RV College of Engineering Syllabus Go, change the world

UNIT-III
Materials for memory and display technology
Materials for memory storage: Introduction to materials for electronic
memory, classification (organic, polymeric and hybrid materials),
manufacturing of semiconductor chips. Green computing: Bio-composite based
memory devices.
Fabrication of smart materials and devices: Photo and electro active
materials for memory devices, materials for display technology (Liquid crystals
display, organic light emitting diode and light emitting electrochemical cells).
RV College of Engineering Memory storage Go, change the world

Computer storage devices:

The storage device is a hardware device that is used to store data and information. They Provide
one of the core functions of the modern computer. Every desktop computer, laptop, smartphone,
and tablet will have some kind of storage device within it. It can be inside or outside of the
computer or the main device. They come in different sizes and shapes depending on the needs and
functionalities.

Computer storage or memory devices

RV College of Engineering Memory storage devices Go, change the world

Magnetic tape Floppy Disk

Hard Disk

Memory Card Online Cloud storage devices

Pen drive
RV College of Engineering Characteristics of memory devices Go, change the world

Location: The memory can either be stored externally with the help of some devices or
internally.

Capacity: The amount of data a device can store is called capacity. It is measured as a byte
(1 byte = 8 bits, 1 bit is either 0 or 1).

Performance: The performance of any memory device depends upon the rate at
which data is transferred, the time taken by the device to carry out the process and the
access time.
RV College of Engineering Classification of memory devices Go, change the world

1. Primary memory or Internal memory (RAM, ROM, Cache)

2. Secondary memory or external memory (SSD, CD, Floppy disk, magnetic tape)
3. Cache memory (It is part of primary or internal memory)
RV College of Engineering Difference between primary and secondary memory Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Primary memory Go, change the world

It is used to store data and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses
semiconductor technology and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory.

Types of primary memory

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
(i) S RAM (Static RAM)
(ii) D RAM (Dynamic RAM)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory stores information even when there is a power
supply failed/ interrupted/stopped

(i) MROM(Masked ROM)

(ii) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
(iii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
(iV)EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
RV College of Engineering Introduction to memory devices Go, change the world
 RV College of Engineering Secondary Memory Go, change the world

It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used to store a large
amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is
slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the
auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 It is a slow memory but reusable.
 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
 In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.
 RV College of Engineering Secondary memory Go, change the world

(i) Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin, magnetic coating on it that is
used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches called RECORDS that run along
many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head, which allows
data to be recorded and read as a sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward or
backward, or rewound.

Fritz Pfleumer with his magnetic tape machine (1931)

Austro-German engineer Fritz Pfleumer (1881 – 1945) coated 16 mm wide paper strips with
fine granules of iron powder as a medium for magnetic recording. He received a patent in
1928 for his “sound paper machine” that he licensed to AEG, Berlin.
 RV College of Engineering Types of secondary memory Go, change the world

(ii) Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disc is a circular metal or a plastic plate and these plates are coated with magnetic
material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that run in
concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to break tracks into pieces.
 RV College of Engineering Go, change the world

(iii) Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and read. It is reasonably priced and
has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be taken out of the computer by occasional users.

Types of Optical Disks

CD – ROM
It’s called Compact Disk. Only read from memory
 Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam to burn pits
on the disc surface.
 It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminium.

 The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.

 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.

 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing 2048 bytes of
data.
 The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time is around 80
milliseconds
 RV College of Engineering DVDs Go, change the world

The term ―DVD‖ stands for ―Digital Versatile/Video Disc and there are two
sorts of DVDs:

(i) DVDR (writable)

(ii) DVDRW (Re-Writable)

DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs)

These are read-only memory (ROM) discs that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared to CD-ROMs,
they can store a lot more data. It has a thick polycarbonate plastic layer that serves as a foundation for the
other layers. It’s an optical memory that can read and write data.

DVD-R: It is a writable optical disc that can be used just once. It’s a DVD that can be recorded. It’s a lot like
WORM. DVD-ROMs have capacities ranging from 4.7 to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5 inch disk is 1.3 GB.
 RV College of Engineering Cache Memory Go, change the world

It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main
memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently

 The capacity of the cache ranges from 2 KB to a few MB.

RV College of Engineering Cache memory Go, change the world

Advantages of Cache memory

 It is faster than the main memory.

 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time

to access it.

 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount

of time.
 It stores data in temporary use.

Disadvantages of cache memory

 Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.

 The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is

usually small.
RV College of Engineering Go, change the world

Layers that make up R discs

Layers that make up ROM discs

RV College of Engineering Electronic memory Go, change the world

 Volatile memory loses the stored information unless it is provided with a constant power supply or
refreshed periodically with a pulse.

 Non volatile memory can retain stored information even after power is removed.
RV College of Engineering Taxonomy of Memory Devices Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering History of organic/polymer electronic memory devices Go, change the world

Since the 1940s, many storage forms based on diverse natural phenomena have been
documented. A computer system often has many types of storage, each with a specific function.
Due to their unusual electrical characteristics, amorphous semiconductors and disordered
structures attracted a lot of attention in the 1960s.

