Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

13.4. Speed of Sound

The speed of sound, c, in a substance is the speed at which infinitesimal pressure disturbances propagate
through the surrounding substance. To understand how the speed of sound depends on the substance
properties, let’s examine the following model.
Consider a wave moving at velocity, c, through a stagnant fluid. Across the wave, the fluid properties such as
pressure, p, density, ⇢, temperature, T , and the velocity, V , can all change as shown in Figure 13.7. Now let’s

Figure 13.7. Flow across a pressure wave viewed from a frame of reference fixed to the ground.

change our frame of reference such that it moves with the wave, as shown in Figure 13.8. Apply Conservation

Figure 13.8. Flow across a pressure wave viewed from a frame of reference fixed to the wave.

of Mass and the Linear Momentum Equation to a thin control volume of cross-sectional area A surrounding
the wave (Figure 13.9). From Conservation of Mass,
d
ˆ ˆ
⇢dV + (⇢urel · dA) = 0, (13.37)
dt CV CS

where,
d
ˆ
⇢dV = 0 (the flow is steady in the frame of reference fixed to the wave), (13.38)
dt CV
ˆ
(⇢urel · dA) = ⇢cA + (⇢ + ⇢)(c V )A. (13.39)
CS

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Figure 13.9. A thin control volume applied across the pressure wave.

Substitute and simplify,

⇢cA = (⇢ + ⇢)(c V )A, (13.40)
⇢c = ⇢c ⇢ V + ⇢c ⇢ V, (13.41)
c ⇢
V = . (13.42)
⇢+ ⇢
From the Linear Momentum Equation applied in the streamwise direction,
d
ˆ ˆ
ux ⇢dV + ux (⇢urel · dA) = FB,x + FS,x , (13.43)
dt CV CS
where,
d
ˆ
ux ⇢dV = 0 (the flow is steady in the frame of reference fixed to the wave), (13.44)
dt CV
ˆ
ux (⇢urel · dA) = ṁc + ṁ(c V ) = ṁ V = ⇢cA V, (13.45)
CS
FB,x = 0, (13.46)
FS,x = pA (p + p)A = pA. (13.47)
Substituting and simplifying,
⇢cA V = pA, (13.48)
p
c= . (13.49)
⇢ V
Making use of the relation derived from Conservation of Mass (Eq. (13.42)),
p(⇢ + ⇢)
c= , (13.50)
⇢c ⇢
✓ ◆
2 p ⇢
c = 1+ . (13.51)
⇢ ⇢
For a sound wave, the changes across the wave are infinitesimally small (sound waves are defined as being
infinitesimally weak pressure waves) so the previous equation becomes,
✓ ◆
2 p ⇢ @p
c = lim 1+ = . (13.52)
!d ⇢ ⇢ @⇢
We also need to specify the process by which these changes occur since pressure, in general, is a function of
not only the density, but other properties as well, such as temperature. Since the changes across the wave
are infinitesimally small and, thus, the velocity and temperature gradients are infinitesimally small, we can
regard the wave as an internally reversible process. Additionally, the temperature gradient on either side of

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the wave is small so there is negligible heat transfer into the control volume. Hence, the process is adiabatic.
As a result, the changes across a sound wave occur isentropically (an adiabatic, internally reversible process
is isentropic),
@p
c2 = speed of sound in a continuous substance (13.53)
@⇢ s

