped for
S2 Moderately Land that is clearly suitable but which has limitations
suitable that either reduce productivity or increase the inputs
needed to sustain productivity compared with those
needed on S1 land
S3 Marginally Land with limitations so severe that benefits are
suitable reduced and/or the inputs needed to sustain
production are increased so that this cost is only
marginally justified
N NOT Land that cannot support the land use on a sustained
SUITABLE basis, or land on which benefits do not justify necessary
inputs
N1 Currently Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be
not suitable overcome at a currently acceptable cost

7
 Problematic soils and their Management

N2 Permanently Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be

not suitable overcome
Examples of classes in the third category
S2e Land assessed as S2 on account of limitation of erosion hazard
S2w Land assessed as S2 on account of inadequate availability of water
N2e Land assessed as N2 on account of limitation of erosion hazard

The Subclasses are a more detailed division of classes based on land quality
and characteristics (soil properties and other natural conditions). For
example, Subclass S3rc is land that is marginally suitable due to rooting
condition (rc) as the limiting factor. Furthermore, the Units S3rc1 and
S3rc2, are differentiated by the soil effective depths of 50 -70 cm and < 50
cm, respectively. This land unit is however rarely used in land suitability
evaluation.

26.1.2.5 Conditional Suitability

The designation Conditionally Suitable may be added in certain instances

to condense and simplify presentation. This is necessary to cater for
circumstances where small areas of land, within the survey area, may be
unsuitable or poorly suitable for a particular use under the management
specified for that use, but may be suitable if certain conditions are fulfilled.
The possible nature of the conditions is varied and might relate to
modifications to the management practices or the input e of the defined
land use (occasioned, for example, by localized phenomena of poor soil
drainage, soil salinity); or to restrictions in the choice of crops (limited, for

8
 Problematic soils and their Management

example, to crops with an especially high market value, or resistant to

frost). In such instances, the indication "conditional" can avoid the need
for additional classifications to account for local modifications of land use
or local major improvements.
Conditionally suitable is a phase of the Order Suitable. It is indicated by a
lowercase letter c between the order symbol and the class number, e.g.
Sc2. The conditionally suitable phase, subdivided into classes if necessary,
is always placed at the bottom of the listing of S classes. The phase
indicates suitability after the condition(e) have been met.
Employment of the Conditionally Suitable phase should be avoided
wherever possible. It may only be employed if all of the following
stipulations are met:
i. Without the condition(s) satisfied, the land is either not suitable or
belongs to the lowest suitable class.
ii. Suitability with the condition(s) satisfied is significantly higher
(usually at least two classes).
iii. The extent of the conditionally suitable land is very small with
respect to the total study area.
If the first or second stipulation is not met, it may still be useful to mention
the possible improvement or modification in an appropriate section of the
text. If the third stipulation is not met, then the area over which the
condition is relevant is sufficiently extensive to warrant either a new land
utilization type or a potential suitability classification, as appropriate.

9
 Problematic soils and their Management

As the area of land classed as Conditionally Suitable is necessarily small, it

will not normally be necessary to subdivide it at the unit level. It is
important to note that the indication "conditional" is not intended to be
applied to land for which the interpretation is uncertain, either in the sense
that its suitability is marginal or because factors relevant to suitability are
not understood. Use of "conditional" may seem convenient to the
evaluator, but its excessive use would greatly complicate understanding by
users and must be avoided.

Figure 1: Structure of the Suitability Classification

26.2 The range of classifications

The Framework recognizes four main kinds of suitability classification,

according to whether it is qualitative or quantitative, and refers to current
or potential suitability.

10
 Problematic soils and their Management

Each classification is an appraisal and grouping of land units in terms of

their suitability for a defined use.

26.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Classifications

A qualitative classification is one in which relative suitability is expressed
in qualitative terms only, without precise calculation of costs and returns.
Qualitative classifications are based mainly on the physical productive
potential of the land, with economics only present as a background. They
are commonly employed in reconnaissance studies, aimed at a general
appraisal of large areas.
A quantitative classification is one in which the distinctions between
classes are defined in common numerical terms, which permits objective
comparison between classes relating to different kinds of land use.
Quantitative classifications normally involve considerable use of economic
criteria, i.e. costs and prices, applied both to inputs and production.
Specific development projects, including pre-investment studies , usually
require quantitative evaluation.
Qualitative evaluations allow the intuitive integration of many aspects of
benefits, social and environmental as well as economic. This facility is to
some extent lost in quantitative evaluations. The latter, however, provide
the data on which to base calculations of net benefits, or other economic
parameters, from different areas and different kinds of use. Quantitative

11
 Problematic soils and their Management

classifications may become out of date more rapidly than qualitative ones
as a result of changes in relative costs and prices.