In 1968 - Pb/polydivinylbenzene/Pb bistable electrical switching device as an

information storage device.
• In 1969 - Tetracene films sandwiched between metal electrodes.
• In 1970 - Phthalocyanines and polystyrene - bistable switching materials.
• In 1970 - Polymer thin films prepared by glow-discharge polymerization.
• In 1980 - Thin films of ferroelectric materials began exhibiting non- volatile
memory effects.
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RV College of Engineering
Contd.,
• In 2001- An organic transistor memory device using a sexithiophene oligomer as the conductor
and an inorganic ferroelectric material as the gate insulator were demonstrated.
Ferroelectric organic and polymer materials have also been utilized as gate insulators in field-
effect transistors (OFETs).

High performance all-organic or polymer transistor memory devices have been demonstrated

In 2003
Polymer memory devices based on charge transfer effects from doping of a polymer matrix by
electron donors, such as 8-hydroxyquinoline (8HQ), tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), polyaniline
(PANI), poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT), or electron acceptors such as gold nanoparticles, copper
metallic filaments and phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), have been reported.
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RV College of Engineering
Contd.,

In 2011-A polymer memristor was first reported in cobalt(iii)-containing conjugated (CP)
and non-conjugated (NCP) polymers with an azo-aromatic backbone.

Single crystals of a cyclodextrin-based metal–organic framework (MOF) infused with an

ionic electrolyte and silver electrodes can act as memristors.
Recent; organic-based resistive memory materials, biodegradable memory devices.
RV College of Engineering Classification of Electronic Memory Go, change the world

According to the device structure, electronic memory devices can be divided

into three primary categories: transistors, capacitors and resistors.
Memory Devices: Classification of memory devices;
1. Transistor-type Electronic Memory
2. Capacitor-type Electronic Memory
3. Resistor-type Electronic Memory
RV College of Engineering 1. Transistor-type Electronic Memory Go, change the world

1. A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals

and power.
 It is composed of semiconductor material, usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit.
 Ex: MOSFET and OFET
 RV College of Engineering 2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory Go, change the world

Capacitors can store charges on two parallel plate electrodes under an applied electric
field. Based on the amount of charge stored in the cell, the bit level (either “0” or “1”) can
be encoded accordingly. When the medium between the electrodes is merely a dielectric,
the stored charge will be lost eventually.

Example; DRAM using a dielectric capacitor is volatile memory ferroelectric capacitors,

(FeRAM) is non-volatile memory
 RV College of Engineering 3. Resistor-type Electronic Memory Go, change the world

Resistor-type memory is based on the change of the electrical conductivity of materials in

response to an applied voltage (electric field). Devices incorporating switchable resistive
materials are generically classified as resistor-type memory, or resistive random-access
memory (RRAM).
Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure with an organic/polymer thin
film sandwiched between two electrodes on a supporting substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic
or metal foil). The configuration of the top and bottom electrodes can be either symmetric or
asymmetric, with aluminum, gold, copper, p- or n-doped silicon, and ITO being the most widely
used electrode materials.
 RV College of Engineering Transistor-type Electronic Memory Go, change the world

Organic Field Effect Transistor Memory (OFET)

OFETs require the following three components:

 Semiconductor
 Dielectric (insulator)
 Contacts (gate, drain, and source)

Applications: the display drivers, smart cards, electronic

identification tags (such as radio frequency identification RFID
tags), organic active-matrix displays, electronic paper, etc

 Fabrication: The thin semiconducting layer can be deposited with solution processes (spin coating, drop casting,
etc.) or vacuum process (thermal evaporation). Semiconductor layer must be contacted with source/drain
electrodes and the dielectric layer must be contacted with gate contacts so it is also called gate dielectric.
Source/drain electrodes are always metal contacts, whereas gate electrodes can be a metal or a conducting
polymers https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813351-4.00025-0
RV College of Engineering Commonly used 2D materials for OFET Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Types of Organic-Based Electrical Memory Devices Go, change the world

I. Organic molecules: Organic electronic memory devices based on organic

molecules were first reported in several acene derivatives including
naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene, pentacene, perylene, p-quaterphenyl
and p-quinquephenyl.

Ex: Device with the structure of a single layer of N,N′-di(naphthalene-l-yl)-N,N′

diphenyl-benzidine (NPB) embedded between ITO and Ag electrodes.

