Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

Lab 2
Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency
of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

Objectives
▪ To determine the efficiency of a synchronous generator in isolated operation
supplying a resistive load by measuring the power supplied and absorbed.

Hardware
Quantity Cat. No. Designation
1 733 07 Synchronous Machine SC 1.0
1 745 021 Excitation Voltage Controller 200V/2.5 A
1 726 256 Panel frame VT160, Three Level
1 726 75 Three-Phase Supply Unit with FCCB
2 732 56 Coupling 1.0
2 732 57 Shaft End Guard 1.0
2 732 58 Coupling Guard 1.0
1 732 592 Incremental Tacho 1.0
1 732 68 Pendulum Machine 1.0/2.0
1 732 695 Control Unit for Pendulum Machine
1 500 59 Safety bridging plugs, black, set of 10
1 500 592 Safety Bridging Plugs with Tap, black, set of 10
4 500 641 Safety connection lead 100 cm, red
1 500 642 Safety connection lead 100 cm, blue
6 500 643 Safety connection lead 100 cm, white
2 500 647 Safety connection lead 100 cm, brown
3 500 648 Safety connection lead 100 cm, grey
1 500 851 Safety connecting leads, 32 A, set of 32
1 500 852 Safety connecting lead 32 A, yellow/green, set of 10
1 775 360EN LIT: Synchronous generator and synchronization circuits E 3.1.1 & E 3.1.2
1 727 32 Moving Iron Meter 2.5 A
1 727 38 Moving Iron Meter 600 V
1 727 230 Universal Multifunction Meter MFA2001

Theory
In the area of public power supply, three-phase current has emerged as the simplest
form of power, in terms of both transmission and universal application. Three-phase
current can be transformed to a voltage level appropriate for the distance it has to
be transmitted and can be used in the manner ideally suited for the consumer, e.g.,
for drive purposes. However, electrical power cannot be stored in large quantities.
Consequently, it must be generated at the same time the consumer needs it.
The generation of electrical energy is performed almost exclusively using high-
power synchronous machines whose construction design depends on the type of
drive – normally steam, gas, or water. The name synchronous machine (which can
be used both as a generator and as a motor) stems from the fact that the rotor runs

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

at a constant speed, which is synchronous with the speed of the magnetic field in
a constant-voltage, constant-frequency system. The rotor contains a DC winding
(exciter winding), which in the case of generators produces the desired three-phase
voltage in the three-phase winding (stator winding), which is evenly staggered
along the circumference of the stator. This design is referred to as a stationary-
armature machine.
In addition to this, there are also stationary-field machines, in which the exciter
winding is arranged on the stator and the three-phase winding is attached to the
rotor. Here, however, it is not the exciter power but the far greater three-phase
power which has to be supplied or transferred via brushes. As a result, this design is
limited to smaller scales.
Thermal power plants heated by coal, oil, gas, or nuclear reactors use steam
turbines and occasionally gas turbines as well for converting energy. For
construction reasons these are designed for high rotating speeds (3000 or 1500 rpm
for networks with a frequency of 50 Hz). Because of this high rotating speed and the
associated centrifugal forces, the rotor must be solid and may only have a small
diameter. The exciter winding is inserted into grooves which have been machined
longitudinally into the rotor. Because the power output of a generator is dependent
on, among other things, its volume, when it has a small diameter a longer length
must be selected to get a high-power output. Machines of this type are called non-
salient pole or turbo generators.
The generators in water-driven power plants are designed differently. The turbines
available for driving these plants demonstrate considerably lower rotating speeds
in the range of 100 - 750 rpm approx. The rotor used here is equipped with many
legs type salient poles which accommodate the exciter winding. In extreme cases
a machine of this type can have up to 60 individual poles. The larger diameter
permits the machine to have a considerably shorter rotor length despite the high
power being generated. Machines of this type are called salient-pole generators.
The largest synchronous generators are found in nuclear power stations and are
capable today of producing power of up to 1300 MW at a nominal stator voltage
of 27 kV. Despite the high degree of efficiency - over 98% - the power losses involved
(above all current heat dissipation in the windings) are considerable in large-scale
machines and require expensive cooling facilities, for example, water cooling for
the stator as well as the rotor. In contrast to asynchronous machines, a synchronous
machine cannot start independently. (If a damper winding is present in the rotor,
there is the possibility of a so-called asynchronous start-up, at least in smaller
machines. However, this is not made use of in power supply).
Due to the unrivalled importance of turbo generators for power generation and to
simplify mathematical investigation, especially in comparison to the salient-pole
machine, we wish to limit the following considerations to the former machine type.
However, the conclusions drawn from this machine can generally be applied to
machines with salient poles. In the present experiment, a four-pole turbo generator
is investigated; a DC pendulum machine performs the drive function. This in turn is
supplied by a special control unit, with which the various operating modes (e.g.,
constant speed) can be set.
To determine the degree of efficiency, it is also possible to display the torque of the
pendulum machine. The machine is operated in so-called isolated operation. This is
an operating mode in which the generator supplies just one single consumer.
Voltage magnitude and frequency are determined here by the synchronous
machine.