26.2.2 Classifications of Current and Potential Suitability

A classification of current suitability refers to the suitability for a defined

use of land in its present condition, without major improvements. A
current suitability classification may refer to the present use of the land,
either with existing or improved management practices, or to a different
use.
A classification of potential suitability refers to the suitability, for a defined
use, of land units in their condition at some future date, after specified
major improvements have been completed where necessary.
Common examples of potential suitability classifications are found in
studies for proposed irrigation schemes. For a classification to be one of
potential suitability it is not necessary that improvements shall be made to
all parts of the land; the need for major improvements may vary from one
land unit to another and on some land units none may be necessary.
In classifications of potential suitability, it is important for the user to know
whether the costs of amortization of the capital costs of improvements
have been included. Where these are included, the assumptions should
state the extent to which inputs have been cost and the rates of interest
and period of repayment that have been assumed.
Classification with amortization is only possible if the repayment of capital
costs can be apportioned to identifiable areas of land. If the benefits from

12
 Problematic soils and their Management

major expenditure are not confined to the agricultural sector (as in

multipurpose irrigation and power schemes), responsibility for capital
repayments is difficult to assess. In these circumstances, amortization
costs will usually be excluded from the evaluation.
The distinction between qualitative and quantitative classifications, and
between current and potential suitability, do not fully describe the nature
of a classification. Two further considerations of importance are treatment
of the location factor and of amortization of capital costs, but these by no
means exhaust the range of possibilities. They are not distinguished as
further specific types of classification. A suitability classification needs to
be read in conjunction with the statement of the data and assumptions on
which it is based.

26.3 The results of land suitability evaluation

i. The results of an evaluation will usually include the following types

of information, the extent to which each is included varying with the
scale and intensity of the study. The context, physical, social and
economic, on which the evaluation is based. This will include both
data and assumptions.
ii. Description of land utilization types or of major kinds of land
use which are relevant to the area. The more intensive the study, the
greater will be the detail and precision with which these are
described.

13
 Problematic soils and their Management

iii. Maps, tables and textual matter showing degrees of suitability of

land mapping units for each of the kinds of land use considered,
together with the diagnostic criteria. Evaluation is made separately
for each kind of use.
iv. Management and improvement specifications for each land
utilization type with respect to each land mapping unit for which it is
suitable. Again, as the survey becomes more intensive, so the
precision with which such specifications are given increases; thus in
a semi-detailed survey a need for drainage might be specified, whilst
in a detailed survey the nature and costs of drainage works would be
given.
v. Economic and social analysis of the consequences of the various
kinds of land use considered.
vi. The basic data and maps from which the evaluation was obtained.
The results, particularly the suitability classification itself, are based
upon much information of value to individual users. Such
information should be made available, either as an appendix to the
main report or as background documentation.
vii. Information on the reliability of the suitability estimates. Such
information is directly relevant to planning/policy decisions. It will
also aid any subsequent work directed towards improving the land
suitability classifications, by indicating weaknesses in the data and
aspects which might repay further investigation.

26.4 Relationship study between soil site suitability and crop planning

14
 Problematic soils and their Management

Land evaluation is the ranking of soil units on the basis of their capabilities
(under given circumstances including levels of management and socio-
economic conditions) to provide highest returns per unit area and
conserving the natural resources for future use. The FAO (1976) panel for
land evaluation suggested the classification of land in different categories:
Orders, Classes, Sub-classes and Units. The soil-site characteristics are
expressed in terms of degree of limitation (0, 1, 2, 3 or 4); the limitation of
2 is considered critical at which the expected yield declined significantly
and the cultivation is considered marginally economical. The final soil-site
evaluation/suitability is based on the number and degree of limitation (s).
Modern approaches involve simulation model predicting yield as a
measure of suitability. Although very well refined, yet these approaches
are largely based on local experience of farmers or of the researchers.
Since crop performance reflects the integrated effect of the environmental
and soil characteristics, it would be appropriate to study the relationships,
through regression analysis, between the crop performance and yield-
influencing parameters. In order to construct a knowledge base by which
deductive reasoning may lead to ranking of land units, the present attempt
is made to interpret the black cotton soils in terms of their characteristics
and qualities for developing soil-site suitability models for different crops
through a multivariate regression yield model.
The model may need further refinement by having a large number of test
sites. The yield and soil site parameters were compared through a linear
equation of the following form based on collected yield data under similar