Notes:
(1) Note that Eq. (13.53) is the speed of sound in any substance. It’s not limited to just fluids.
(2) If the wave is not “weak”, i.e., the changes in the flow properties across the wave are not infinitesimal,
then viscous e↵ects and temperature gradients within the wave will be significant and the process
can no longer be considered isentropic. We will discuss this situation later when examining shock
waves (Section 13.17).
(3) Note that according to Eq. (13.51) the stronger the wave, i.e., the greater ⇢, the faster the wave
will propagate. This e↵ect will also be examined when discussing shock waves.
(4) For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process (ds = 0),
dT dp dT d⇢
ds = 0 = cp R = cv R , (13.54)
T p T ⇢
R d⇢ R dp @p cp p p
= =) = = k = kRT. (13.55)
cv ⇢ cp p @⇢ s cv ⇢ ⇢
Substituting into Eq. (13.53), the speed of sound for an ideal gas is,
p
c = kRT speed of sound in an ideal gas. (13.56)
(a) The absolute temperature must be used when calculating the speed of sound since the Ideal
Gas Law was used in its derivation.
(b) The speed of sound in air (k = 1.4, R = 287 J kg 1 K 1 ) at standard conditions (T = 288 K)
is 340 m s 1 (= 1115 ft s 1 ⇡ 1/5 mi s 1 ). This value helps explain the rule of thumb whereby
the distance to a thunderstorm in miles is roughly equal to the number of seconds between a
lightening flash and the corresponding thunder clap divided by five.
(c) It is not unexpected that the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the temper-
ature. Since disturbances travel through the gas as a result of molecular impacts, we should
expect the speed of the disturbance to be proportional to the speed of the molecules. The
temperature is equal to the random kinetic energy of the molecules and so the molecular speed
is proportional to the square root of the temperature. Thus, the speed of sound is proportional
to the square root of the temperature.
(5) Equation (13.53) can also be written in terms of the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus, Ev , of
a substance is a measure of the compressibility of the substance. It is defined as the ratio of a
di↵erential applied pressure to the resulting di↵erential change in volume of a substance at a given
volume (refer to Figure 13.10),
@p @p
Ev := =⇢ . (13.57)
( @V /V ) @⇢
Notes:
(a) dp > 0 =) dV < 0 =) Ev > 0.
(b) From Conservation of Mass, dV /V = d⇢/⇢.
(c) Ev " =) compressibility #.
The isentropic bulk modulus, Ev |s , is defined as,
@p @p
Ev |s := =⇢ . (13.58)
(dV /V ) s @⇢ s

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Figure 13.10. A schematic illustrating the concept of the bulk modulus.

Thus, the speed of sound can also be written as,

Ev | s
c2 = alternate speed of sound expression. (13.59)
⇢
Notes:
(a) The isentropic bulk modulus for air is Ev |s = k⇢RT .
(b) The isentropic bulk modulus for water is 2.19 GPa. Thus, the speed of sound in water (⇢ =
1000 kg/m3 ) is 1480 m s 1 (= 4900 ft s 1 ⇡ 1 mi s 1 ⇡ 5X faster than the speed of sound in air
at standard conditions).
(c) For solids, the bulk modulus, Ev , is related to the modulus of elasticity, E, and Poisson’s ratio,
⌫, by,
Ev
= 3(1 2⌫). (13.60)
E
For many metals, e.g., steel and aluminium, the Poisson’s ratio is approximately ⌫ ⇡ 1/3 so
that Ev /E ⇡ 1. The speed of sound in stainless steel (E = 163 GPa; ⇢ = 7800 kg/m3 ) is
4570 m s 1 (= 15 000 ft s 1 ⇡ 3 mi s 1 ⇡ 3X faster than the speed of sound in water).
(6) The Mach number, Ma is a dimensionless parameter that is commonly used in the discussion of
compressible flows. The Mach number is defined as,
V
Ma := , (13.61)
c
where V is the flow speed and c is the speed of sound in the flow.

Notes:
(a) Compressible flows are often classified by their Mach number:
Ma < 1 subsonic
Ma = 1 sonic
Ma > 1 supersonic
Additional sub-classifications include:
Ma < 0.3 incompressible
Ma ⇡ 1 transonic
Ma > 5 hypersonic
(b) The square of the Mach number, Ma2 , is a measure of a flow’s macroscopic kinetic energy to
its microscopic kinetic energy.
(7) The change in the properties across a sound wave can be found from the following analysis. From
Conservation of Mass applied to the control volume shown in Figure 13.9 and Eq. (13.42), making

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use of the fact that the property changes across the sound wave are infinitesimally small,
dV d⇢
= . (13.62)
c ⇢
For an ideal gas,
dp d⇢ dT
p = ⇢RT =) = + . (13.63)
p ⇢ T
Combining Eqs. (13.53), (13.56), and (13.62) and simplifying,
⇢ 2 dp ⇢ kRT dp c
c = =) = , (13.64)
p p d⇢ RT p dV
dV d⇢ 1 dp
= = . (13.65)
c ⇢ k p
Now combine Eqs. (13.63) and (13.65),
dp 1 dp dT
= + , (13.66)
p k p T
✓ ◆
dT k 1 dp
= . (13.67)
T k p
Thus, across a compression sound wave (dp > 0): dV > 0, d⇢ > 0, and dT > 0. Across a rarefaction
sound wave, also known as an expansion wave (dp < 0): dV < 0, d⇢ < 0, and dT < 0.

