Information Processing

Information processing is the manipulation of data to produce useful information; it involves the
capture of information in a format that is retrievable and analyzable. Processing information
involves taking raw information and making it more useful by putting it into context. In general,
information processing means processing new data, which includes a number of steps: acquiring,
inputting, validating, manipulating, storing, outputting, communicating, retrieving, and disposing.
The future accessing and updating of files involves one or more of these steps. Information
processing provides individuals with basic skills to use the computer to process many types of
information effectively and efficiently.
The receiver of information takes actions and decisions based on the information received.
Collected data must be processed to get meaning out of it, and this meaning is obtained in the form
of information. Further information is considered useful & meaningful only if has these
characteristics:

• Timely − Information should be available when required, a delay in obtaining information

renders it useless.
• Accuracy − Accuracy of information has a significant impact on the decision-making.
Possibilities of even slightest errors should be minimized
• Completeness − Information should be complete. Incomplete information causes incorrect
and unintended results.
• Comprehensive – Information which is incomprehensible is useless for the receiver. This
becomes a case of information failure as the sender sent the information, but it was of no
use for the receiver, thus is not considered as “information.”

Understanding “information processing” in daily life and Examples

Information is the processed data which is of some use for humans. Information may further be
processed and/or manipulated to form knowledge. Information containing wisdom is known as
knowledge. Taking an example of information processing, digits in a report card are considered as
information; similarly, stats, when placed in a report or used in some context, provides an
understanding. Data collected during surveys is meaningless unless it is processed. Good
questionnaires are formed and surveys are conducted to collect data which can be processed to
give useful insight. Another example can be a tabular data if merely a table is constructed without
with the available data it might not convey the intended message, but when data mapping is done
using that data to create graphs & charts, it becomes information. Thus information processing is
important.

Information processing Cycle

Information processing cycle is a sequence of events consisting of input, processing, storage &
output. For a computer to perform useful work, the computer has to receive instructions and data
from the outside world. The computer receives data and instructions during the INPUT stage of
the information processing cycle. Useful information results when appropriate instructions are
applied to data. Applying instructions to data takes place during the PROCESSING stage of the
information processing cycle. To avoid having to re-enter data and instructions or reprocess
information, computers can save information. Saving information on a computer occurs during
the STORAGE phase of the information processing cycle. Saving information on a computer
occurs during the Storage phase of the information processing cycle. This is followed by the result
in the OUTPUT stage. Computer Processing Cycle is a similar process with similar steps by
which data is fed to a computer.

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Phases of information Processing
1.Input: Computer receives data and instructions
2.Process: Computer applies instructions to data to produce information (organized Data)
3.Storage: Saving the information for a subsequent use or use in future
4.Output: Computer sends information to people in a usable format.
5.Feed back: It is the process of receiving responses or reactions to processed information, which
can be used to modify future processing.

Input :
In the input stage, the data is entered into the computer. There are many ways to do this. In fact,
there are as many ways to input data as there are input devices. You would have learned about
input devices in Grade 10 but just to refresh your memory, input devices are things such as
keyboards, touchscreens and microphones. The user inputs the data (for example, by typing on a
keyboard or speaking into a microphone) into the computer. The device takes this data and converts
it into a series of 1s and 0s (this is called binary code).
i. Feeding the collected raw data in the cycle for processing. This is the raw data which is
supplied for processing & obtaining information.
ii. Input can be done by utilizing various devices such as keyboards, mice, flatbed scanners,
barcode readers, joysticks, digital data tablets (for graphics drawing), electronic cash
registers, etc

Processing :
The central processing unit (CPU) takes binary code and does the calculations needed to get that
data to display in a way that makes sense to the user. The CPU works with the computer’s memory
to get instructions on how to display the information from the input device and stores it as pixels
in the computer’s memory. This information is sent to the output device to be translated and
displayed in a way that is useful. All of this takes a fraction of a second to do.
i. Once the input is provided the raw data is processed by a suitable or selected processing
method. This is the most crucial step as it allows for the processed data in the form of
output which will be used further.
ii. Processing is usually done by CPU (Central Processing Unit) in a computer. CPU is the
crucial component for getting the operations done.