15
 Problematic soils and their Management

management practices from different locations varying in rainfall and

covering the entire black soil region (Table 1).
Y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + b4x4 + b5x5 + µ. . .
Where :
Y = yield of the crop, q ha-1;
X1 = rainfall, mm;
X2 = soil depth, cm;
X3 = growing period, weeks;
X4 = clay, per cent;
X5 = calcium carbonate, per cent;
µ = random error;
a = intercept;
b1 = partial regression coefficient.
In order to find the optimum range of any parameter for crop performance,
a quadratic equation was fitted in the following form:
Y = a + bx + cx2 + µ . . .
Where:
Y = yield of the crop (q ha-1)
X = explanatory variable (rainfall, calcium carbonate)’
µ = random error
a = intercept
b, c = are regression coefficients
The Vertic intergrades (Inceptisols and Entisols) occurring in geographic
association with the Vertisols, are mainly cultivated for sorghum and

16
 Problematic soils and their Management

cotton. Yield of sorghum and cotton crops from six experiments and three
locations near Nagpur area under similar rainfall pattern were also
compared with the soil parameters.
Table 2. Relationship of crop performance to soil-site parameters in
Vertisols

Name Number Interc Regression Coefficients R2

of crop of ept X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
observat
ions
Sorghu 15 - 0.007 0.043 0.242 0.074
- 0.85
m 14.40 4* 2 3* 6 0.060 05
91 (0.00 (0.02 (0.010 (0.09
6
25) 04) 24) 57)(0.09
23)
Cotton 10 - 0.017 - - 0.180 0.727 0.85
12.07 2* 0.031 0.204 3 8* 83
48 (0.00 3 3 (0.22 (0.22
45) (0.02 (0.146 55) 43)
95) 5)
Pigeon 12 -4.365 0.002 0.005 0.164 0.067 0.092 0.41
pea 3* 9 6* 1 6 99
(0.00 (0.00 (0.075 (0.09 (0.11
08) 20) 6) 82) 54)
Chick 13 4.116 0.006 - - - - 0.75
pea 4 5* 0.047 0.034 0.093 0.387 15
(0.00 8 7 1 8
15) (0.02 (0.068 (0.03 (0.07
91) 6) 11) 35)
Pearl 8 12.92 0.007 0.019 *- - - 0.94
millet 00 3 3* 0.004 0.231 0.075 77
(0.00 (0.00 9 0 5
75) 19) (0.147 (0.09 (0.07
5) 17) 35)

17
 Problematic soils and their Management

Ground 9 - 0.007 0.003 0.370 - 0.108 0.81

nut 8.652 1 8 2* 0.009 9 81
4 ((0.00 (0.03 (0.063 3 (0.10
57) 72) 3) (0.11 47)
79)
*Significant at 5% level

X1: rainfall (mm)

X2: soil depth (cm)
X3: growing period (weeks)
X4: clay %
X5: CaCO3 %
( ) : standard error of variable

26.5 Conclusion

It has sometimes been thought that a land classification map is the main
output from land evaluation. At least in quantitative surveys, however, the
information on land utilization types, their required inputs and
management specifications may be equally important.
Suitability evaluation does not necessarily identify a single form of use as
"best" on each land unit. Suitability class limits are defined separately for
each use. It follows that suitability classes for different uses cannot be
compared in a routine, automatic manner. Thus, a particular land mapping
unit might be classified as S1 for forestry and S3 for arable farming, but this
does not necessarily mean that the former use will be selected. The

18
 Problematic soils and their Management

physically and economically viable alternatives are presented, with

information on the consequences of each, as a basis for planning decisions.
The decision-making process of the agricultural production provides
insight in establishing the suitable sites. The results can be more precise by
critically analyzing the methods and techniques utilised. The study
comprises the physical properties (topographical properties, soil and
geological characteristics, etc.) only and need to include the economic and
social criteria for agricultural production. Since in analytic hierarchy
process, the pairwise comparison method is established on expert opinions
which are mostly subjective in nature. Therefore, any wrong judgement on
the any selected parameters can be efficiently conveyed to the score
assignment and weights designation. This is the prime drawback of the
analytic hierarchy process, and hence, weights and scores need to be
designated carefully. For more beneficial and accurate results the study
demands to be emphasized on some important species which have
significant economic value and also influences the scope of progress of
other avenues too. The utilisation of very high-resolution satellite image
aids in evaluating more finer areas. Also, the identified areas have to be
documented on ground level with some other local and regional parameter
before the final implementation.

Disclaimer: All the acknowledgements are made from where the text,
images and tables are taken and there are no copyright violations in the
prepared course content

19