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

Figure 1: Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of the turbo generator in stationary operating mode

The variables occurring in the equivalent circuit diagram have the following
meanings:
IE: Exciter current (in rotor)
UP: Synchronous generated voltage (in stator, star voltage)
US: Stator voltage (star voltage)
Xh: Main field reactance of the stator winding
Xσ: Leakage reactance of the stator winding
RS: Resistance of the stator winding
The rotor is energized by a DC current - the exciter current ‘lE’ - and driven externally
with synchronous rotation speed. Given the frequency ‘f’ of the voltage to be
generated and using the equation f = p.n, the synchronous rotating speed ‘n’ is
produced from the number of pole pairs ‘p’ in the rotor. Thus, with the frequency
kept constant the synchronous rotation speed of the machine decreases as the
number of pole pairs increases. With a frequency of 50 Hz and a four-pole rotor (i.e.,
with the number of pole pairs p = 2) we obtain, for example, a synchronous rotating
speed of 1500 rpm. On one hand, maintaining a constant frequency is of
importance when taking the connected consumer into consideration; on the other
hand, it is an absolute prerequisite for operation of the generator on the
interconnected system.
The voltage induced in the stator winding by the rotating rotor is called the
synchronous generated voltage ‘𝑈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑃 ’. By means of certain design measures the
windings can be arranged so that this voltage assumes a sinusoidal characteristic.
In addition to this the three-phase winding in normally connected in star
configuration, where the star point is not, however, connected to the system. This
prevents the formation and multiplication of the third current harmonic.
The magnitude of the synchronous generated voltage is a function of the exciter
current ‘lE’ and as the so-called no-load characteristic reproduces the typical
characteristic of the magnetization curve of an iron core with air gap. Since we are
dealing with an induction process here, the synchronous generated voltage is
proportional to the rotating speed of the machine when the exciter current is
constant. Although the synchronous generated voltage is not directly accessible for
measurement, it is identical to the stator voltage in the no-load case, because no
voltage drop occurs in the machine. The total flux permeating through the stator
winding consists of the main and leakage flux. Accordingly, the two reactances are
defined Xh (main field reactance) and Xσ (leakage reactance). The two in

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

conjunction constitute the synchronous reactance Xd, which is also referred to as

armature reactance. (In three-phase machines that section which bears the three-
phase winding is called the "armature". In large machines this is always the stator.)
The following holds for synchronous reactance: Xd = Xh + Xσ
Large machines show values of 0.07 up to 0.2 for the ratio of leakage reactance to
main field reactance. To keep the losses in generators at a minimum, the resistance
RS of the stator winding is designed as small as possible by selecting the appropriate
diameter for the copper windings. Thus, for rough observations, RS can be ignored
in comparison with the synchronous reactance Xd, at least in the case of large
machines; consequently, the equivalent circuit diagram can be simplified as shown
in figure 2.

Figure 2: Simplified equivalent circuit diagram of the turbo generator in stationary operating mode (single-phase)

If the intention is to supply consumers in isolated operation with constant voltage,

then this requires automatic voltage control, which is carried out with the aid of the
exciter current of the synchronous machine. As we have already mentioned, large
electrical machines have an efficiency of almost 100%. Determining the efficiency
from the ratio of active power output to active power consumed is normally then
too inaccurate, as the power measurements themselves involve certain faults. More
precise results are obtained by applying the so-called single-loss method, in which
each type of power loss is determined per se using appropriate measuring methods
or it is computed.
Since here it is necessary to draw a distinction between current-independent losses
(e.g., friction and fan losses, core losses) and current-dependent losses (ohmic
losses, contact losses and stray losses), this method is very time-consuming. In this
experiment we are dealing with a low-power machine with correspondingly higher
power loss. The determination of the efficiency can be performed here with
sufficient accuracy by taking the quotient of active power output and input. In the
case of a resistive load the power output can be determined most easily by
measuring the current and voltage; otherwise by measuring the active power.
The power consumed by the machine consists of the exciter power ‘PE’ together
with the mechanical power supplied to the shaft ‘Pmech’. The former can be
determined out of the current and voltage measurement, where the losses in the
exciter voltage controller are not taken into consideration. The mechanical power
supplied to the generator can be determined using a special device employed at
the DC machine used as the drive. This machine is designed as a so-called
pendulum machine and possesses a bending bar with strain gauges, which detect
the torque at the shaft and transfer this data to the control unit. The following