Storage :
Storage is where the computer takes the input and stores it in its memory banks. There are many
ways to store the data, but the basic process is as follows:

i. The CPU writes the data to the computer’s temporary storage, or random access memory
(RAM).

ii. The computer then waits for the user’s command to move the data from the RAM to more
permanent storage. If that command is given, the computer writes the data to the disk drive.

iii. Lastly, the computer saves the data in a location on the drive, either the default storage
location or a location set by the user. The user can then recall this stored information at any
time.

iv. You can also store information using external storage devices (for example USB drives or
external hard drives).

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Output :
This is the outcome, and the raw data provided in the first stage is now “processed,” and the data
is useful and provides information and no longer called data. This might be further used for data
visualisation. Output is where the computer takes the pixels from the processing stage and displays
them in a way that the user can see them. There are many kinds of output devices, such as printers,
screens, video and audio devices.
These devices make the raw data usable and visible, allowing human users to interpret the data,
turning it into information. This could be the sound waves of a song or the letters in a document.
This can be used as it is or used for further processing along with more data.

Feedback: It is the process of receiving responses or reactions to processed information, which

can be used to modify future processing.

Communication
Communication is linked to the other stages in the information processing cycle. Each part of the
cycle happens because one of the other steps came before it, meaning that they are linked. This
link is the communication aspect of the information processing cycle. The most visible aspect of
this is the relationship between input and output. Input and output happen almost immediately (for
example typing a letter on a keyboard makes it appear almost immediately on a screen). This is
communication between the user and the computer.
Communication can then further be sent across a network to other computers. Think about
browsing the internet. The internet is basically a huge network of computers linked across the
world. Opening your browser connects you to those other computers and these computers
communicate with each other to give you what you are looking for. Computers that are linked in
a network also communicate with each other. Examples of this are computers linked on a
company’s intranet or those linked to a server.

How Information Processing Cycle is used in Web Browsing

1. Input: In web browsing, the input is typically provided by you typing a URL or search term
into the browser or clicking a link.

2. Processing: The browser fetches the requested page from the web server, which is a form of
processing. Then, it also processes the HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to render the page.

3. Output: The output is the display of the web page on your screen. Any videos or sounds that
play as part of the page are also considered output.

4. Storage: Web pages are often cached (stored) to make future access quicker. The browser also
stores cookies and other session data.

Sending a Whatsapp Message

To see how this works, think about sending a WhatsApp message from your smartphone. To start
the process, you open WhatsApp and use the touch keyboard to enter your message (this is input,
output and communication). Once you press SEND, your WhatsApp application communicates
with the servers to send the message and displays it in the current conversation (this is
communication, processing and output). The app keeps a record of the conversation on your phone,
your friend’s phone and the WhatsApp server (this is storage).

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The Interconnectivity of Information Processing Cycle Components
How Components Work Together
The components of the Information Processing Cycle don’t work in isolation. They have
a sequential interaction, meaning one phase leads to the next, creating a cycle.

1. Input is taken from the user.

2. This input is processed based on the computer’s instructions.
3. The processed data forms the output.
4. This output can then be stored for future use.
5. Feedback plays an integral role in this cycle. For example, the output of one operation can
serve as the input for the next operation.

Challenges and Solutions in the Information Processing Cycle

1. Data Quality and Validation: Poor data quality can cause issues in the processing cycle. This
can be mitigated by using validation techniques to ensure data is accurate and complete.

2. Efficiency and Performance: Efficiency is a big challenge in maintaining a smooth data

processing cycle. It can be enhanced by optimizing software, upgrading hardware, or using more
efficient data structures.

3. Data Security and Privacy: Securing the data throughout its lifecycle is crucial. Encryption,
firewalls, and secure coding practices are all part of this solution.

Impact of Information Processing Cycle on Modern Technologies

1. Role in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: In AI and ML, the information
processing cycle involves training models on large datasets (input), processing them using various
algorithms, producing results (output), and refining the models based on these results (storage and
feedback).

2. Role in Big Data and Analytics: Information processing in big data involves gathering vast
amounts of data (input), processing this data to find patterns or trends, presenting these findings
(output), and storing the results for future analysis.

3. Role of Data Processing in Information processing: Data processing is an essential part of

information processing. Making use of processed information in various decision making process
remains the main purpose of information processing. Processing of complex data obtained from
various data sources requires sorting and filtering of data. It might also be merged with existing
sources of data so as go to receive a new data set. Further analysis of these data sets helps in
decision making and subsequent decisions pertaining to other aspects in a decision making process.
The information being used may form a part of short term memory or long term memory of overall
process.

Encoding and Decoding: Encoding involves converting information into a form that can be
transmitted, while decoding involves converting received information back into a usable form.
Filtering: Filtering as the process of selecting relevant information from a larger set of data, such
as sorting through emails to find important messages.

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Information Processing in Decision-Making:
1. Gathering Data:
Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data from multiple
sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and forecast
trends and probabilities. It is an essential phase in all types of research, analysis, and decision-
making, including that done in the social sciences, business, and healthcare.
Accurate data collection is necessary to make informed business decisions, ensure quality
assurance, and keep research integrity.
Before collecting data, they must answer three questions first:
• What’s the goal or purpose of this research?
• What kinds of data are they planning on gathering?
• What methods and procedures will be used to collect, store, and process the
information?
Additionally, we can break up data into qualitative and quantitative types. Qualitative data
covers descriptions such as color, size, quality, and appearance. Quantitative data,
unsurprisingly, deals with numbers, such as statistics, poll numbers, percentages, etc.
Methods of Data Collection
Primary and secondary methods of data collection are two approaches used to gather information
for research or analysis purposes. Let's explore each data collection method in detail:
1. Primary Data Collection:
Primary data collection involves the collection of original data directly from the source or
through direct interaction with the respondents. This method allows researchers to obtain
firsthand information specifically tailored to their research objectives. There are various
techniques for primary data collection, including:
a. Surveys and Questionnaires: Researchers design structured questionnaires or surveys to
collect data from individuals or groups. These can be conducted through face-to-face
interviews, telephone calls, mail, or online platforms.
b. Interviews: Interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher and the
respondent. They can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video
conferencing.
c. Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, actions, or events in their
natural setting. This method is useful for gathering data on human behavior, interactions,
or phenomena without direct intervention.
d. Experiments: Experimental studies involve the manipulation of variables to observe their
impact on the outcome. Researchers control the conditions and collect data to draw
conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.
e. Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small group of individuals who discuss
specific topics in a moderated setting. This method helps in understanding opinions,
perceptions, and experiences shared by the participants.
2. Secondary Data Collection:
Secondary data collection involves using existing data collected by someone else for a purpose
different from the original intent. Researchers analyze and interpret this data to extract relevant
information. Secondary data can be obtained from various sources, including:
a. Published Sources: Researchers refer to books, academic journals, magazines,
newspapers, government reports, and other published materials that contain relevant data.
b. Online Databases: Numerous online databases provide access to a wide range of
secondary data, such as research articles, statistical information, economic data, and
social surveys.
c. Government and Institutional Records: Government agencies, research institutions, and
organizations often maintain databases or records that can be used for research purposes.
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 d. Publicly Available Data: Data shared by individuals, organizations, or communities on
public platforms, websites, or social media can be accessed and utilized for research.
e. Past Research Studies: Previous research studies and their findings can serve as valuable
secondary data sources. Researchers can review and analyze the data to gain insights or
build upon existing knowledge.

2. Analyzing Data: Analyzing data as the process of examining and interpreting data to identify
patterns, trends, or insights.
3. Interpreting Data: Interpreting data as the process of making sense of analyzed data to inform
decision-making.
4. Supporting Technologies: Technologies such as data analytics, machine learning, and artificial
intelligence support decision-making by processing large amounts of data quickly and accurately.