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Example:
Refer to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9R4xhCoBz9Y for a video demonstration that shows how a
distance is calculated using a speed of sound analysis and temperature and transit time measurements.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics comp_31

A weak compression pressure wave of magnitude Dp propagates through still air. Discuss the type of
reflected wave that occurs (compression or expansion) and the boundary conditions that must be satisfied
when the wave strikes normal to, and is reflected from:
a. a solid wall and
b. a free surface boundary (i.e., a surface where the pressure remains constant).

SOLUTION:

p p + Dp p + 2Dp p + Dp
V=0 V = DV V=0 V = DV

solid wall incident solid wall reflected

(V = 0) compression wave (V = 0) compression wave

At a solid boundary the incident compression wave reflects as a compression wave in order to maintain
zero air velocity at the wall. The pressure behind the reflected wave will be p + 2Dp (two compressions).

p p + Dp p p + Dp
V=0 V = DV 2DV V = DV

free surface incident free surface reflected

(p = constant) compression wave (p = constant) expansion wave

At a free surface boundary the incident compression wave reflects as an expansion wave in order to
maintain the free surface pressure. The velocity behind the reflected wave will be 2DV in the direction
opposite the wave.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics comp_03

Consider a straight pipe filled with an incompressible liquid. The walls of the pipe are elastic so that the
cross-sectional area, A, changes with the internal pressure, p, according to the relation:

A = A0 + A1p

Thus, the pipe may have different cross-sectional areas at different axial positions depending on the internal
pressure at each position. Find the speed of propagation, c, of a small pressure wave traveling along the
pipe assuming A0 and A1 are known constants and that A1p is always small compared with A0. Give your
answer in terms of A0, A1, and the density, r, of the liquid.

SOLUTION:

Apply conservation of mass and the linear momentum equation to the thin control volume shown below.
Use a frame of reference that is fixed to the wave so that the flow appears steady.
x
c - dV c
p + dp p
A + dA A
r r
wave

Conservation of mass:
d
dt ò
CV
ò
r dV + r u rel × dA = 0
CS
where
d
dt ò r dV = 0
CV
(steady flow)

ò ru
CS
rel × dA = - r cA + r ( c - dV )( A + dA ) (1)

Note that the area is a function of the pressure.

A = A0 + A1 p and A + dA = A0 + A1 ( p + dp ) (2)

Substitute and simplify.

- r cA + r ( c - dV )( A + dA ) = 0
- r c ( A0 + A1 p ) + r ( c - dV ) éë A0 + A1 ( p + dp ) ùû = 0
-cA0 - cA1 p + cA0 + cA1 ( p + dp ) - A0 dV - dVA1 ( p + dp ) = 0
cA1dp - A0 dV - dVA1 ( p + dp ) = 0
cA1dp
dV =
A0 + A1 ( p + dp )
cA1dp
dV = (Note that dp << p.) (3)
A0 + A1 p

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics comp_03

Now apply the linear momentum equation in the x-direction to the same control volume.
d
dt ò
CV
ò
u x r dV + u x ( r u rel × dA ) = FB , x + FS , x
CS
where
d
dt ò u r dV = 0
CV
x (steady flow)

òu
CS
x ( r u rel × dA ) = mc
! - m! ( c - dV ) = mdV
! = r cAdV = r c ( A0 + A1 p ) dV (4)

FB , x = 0 (no body forces since the control volume is infinitesimally thin)

FS , x = - pA + ( p + dp )( A + dA ) - ( p + 12 dp ) dA = - p ( A0 + A1 p ) + ( p + dp ) éë A0 + A1 ( p + dp ) ùû - pA1dp
= pA1dp + dpA0 + pA1dp - pA1dp (5)
= pA1dp + dpA0