Acene derivatives
RV College of Engineering Types of Organic-Based Electronic Memory Devices Go, change the world

Organic molecules for electrical memory devices

RV College of Engineering 2. Electronic memory devices based on polymeric molecules
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Polymer memory refers to memory technologies based on the use of organic

polymers. The molecular structure of polymeric materials can be tailored using
electron donors and acceptors. The properties of polymer memory are low-cost and
high-performance, and have the potential for 3D stacking and mechanical flexibility.

a) Functional Polyimides: Functional polyimides (PIs)

are one of the most attractive polymeric materials for
organic electrical memory applications. In functional
PIs, phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor, and
electron donors (triphenylamine or carbazole
moieties) are introduced to form a D–A structure (first
reported in 2006).
Example; Molecular structure (top) of functional PI
(TP6F-PI) and schematic diagram (bottom) of single-
layer memory device.
RV College of Engineering Polymers based electronic memory devices Go, change the world

Non-Conjugated Polymers with Pendants

Ex: Al/polymer/ITO, polymer-PVK-AZO-2CN and PVK-AZO-NO2(PVK- polyvinyl
carbazole, AZo- azobenzene)
Pendant Donor – Acceptor Polymer
RV College of Engineering Conjugated Polymers Go, change the world
 RV College of Engineering Electrical memory devices based on Go, change the world

inorganic/organic nanocomposites
Generally, organic–inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing
fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles or
inorganic quantum dots (QDs).

Non-volatile memory devices based on hybrid inorganic/organic nanocomposites have

emerged as excellent candidates for promising applications in next-generation electronic and
optoelectronic devices. The simplest structure for a hybrid memory device fabricated utilizing
the solution method is a single-polymer layer embedded with inorganic nanomaterials and
sandwiched between two metal electrodes.
Generally, the hybrid nanocomposites are formed by dissolving inorganic nanomaterials and a
polymer matrix simultaneously in a certain organic solvent with a relatively high volatility.
Fabrications of single-layer-structured nonvolatile memories based on various
organic/inorganic hybrid nanocomposites have been reported.
 RV College of Engineering Electrical memory devices based on Go, change the world

inorganic/organic nanocomposites
a)Organic–Carbon Allotrope Hybrid Materials: For organic electronic memory applications,
Fullerene and its derivatives have been widely used as electron acceptors to form charge transfer
(CT) complexes with polymer-containing electron donors, such as thiophene, fluorene, carbazole
and aniline derivatives.
Ex; rGO/P3HT:PCBM/Al, Al/Polystyrene:C60/Al

a)Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposites: Hybrid electronic memory devices have been reported in

some organic composites containing metal nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal oxide
nanoparticles. Inorganic species used in these memories include,
semiconductor nanoparticles (ZnO, CdSe, Si, CuO and so on) and metal nanoparticles (Au,
Ag, FeNi and so on).
Both insulating polymers, such as polyimide (PI), poly(methylmethacrylate) and polystyrene, and
conducting polymers, such as poly(N-vinylcarbazole) and poly(2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyhexoxy)-1,4-
phenylene vinylene), are used as a matrix for the inorganic nanoparticles.
RV College of Engineering Bio-composite based memory devices Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Biomaterial-Based Memory Devices Go, change the world

(a) Various materials used for RRAMs in general including inorganic semiconductors, organic
semiconductors, biomaterials, and their hybrid composites.
(b) Classification of biomaterials used as the functional layer of bio-RRAMs including proteins,
carbohydrates, nucleic acid, and green plants.
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Semiconductor chips Go, change the world
 RV College of Engineering Semiconductor chips Go, change the world

Top 8 semiconductor producing

companies
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Wafer Processing Go, change the world

1. Slicing
2. Lapping
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world

3. Polishing

4. Cleaning and inspection

RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world

Oxidation
The role of oxidation process is to form a protective film on the surface of wafer. It can protect the wafer from
chemical impurities; prevent leakage current from entering circuit, diffusion during ion implantation and the
wafer from slipping off during etching.

Photomask
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world

Developing
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Wafer Processing Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Manufacturing of semiconductor chips Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Display technology Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Evolution of Display Technology Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Evolution of Display Technology Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Cathoday Ray Tube (CRT) Display Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Liquid Crystals Go, change the world

When Friedrich Reinitzer first observed the liquid crystal structure and behaviour of the
cholesterol from carrots in 1888, a world of liquid crystal technology was opened.

Reinitzer
 RV College of Engineering Liquid Crystals Go, change the world

a) Crystals, b) & c) liquid crystals and

d) liquid state
RV College of Engineering Classification of Liquid Crystals Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Classification of Liquid Crystals Go, change the world

I. thermotropic, II. lyotropic and III. metallotropic.

RV College of Engineering Examples of liquid crystal Go, change the world

(4-pentyl-4‟-Cyanobiphenyl)
RV College of Engineering Polarization of light by liquid crystal Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Principle of liquid crystal display Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Principle, construction & working of a LED Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Light Emitting Diodes (LED) Go, change the world

 Lifespan (50,000 hours)

 Improved Environmental Performance
 The Ability to Operate in Cold Conditions
 No Heat or UV Emissions
 Design Flexibility
 Low Voltage Operation
RV College of Engineering Working mechanism of LED Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering What causes differences in LED colors? Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED) Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED) Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Light Emitting Electrochemical Cell (LEC) Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Working principle of LEC Go, change the world
RV College of Engineering Examples for LEC Go, change the world