Information Processing in Technological Advancements

• Robotics: Robots use sensors and processors to perceive their environment, make
decisions, and perform tasks autonomously.
• Autonomous Vehicles: Autonomous vehicles use information processing to navigate roads,
detect obstacles, and make driving decisions.
• Medical Diagnostics: Medical diagnostics use information processing to analyze patient
data, images, and test results to aid in diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Healthcare: Information processing is used in healthcare, such as electronic health records,
medical imaging, and telemedicine.
• Finance: Information processing in finance, such as algorithmic trading, risk assessment,
and fraud detection.
• Education: Information processing is used in education, such as adaptive learning systems,
online assessments, and educational games.

DATA/ INFORMATON PRIVACY

Data privacy, also called information privacy, is an aspect of data protection that addresses the
proper storage, access, retention, immutability and security of sensitive data.
How to protect data privacy
There are countless guidelines and tips that can apply to data privacy. For individuals, data privacy
can be reinforced with safeguards and actions such as the following:
1. Select strong passwords and change them frequently;
2. Use multifactor authentication (MFA) or biometric identification for important accounts;
3. Don't click links and buttons within emails;
4. Avoid providing PII that's unnecessary or not required;
5. Use malware tools and keep those tools updated; and
6. Use only trusted apps and websites.
For businesses, privacy principles and guidelines are more extensive and complex, but they can
include the following tactics:
1. Collect as little data as possible to accomplish a business task;
2. Require strong authentication and MFA, such as user passwords or app credentials for
APIs;
3. Understand data sources, uses and storage locations;
4. Employ access monitoring and logging to track data access;
5. Use encryption and other security technologies to protect data at rest and in motion;
6. Back up data and test restoration;

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 7. Ensure any third-party storage providers, such as cloud storage providers, share data
privacy requirements and techniques; and
8. Regularly educate employees, partners and customers about data privacy guidelines.

Information Security: Information security is a broad field that covers many areas such as
physical security, endpoint security, data encryption, and network security. It is also closely related
to information assurance, which protects information from threats such as natural disasters and
server failures.
Best Practices for Ensuring Data/Information Security
There is no silver bullet that will guarantee 100 percent security of your data. However, there are
several steps, tactics, and best practices that can help minimize the chances of a data breach, loss,
and exposure.
1. Quarantine Sensitive Files: One common data management mistake is placing sensitive
files on a shared or open drive accessible to the entire company. You’ll want to eliminate
this practice, placing sensitive data into safely quarantined areas. Gain control of your data
by using data security software that continually classifies sensitive data and moves it to a
secure location.
2. Behavior-Based Permissions: Overly permissive behavior is another common misstep,
where more people have access to data than is necessary. A convoluted web of temporary
access and permissions quickly arises, with individuals having access to data that they
shouldn’t. Limit over-permissioning by using software that profiles user behavior and
automatically places appropriate behavior-based permissions via an entitlement review.
3. Prepare for Cyber Threats: Good data security is all about thinking ahead. You’ll want
to have a solid cybersecurity policy that encompasses current and potential future threats
to your data. This includes both external hackers and insider threats. Aside from your
policy, employ software that provides real-time monitoring and alerts of suspicious
activities.
4. Delete Unused Data: Storing stale data for longer than necessary presents a significant
liability in terms of data security. You’ll want to have processes and technologies in place
to eliminate sensitive data that’s no longer necessary for ongoing business activities. The
last thing you want is a mountain of data that you’re unaware of as a sitting duck for
hackers.
5. Knowing Where Data Lives: It’s critical to know where all of your data resides at any
given time. This includes data you’re currently using as well as data that should be deleted
or retired. Make sure you have both technologies and processes in place that will give you
visibility into your data at all times.
6. Tracking User Access: One of the biggest dangers to data security is internal personnel
gaining access to data that they shouldn’t. Therefore, you’ll need to track user access to
ensure only the right people are accessing the most sensitive data.
7. Blocking High-Risk Activities: Not all data handling actions are created equal. Individuals
can engage in high-risk activities and data movements, such as sending sensitive
information in a non-encrypted format via email. You want to have systems and software
in place that block all high-risk activities.