Substitute and simplify.

r c ( A0 + A1 p ) dV = pA1dp + dpA0 = dp ( A0 + A1 p )
r cdV = dp (6)
Substitute in for dV using Eqn. (3).
æ cA1dp ö
rc ç ÷ = dp
è A0 + A1 p ø
A0 + A1 p
c2 = (7)
r A1
(8)
Since A1p << A0 (given in the problem statement), Eqn. (8) becomes:
A
c2 = 0 (9)
r A1

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

13.5. The Mach Cone

Consider the propagation of infinitesimal pressure waves, i.e., sound waves, emanating from an object at rest
(Figure 13.11). The waves will travel at the speed of sound, c, and form circles (spheres in 3D) with radii
depending on the time when the sound wave was emitted.

Figure 13.11. Sound waves emanating from an object at rest.

Now consider an object moving at a subsonic speed, V < c =) Ma < 1 (Figure 13.12). For this case the
pressure pulses are more closely spaced in the direction of the object’s motion and more widely spaced behind
the object. Thus, the frequency of the sound in front of the object increases, while the frequency behind the
object decreases. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler Shift.

Figure 13.12. Sound waves emanating from an object moving to the right at a subsonic
speed (V < c =) Ma < 1).

Now consider an object traveling at a sonic speed, V = c =) Ma = 1. Since no wave fronts propagate
ahead of the object, an observer standing in front of the object won’t hear it approaching until the object

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reaches the observer. Note that the infinitesimal pressure changes in front of the object begin to “pile up”
on one another, producing a sudden, finite pressure change, also known as a shock wave.

Figure 13.13. Sound waves emanating from an object moving to the right at the sonic
speed (V = c =) Ma = 1).

Figure 13.14. Sound waves emanating from an object moving to the right at a supersonic
speed (V > c =) Ma > 1).

Lastly, consider an object travelling at supersonic speeds, V > c =) Ma > 1 (Figure 13.14). For this case,
the object outruns the pressure pulses it generates. The locus of wave fronts forms a cone, which is known as
the Mach Cone. The object cannot be heard outside of the Mach Cone and, thus, this region is termed the

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zone of silence. Inside the cone, which is known as the zone of action, the object can be heard. The angle of
the cone, known as the Mach angle, ↵, is given by,
c t c 1
sin ↵ = = = . (13.68)
V t V Ma

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics mach_cone_01

A projectile in flight carries with it a more or less conical-shaped shock front. From physical reasoning it
appears that at great distances from the projectile this shock wave becomes truly conical and changes in
velocity and density across the shock become vanishingly small.

Photographs of a bullet in flight show that at a great distance from the bullet the total included angle of the
cone is 50.3°. The pressure and temperature of the undisturbed air are 14.62 psia and 73 °F, respectively.
Calculate:

a. the velocity of the bullet, in ft/sec, and

b. the Mach number of the bullet relative to the undisturbed air.

SOLUTION:
2a = 50.3°
patm = 14.62 psia
2a Tatm = 73 °F = 533 °R
gair = 1.4
Rair = 53.3 (ft×lbf)/(lbm×°R)

1
sin a = Þ Ma = 2.35
Ma

V V
Ma = = Þ V = Ma g RTatm Þ V = 2660 ft/s
c g RT

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Video solution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wf2oeEk9go

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics mach_cone_02

Determine the Mach number of the .22 caliber bullet shown below. Note that the plate in the figure has
holes through which weak pressure disturbances can propagate.

If the temperature of the air at which the test is conducted is 70 °F, determine the speed of the bullet.

SOLUTION:

Determine the Mach angle from the photograph. Note that since the waves above the plate are very weak,
they will be Mach waves.

µ = 60°

The angle of the Mach waves is related to the Mach number via:
1
sin µ = and µ = 60° Þ Ma = 1.2 (1)
Ma

Now determine the speed of the bullet from the definition of the Mach number.
V
Ma = Þ V = cMa (2)
c
\V = Ma g RT (3)

For air at 70 °F (530 °R) and Ma = 1.2, g = 1.4, R = 53.3 (lbf×ft)/(lbm×°R) Þ V = 1350 ft/s

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