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

general relationship exists between the torque ‘M’ and the corresponding
mechanical power ‘Pmech’:
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 2𝜋|𝑀|𝑁
Where, M = torque of the drive in Nm and N = speed in revolutions per second and
the mechanical power is in watts (W). In the present experiment the efficiency
determination is easy to perform, because, in addition to the torque, the speed of
the machine is also detected and can be displayed on the control unit. The
efficiency of the machine is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠
𝑛
Where, 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ + 𝑃𝐸 = 2𝜋|𝑀| (60) + 𝑈𝐸 𝐼𝐸 and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = √3𝑈𝑆 𝐼𝑆 .

Pre-Lab Tasks
1. What do you understand about ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ loads?
2. Why the efficiency of a synchronous generator is ‘poor’ at light loads?

In-Lab Task
Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of a Synchronous Generator
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in figure 1.1

Figure 1.1: Experimental Setup for In-Lab Task

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

2. Set the resistive load to an approximate 40% resistance value.

3. Switch on the control unit for the pendulum machine by pressing and holding
the ‘display’ button with one hand while switching on the panel from power
button. Do not release the display button until a clicking noise is heard. This
permits the machine-generator set to operate in four-quadrant modus.
4. After a moment, the control unit signals "Error 1" in the display, because there is
still no three-phase mains present. Switch on the power supply to the control unit
via the main switch of the three-phase power supply with FCCB unit. The error
signal is now deleted by pressing the reset pushbutton.
5. By switching on the pendulum machine, the ventilator starts automatically and
simultaneously permits the transmission of the measured torque value to the
control unit. Select the operating modus "Speed Control" using the operating
mode switch "Mode" on the control unit.
6. The machine-generator set is started up by pressing the toggle switch
"REFERENCE VARIABLE" upwards. After some time, the machine-generator set
reaches its nominal speed of 1500 rpm.
7. Now the synchronous machine can be supplied with an excitation voltage. The
toggle button must be pre-set to the right on the Excitation Voltage Controller
Switch. For this the pushbutton "UP" is pressed until the desired stator voltage of
400 V (line-line) has been reached. If the speed of machine-generator set should
be decelerated, then the excitation of the synchronous machine must first be
lowered to zero using the pushbutton "DOWN". The same must be performed if
any change in stator circuit is required. To obtain the correct experiment results,
the synchronous machine should be warmed up for several minutes at the set
load (40%). Note the values of various parameters given in table 1.1 at the set
load of 40% in the corresponding table column.
Note: The value of excitation current needs to be adjusted for every value of
resistive load to ensure that US remains at 400 V (line-line).
8. The mechanical power being absorbed by the generator is determined from
the torque of the pendulum machine. This can be read off on the control unit
after activating the display switch "Display". The value of the torque is negative
because the pendulum machine is acting as the drive. Press the “Display”
button again to revert to the display of generator speed.
9. Reduce the excitation of the synchronous machine to zero using the “DOWN”
pushbutton and change the resistance to 60%. Press the “UP” pushbutton until
the desired stator voltage of 400 V (line-line) is re-established. Wait for some time
before noting the values of various parameters given in table 1.1 in the
corresponding column. Repeat this step for the remaining values of resistance
to tabulate all cells of table 1.1.
10. Calculate the values for ‘Pabs’, ‘Pout’, and ‘η’ from formulas given in ‘Theory’
section and tabulate the results for each resistance in table 1.2. Plot the
efficiency values as a function of the active power ‘Pout’ supplied to the mains
in the graph (figure 1.2) and identify the point of maximum efficiency.

Post-Lab Task(s)
1. Plot the η(Pout) characteristics (η as a function of Pout).
2. Give analysis of your performed task in light of the tabulated data in the
‘Critical Analysis/Conclusion’ section provided at the end.

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

R (%) 100 80 60 40 30 20

UE (V) .60

IE (A) 0.8

US (V) 400 400 400 400 400 400

IS (A) 0.6

M (Nm)

Table 1.1: Table for Recording Data from In-Lab Task

R (%) 100 80 60 40 30 20

Pout (W)

Pabs (W)

η (%)

Table 1.2: Table for Calculated Values from Data in In-Lab Task

Figure 1.2: Plot of Efficiency as a Function of Supplied Active Power ‘Pout’

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated Operation

Critical Analysis / Conclusion (To be filled in by the student)

Lab Assessment (To be filled by the lab-instructor)

Pre-Lab /5

In-Lab /5

Results

Viva
/5

/5
/25
Critical Analysis /5

Comments:

Instructor Name Instructor Signature

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual